CONTAM Model Construction

B.1.2 Openings and Leakage Paths

Large openings were modeled as ASCOS openings in the model These openings follow a simple power
law opening relationship (Klote and Milke 1992):

Q = KoCA.j^ (B-1)

where:

0 = volumetric flow rate (ft'/min)

C= dimensionless flow coefficient (0.6)

A= flow area (leakage area) (ft")

AP = pressure difference, in m.g.

p = density of air (0.075 lb/ft')

Ko = unit conversion factor (776)

A number of smaller openings were also included in the model. These consisted of elevators, stairs, doors,
walls, and floor leakages. Both elevators and stairs were modeled as ASCOS openings, governed by
equation 1 . Flow though smaller leakage areas was modeled using the power law equation:

Q = c(Ap)" (B-2)

In this equation, Ap is the pressure difference across the opening in in. of HiO, and Q is the mass flow
across the opening in ft'/min, and n is the power law exponent. The value of c, the flow coefficient, is

determined using the following equation:

c = KoCoL(-fUAp,.)"'-" (B-3)
P

where:

c - flow coefficient

n - power law exponent

Apr = reference pressure at which leakage factor was determined (in. H2O)

Ko = unit of conversion factor (776)

A= density of air (0.075 Ib/ft^)

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Appendix B

L= leakage area determined at reference pressure (ft")

Cd = discharge coefficient

In order for CONTAM to calculate flow through an opening using the "leakage area" approach, a flow
coefficient, reference pressure difference, and power law exponent are required to be input for each
opening type. For different types of openings, the values listed in Table B-2 were used.

fable B-2. Leakage area parameters.

Reference AP
Opening Type Size Coefficient (in. HjO) Exponent
Floor 0.008 in.-/ft- 0.65 0.1 0.5

Exterior wall 0.03 in.-/ft 1.0 0.3 0.65

Interior wall 2 in.-/ft 0.65 0.3 0.5

Doorway see Table B-3 0.65 0.3 0.5

Large opening 0.82 0.3 0.5

Entrances to openings can be characterized as intruding, flush, or well-rounded inlets. Exits can be
characterized in the same manner. Entrance conditions can be characterized as either plenum or pipe-
flow, self-generated eddies caused by stagnation or separation can occur based on the angle of attack of
the airflow. Virtually all of the opening areas in the WTC complex can be reasonably approximated by
use of an orifice discharge coefficient, Co, equal to 0.65. This coefficient is well documented and
applicable to viitually all of the flow conditions where the Reynolds number. Re, is fully turbulent, i.e.,

greater than 10,000.

Some of the very large areas with very low velocities are not well characterized by this same C^. In these
instances, it is more appropriate to use values observed by F.C. Lea (Lea 1942) and those of Newell.
These two works lead to the conclusion that for these conditions a number lying between 0.74 and 0.91 is

more appropriate. Given that the experimental data reported has a spread of nearly 1 5 percent, the value

of 0.82 was selected for Co to characterize these openings. The parameters for the various leakage paths
in the model are shown in Table B-2. Leakage areas for the various doors in the model are shown in

Table B-3.

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 CONTAM Model Construction

Table B-3. Door leakage areas.

Average
Measured Corrected"
Leakage Area Leakage Area
Description/Use Type (ft ) (ft^)

Side hinged single leaf door

A
(stairs, tenant space, etc.) 0.1688 0.20

Center parting double leaf doors (tenant space,

A
escalator cut-off. etc.) 0.3376 0.081

Center parting "single speed" elevator doors

B
(freight elevators) 0.4017 0.4017

Center parting "double speed" elevator doors

C
(freight elevators) 0.7885 0.7885

Center parting "single speed" elevator doors

(local passencer elevators) B 0.5673 1.00

Center parting "double speed" elevator doors

(shuttle passenger elevators) C 1.2014 1.2014

Freight elevator door D 1.2500 1.25

Tenant doors A 0.3866 2.60

Elevator pit doors A 0.63 0.63

Mechanical room door A 1.00 1.00

Automatic closing dock door 1.00 1.00

Rolling steel dock doors 6 in.-/ft- 6 m.-/ft-

Rubber door at dock 1.00 1.00

a. 1996 WTC model.

B.1 .3 1 996 CONTAM HVAC System

Air handling systems in the 1996 CONTAM model were simulated by using CONTAM's Simple Air
Handling System feature. A simple air handling system consists of two implicit airflow nodes (supply and
return), three implicit flow paths (recirculation, outdoor, and exhaust air), and multiple supply and return
points, each with specified airflows, in the building zones. Outside air supply to a system is set either by
definition, as a fixed percentage, by profile, or by calculation. If the sum of supply flows exceeds the sum
of return flows, the balance is made up from outside air. Excess return flow is exhausted. The model does
not require that both supply and return points be defined for a system.

To facilitate the various scenarios and cases that were simulated, four simple air handling systems were
constructed for each HVAC zone in the tower: Interior space supply, interior space return, core supply,

and core return. (The perimeter and interior systems were combined into a single system in the model).

Additional systems were constructed for the elevator machine room (EMR) exhausts, the mechanical

equipment room (MER) exhausts, the sub-grade transfer fans, and the garage and truck dock systems.

Supply and return points for each system were added to the appropriate zones in the model. The flow for
each point was derived from a careful study of the HVAC plans for the building. The fan schedules and
riserdiagrams were reviewed, and the supply and return flow for each zone was determined. To simulate
actual operating efficiency (based on building engineer estimates), the simulations were conducted using

NISTNCSTAR 1-4D, WTC Investigation 135