GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication.

GSM is 2G digital cellular

technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850
MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA

1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software

needed for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile
Equipment(ME) + Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are
connected to tower and that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a
transceiver which comprises transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two
performance of sending and receiving.
2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. It transmits and receives
radio signals to and from the MS within its coverage area. The BTS is connected to
the Base Station Controller (BSC) for network control and management.

3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. The BSC is a central controller that
manages multiple BTSs. It is responsible for allocating radio resources, managing
handovers between BTSs, and optimizing the network's radio coverage and capacity.
The BSC is connected to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) for network-wide control.
4. MSC:MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with
communication switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call
tracing, call forwarding all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having
further components like VLR, HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.
VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC.
If you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the
database of VLR.
HLR: HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you purchase SIM
card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof,
which plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
AUC: AUC stands for Authentication Centre. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber
that wants to connect in the network.
EIR: EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the
record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then
you can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
PSTN: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with
MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost
entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as
fixed telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but
PSTN.
5. OMC: OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain
the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some
interfaces. Total three interfaces are there:
Air Interface: Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and
BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.
Abis Interface: It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
A interface: It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
GSM CALL FLOW

1. Mobile Station (MS) Power-On and Registration:

The mobile phone is powered on, and it performs the power-on self-tests.The MS
searches for available GSM networks and selects the one with the strongest signal
(synchronization and cell selection).The MS sends a Location Update Request to the
selected Base Transceiver Station (BTS) or Base Station (BS) to register its presence
in the network. The BTS forwards the Location Update Request to the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC).

2. Authentication and Identity Check:

The MSC sends a request to the Authentication Center (AuC) to authenticate the MS
using its International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and the Mobile Station ISDN
Number (MSISDN).The AuC generates a random number (RAND) and sends it to the
MSC. The MSC forwards the RAND to the MS.

3. Authentication Response:
The MS uses its secret authentication key (Ki) and the RAND to generate a Signed
Response (SRES).The MS sends the SRES back to the MSC.

4. Authentication Verification:
The MSC forwards the received SRES to the AuC for verification. The AuC uses the
Ki and the RAND to generate its own SRES. The AuC compares its SRES with the
one received from the MS to verify the authenticity of the MS.
 5. Call Setup Initiation:
The user dials the phone number and presses the call button.The MS sends a Setup
message to the BTS, indicating the called party's number and requesting a call setup.

6. Paging and Call Setup:

The MSC initiates a paging process to locate the called party. It sends a Paging
message to the BTSs in the area where the called party is likely to be located. If the
called party's MS is reachable, it responds to the paging by sending a Channel
Request message to the BTS.

7. Channel Assignment and Connection:

The MSC allocates a dedicated traffic channel for the call and sends a Channel
Assignment message to the calling and called parties' BTS . The BTS instructs the MS
to switch to the assigned traffic channel using a Handover required message.The MS
establishes a radio link with the BTS on the assigned traffic channel.The BTS sends
a Call Proceeding message to the MSC, indicating that the call setup is in progress.

8. Call Progress and Ringing:

The MSC sends an Alerting message to the called party's BTS, instructing the MS to
generate a ringing tone. The MS of the called party generates the ringing sound to
alert the user.

9. Call Acceptance and Connection:

When the called party answers the call, the MS sends a Connect message to the BTS,
which is forwarded to the MSC. The MSC acknowledges the Connect message and
sends a Connect Acknowledge message to the calling party's BTS. The BTS relays
this message to the calling party's MS.The call is now established, and voice
communication can begin.

10. Call Termination:

When either party decides to end the call, the MS sends a Release message to its
BTS, which is then forwarded to the MSC.The MSC updates the VLR and HLR to
release the resources allocated to the call.
LTE Architecture:
LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a 4G standard for wireless communication based on IP
networks. Its architecture is designed to provide high data rates, low latency, and
improved spectral efficiency compared to previous technologies. Here's an overview
of the LTE architecture:

User Equipment (UE):

The User Equipment, also known as the LTE device or mobile device, is the endpoint
that communicates with the LTE network. It can be a smartphone, tablet, or any other
LTE-enabled device.

Evolved NodeB (eNB):

The eNB is the base station in LTE, responsible for radio communication with the UE.
It handles functions such as radio resource management, radio link control, and packet
scheduling. eNBs are interconnected via the X2 interface for coordination and the S1
interface for connection to the core network.

E-UTRAN (Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network):

E-UTRAN is the collective term for all eNBs and the related components in the LTE
radio access network. It provides radio coverage and handles radio-related functions,
including modulation, coding, and handovers between eNBs.

Evolved Packet Core (EPC):

The EPC is the core network of LTE, responsible for managing user data, mobility,
and connectivity to external networks. It consists of several key components:

a. Mobility Management Entity (MME):

The MME handles mobility-related tasks such as UE authentication, location tracking,
and handover decisions. It also manages bearer activation and deactivation.

b. Serving Gateway (SGW):

The SGW is responsible for routing user data packets between the UE and the EPC.
It also performs mobility anchoring during handovers within the LTE network.

c. Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW):

The PGW is the interface between the LTE network and external networks, such as
the internet or other operator networks. It handles IP address allocation and performs
IP packet filtering.

d. Home Subscriber Server (HSS):

The HSS is a database that stores user subscription information, including user
profiles, authentication keys, and service information.

e. Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF):

The PCRF is responsible for policy control and flow-based charging within the LTE
network. It manages quality-of-service (QoS) policies and charging rules for different
services.

LTE Interfaces:

Uu Interface: The air interface between the UE and the eNB, responsible for radio
communication.
X2 Interface: The interface connecting different eNBs for inter-eNB communication,
supporting functions like handovers.
S1 Interface: The interface connecting the eNB to the EPC, allowing control and user
plane traffic to flow between them.