Wet Area

Wet areas refer to areas which are constantly subjected to the presence
of moisture. In this context, internal wet areas defines areas like
bathrooms and toilets.
 视 – sight
触 – touch
叩 – tap
听 – hear
嗅 - smell

上医治未病 - latent
中医治欲病 - imminent
下医治已病 - patent

扁鹊 – bian que
 Who is responsible?

https://www.bca.gov.sg/BMSM/bmsm_faqs.html#general_q20 http://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/residential/living-in-an-hdb-flat/home-maintenance/ceiling-leaks
 Video - PBU
Prefabricated Bathroom Units (PBU)

1. Only one party is responsible for all the

trades (tiler, plumber, electrician,
waterproofing applicator etc.).

2. Prefabrication in the factory under

controlled conditions.

3. No service penetrations are required, as

piping and electrical cables are run in
AsiaONe, Oct 03, 2012 Ten blocks of HDB flats at Compassvale Link are getting their toilet floors and walls, as well as the toilet bowl, replaced. Residents of these blocks claimed that their
toilet floors had started to collect water and were beginning to creak and sag when stepped on. Water splashing onto the bathroom floor would be absorbed into the tiles, causing them to
the space between PBU’s shell and the
become spongy and unstable. The floorboards also had a bad smell due to stagnant water that accumulated beneath them. HDB is replacing the affected prefabricated toilets with
conventional ones.
building structure.
Fibre-reinforced plastic was used as a floor material in 10 blocks of Compassvale Link flats built in 2004, leading to water
seepage issues. The HDB scrapped the material in 2006 and turned to thin ferro-cement, before settling on full
concrete in 2011.

https://lefong.sg/services/waterproofing/waterproofing-bathrooms-and-showers/
 Conventional Sanitary System Conventional Sanitary System

Who is responsible
for inter-floor leak?

Under normal circumstances:

Private non-landed estates: the upper floor unit owner is presumed liable unless
he is able to provide proof to the contrary.

Public flats: Both the upper and lower floor unit owners are responsible.

Example of a P-trap eliminating the need to have piping protruding into the unit below and within the upper half of the inter-floor slab hence reducing the chances of
disputes between the owners of the two units (adopted from Eastern Pretech).
 Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 movement
tile grout joint joint
tile adhesive
screed
waterproofing

backer rod

concrete
slab

Wet area – a typical details

Video – Wet Area
Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 Waterproofing Systems

Sheet/Preformed Membranes Liquid Membranes Integral Systems

(Chemically filling spaces)

Non-Bituminous Bituminous Non-Bituminous

Examples: All integral systems work as a chemical reaction that changes the
Examples: Examples:
• Ethylene-Copolymer
Acrylic structure of the concrete, i.e. filling up passages and capillaries in
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Epoxy
• Polyethylene (PE) Bitumen (ECB)
Polyurethane (PU) concrete’s natural mass, blocking water from seeping through.
• Butyl Rubber (PIB) • Asphalt
Polyisorene/Rubber
• EPDM Rubbers • Bitumen
Cementitious
• Neoprene
• Bentonite Clays Crystalline Additive Screed / Dry-Shake

Soaks into and Additives that are

Finishing layer that is
fills up spaces in mixed into the
applied onto the surface
existing porous concrete from
of freshly laid concrete
concrete. the beginning

Application by Filling up
Rolls of preformed/sheet membranes passages
brushing/spraying
and
capillaries
Usually delivered in powdered sacks within the
or tubs requiring some degree of concrete
mixing on-site mass

Classification of waterproofing systems

 HDB standard specifications (1/2)
Properties/ Characteristics Standards/Test Type
methods Solvent-based Water-based
Adhesion to substrate
Condition as cast (To determine the ASTM D 4541- 0.5 N/mm2 0.3 N/mm2
strength and characteristics of the 02: 2009
peel properties of a cured-in-place
membrane)
Tensile strength
-Condition as cast ≥ 1.6 N/mm2 ≥ 1.5 N/mm2

-After aging at 50º C for 14 days ± 25% ≥ 1.2 N/mm2

ASTM D 412:
-After 72 hours chemical immersion 2006 } ±20% max } –ve change ≤
at room temp: 40%
0.5% (v/v) NaOCl no limit for +ve
1.25% (v/v) NH4OH change
3.7% (v/v) HCl

Elongation at break (%)

-Condition as cast ≥ 500% ≥ 150%

-After aging at 50º C for 14 days ASTM D 412: ± 25% max ≥ 120%
2006
-After 72 hours chemical immersion } ±20% max } –ve change ≤
at room temp: 40%
1. 0.5% (v/v) NaOCl no limit for +ve
2. 1.25% (v/v) NH4OH change
3. 3.7% (v/v) HCl
(Tension/Tensile properties)
 Video – ASTM D412
Video – ASTM D4541

Bond strength Adhesion strength

Peel-off Strength Stress-strain

 HDB standard specifications (2/2)
Properties/ Characteristics Standards/Test Type
methods Solvent-based Water-based
No water
BS EN 12390-8 penetration
Resistance to water penetration
NA allowed at 0.2
kgf/cm2 for 6 hrs
Crack bridging Video Shall be able to Conditions as
bridge crack up cast: No cracking
to 2 mm in width at 2mm width.
- On original sample. No crack after 10
cycles of
- After 72h chemical
ASTM C836: immersion at room stretching and
2006 temperature: closing to a width
(1) 0.5% (v/v) NaOCl of 1mm
(2) 1.25% (v/v) NH4OH
(3) 3.7% (v/v) HCl

Initial hardness (Shore A) ASTM D 2240: ≥ 25 ≥ 40

- 7 days curing Video 2010
Water vapour permeability ASTM E 96: 2005 30g/m2/day max NA
 Water permeability test
To determines the resistance of concrete against water under hydrostatic pressure
Video
BS EN 12390-8, Testing Hardened Concrete: Depth of Penetration Under Water Pressure, and DIN 1048 Part
5, Testing Concrete: Testing of Hardened Concrete Water Permeability, are equivalent tests that measure the
depth of water penetration into concrete samples subjected to 0.5 MPA of hydrostatic pressure over a period of
three days. Concrete specimens are cast and cured for 28 days. After such time, samples are placed in the test
device where they are subjected to hydrostatic pressure.

After the allotted three days they are removed from the apparatus and cracked vertically to determine the depth
of water penetration. The smaller the depth of penetration results in a higher resistance to water pressure.

http://files.instrument.com.cn/FilesCenter/20100826/201082610746142932.pdf
 Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 Topic 2 – wet area

Screed
A screed can be defined as a
layer of well-compacted material
applied in-situ to a structural base
or other substrate and finished to
a designated level. It serves:

•as a smooth, flat surface to a correct level for

bedding of tiles

•as a protection for the waterproofing coating

•to provide falls to drain water off

Video - Screed
•to accommodate service pipes
https://lefong.sg/services/waterproofing/waterproofing-
bathrooms-and-showers/

Water ponding test with colour dye

(Alliance Building Services)
 Various types of screed
Types Definitions
Monolithic screed (on Screed which is laid on in-situ concrete base before it has set
green concrete) (within 3 hours of placing) is known as monolithic screed.

Bonded screed (on This is also known as separate construction and bonding agent can
hardened concrete/ precast be used to ensure maximum bond with the base.
concrete)

Unbonded screed Unbonded construction is adopted when the screed is laid on the
damp proof membrane or when the concrete contains water
repellent admixture.

Floating screed This type of screed is unbonded to concrete base and is designed as
floating screed to accommodate heating elements or sound
insulation.

Proprietary floor screed Screeds that are basically denser and modified by inclusion of
materials in emulsion form are known as proprietary floor screeds.

Minimum standards for screed

Properties Minimum standards
Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is about 1.83 W/mK
Density Depending on the type of the screed, the density of
screed range between 1600 to 2100 kg/m3
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion/ºC 10 to 13 x 10-6
Reversible (cyclical) moisture movement 0.02 – 0.06%
Drying shrinkage 0.03- 0.04%
Video - Tiling
Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 A mixture of clay and Fine porcelain clays
quartz ferrous sand fired at much higher
materials and water temperatures than
and fired in kilns. ceramic tile.

granite
Homogeneous tiles
Homogeneous tiles are a type of porcelain tile (full body
porcelain tile)

– low water absorption ceramic tiles

– made of a single compact body mass
– uniform in colour throughout
Granite monument -
Mount Rushmore,
Venus de Milo - marble South Dakota
 Tile
Full body porcelain (homogeneous): the colours of homogeneous tiles run
uniformly through its entire thickness. Homogeneous tile will not expose a
clay base when chipped.

Glazed porcelain tiles (meaning a glazing on top of the tile surface) may
or may not have the same coloration from top to bottom because of the top
glazed layer.

Video - Homogeneous vs
ceramic

Granite
Granite has a variety of speckled colors resulting from the
melded stones within it including quartz, feldspar, biotite
mica, and sometimes amphibole — and comes in
numerous shades and tones.

Video
Granite vs marble

Marble
Marble is typically a solid grayish-white or cream color and has dark veins
running through it, though there are other, rarer varieties that have a pale
green or pink base color. The lines in marble are formed from mineral
impurities, like silt and iron oxides.
 Bedding materials
Video – leveling - 1
Bedding materials
Video – leveling - 2

Cementitious Organic Epoxy

 Properties of different tile beddings
Tile bedding Wet Water Compression Shear/Tensile Thermal Shear
Density Absorption Strength Bond shock Strength
3
kg/m % MPa MPa resistance* 28 days
MPa MPa
Cementitious ±1300- 4% Max 7.3-20.7 1-3.4 NA 1.6-2.34
adhesive 1650
Organic ±1700 4% Max 10-27.6 1.5-4.1 NA NA
adhesive
Epoxy based ±1300- NA 24-55.2 12.4-13.8 > 8.3 5-8.6
adhesive 1700

Thermal Shock tester

Video – thermal shock

http://www.siliconfareast.c
om/TST.htm

Two industry standards that govern Temp Cycle Testing are the Mil-Std-883 Method 1011 and the JEDEC JESD22-A106.
Troweling (left) and screeding (right) with a gradient to fall to the floor trap for a wet area
Cutting and termination of tiles. (a) Mark the recess. (b) Cutting along the
outline. (c) A grinder is used to smoothen the cut edges.
The use of a hammer over a timber block to lightly tap the tiles into place.(left), and the leveling of tiles using a spirit level (right).
 Placement of a ceramic tile over adhesive with lash tile leveling Tile spacers to ensure consistent Joint width
Troweling of tile adhesive system

Lash tile leveling and tile spacers A lash tile leveling in action
Grouting of tile joints

A typical sequence of work for tile laying

Video - Grouting
Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 Grout
• Grout serves as a sealer for tile joints to prevent water seepage.

• Grouting materials should have good working characteristics, low shrinkage and good adhesion properties to
seal up tile joints.

• Commonly available grouts in the market include cementitious, organic polymer-based compositions and
epoxide resins.

• Important performance parameters include:

– impermeability
– resistance to water, heat, cleaning agents, chemicals
– resistance to mould growth and bacteria
– resilience and compressibility
– resistance to high-pressure water cleaning
– compatibility of substrate and grouts

Minimum standard of grout

Properties Test Method Passing Criteria
Linear Shrinkage ANSI A 118.6: 1992 ≤ 0.2% at 7 days
Water Absorption ANSI A 118.6: 1992 ≤ 10% immersion to dry
Compressive Strength ANSI A 118.6: 1992 ≥ 15 N/mm2 at 28 days
Tensile Strength ANSI A 118.6 : 1992 ≥ 2.4 N/mm2 at 28 days
Flexural Strength ANSI A 118.6: 1992 ≥ 5.0 N/mm2 at 10 days (3 days before
ANSI – American National demoulding + 7 days air cure)
Standard Institute
Colour fastness SS 483: 2000 No colour change after 28 days or UV
exposure
 >13,000 years ago. The artists used charcoal, earth
pigments and minerals to create the images Wet Area

Altamira cave ceiling - Video

Systems
Pig art on the island of Sulawesi dates to at
least 45,500 years ago
and
components Design Construction maintenance
Maros Sulawesi Indonesia - Video selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
 Classification of paint

Organic solvents in a paint

Good – fast drying, formation

of a regular paint film.

Bad - release Volatile Organic

Compounds (VOCs), strong
Today, water-based paints dominate and odour, toxic.
account for roughly 80% of paints sold in
the residential market.
Components of paint system
Component Functions
Primer o To reduce porosity of receiving
surface so as to prevent undue
absorption of resin from
subsequent coats of paints.
Sealer o To resist alkali attack from
cement-based material.
o To stabilize loose surface
particles.
o To reduce porosity of receiving
surface so as to prevent undue
absorption of resin from
subsequent coats of paints
Undercoat o To level out minor irregularities
and provide uniform texture
o To improve inter-coating
adhesion
Topcoat o To provide the required
functions of paint
Comments
The primers should be used to
reduce the porosity of the surface
and have adequate moisture resistant
capability.
Sealers should be used to reduce the
porosity of the surface and have
adequate moisture resistant
capability.
Choice of undercoat should be
compatible with the primer/sealer
and the finishing coats
The finishing coat of a paint system
 Wet Area

Systems
and
components Design Construction maintenance
selection

Tile &
Waterproofing Service
Screed Tile Grout Paint
system pipes
Bedding
Plastic materials have replaced cast iron for long-term performance of the plumbing system.
Chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (cPVC) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the main
categories of plastics pipes used in wet areas

Video – leaking pipe

 Common problems
Structural
Wet Area

Stalactite formation Concrete spalling

Architectural

Delamination of wall tile Water leakage from ceiling

Water seepage on ceiling Deteriorating of ceiling mater

Mould growth Prefabricated bathroom unit

Services

Leaking of pipe Corrosion of pipe

 Wet Area

Systems and
components Design Construction Maintenance
selection
Waterproofing at joints
 Use of flexible sealant at
floor and wall joint

Use of bond
breaker at floor
and wall joint
 Surface and subsurface drainage

The slope should be oriented to minimise its effect on play. Thus, where a
court must be sloped for drainage, a slope from side-to-side is preferred.

http://www.itftennis.com/technical/courts/court-testing/slope-and-planarity.aspx
Waterproofing detail at pipe penetrations Waterproofing detail at floor traps
Shower/ bath area – Walls adjacent to the shower and bath area need to
be covered with two coats of waterproofing membrane up to 1500mm in
width and 1800mm in height.
However, for bathtubs that are designed
only for bathing, an upstand of 1500mm
of membrane at adjacent wall would be
sufficient.
 Gradient of falls
Gradient of falls specified should be adequate to allow for efficient drainage of runoff.

The minimum gradient of the fall at shower areas or wash areas should be maintained at
1:60 towards the floor trap.

Minimum slope to fall is

1: 60

Minimum slope to fall to achieve efficient drainage of water towards the drainage point
Ventilation and Air Circulation

Exhaust intake grill of mechanical ventilation

Ventilation and Air Circulation
 Topic 2 – wet area

Accessibility
Access panel provided at
false ceiling for Concealed or Exposed ?
maintenance

Access panel.

https://proseal.com.sg/concealed-pipe-leakage/
 flashback
Accessibility
Apron edge

Preformed vanity top with apron edge. Free-standing washbasin fixed way from a wall.

400mm
550mm

Ease of cleaning

Recommended dimensions of basins. Wall hung toilet bowl

Spatial design Min 450mm Min 450mm

WC WC WC

Min of 750mm Min of 750mm

Minimum distance between W.Cs.

Min 400 mm Min 750 mm

Minimum distance between urinals.

 Wet Area

Systems and
components Design Construction Maintenance
selection
 Substrate preparation

Removing defective concrete Cleaning with a broom. Cleaning with a vacuum cleaner.

Patching with mortar Cleaning with high pressure water jet. Mechanical blowers to dry the surface faster
Waterproofing application on walls
 Waterproofing application on floor

Waterproofing of wall and Apply upturn at the wall and Application of fibre glass mesh at
corners of wall and ceiling floor joints joints

Sufficient upturn at pipe Application at floor trap Application begins at a corner

penetrations
 Check list
Checks Wall tiling Floor tiling
1. Tolerances for surface unevenness

o Surface unevenness over 1m length <

1.5mm
o Unevenness between two tiles over the joint
< 1mm

2. Interface with other elements

o Tile interface with ceiling, window frames,

door frames, pipes etc are aligned and
consistent.
Video –
Re-waterproofing
3. Joints, tonal variations

o Joints are aligned and with consistent size

between 1 to 2mm.
o Joints are pointed neatly with no voids
within them.
o The joint width shall be less than 5mm.
o Joints with no excess or uneven grout.

4. Hollowness, chip offs, sharp edges and crack

79

Surface is free of chipped, cracked and hollow

tiles.
 Wet Area

Systems and
components Design Construction Maintenance
selection
 Waterproofing defects
Defects Possible causes
Acrylic system
Skinning • Coating applied is too thick.
Surface dries off too quickly • The underlying coat was not
trapping uncured material beneath. allowed to cure fully before the
application of an overcoat.
Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures
• Membrane needs to be removed • Ensure the correct coverage per
with all uncured material coat and sufficient drying time
scraped off and re-applied. is followed, as per
manufacturer’s instructions.

Figure1
Pin-holing • Introduction of excessive air
Tiny pin-holes appear on the surface bubbles in material by over-
of membrane after it sets. stirring or over-working such as
brushing or rolling over the
same spot many times thus
trapping air bubbles in the
material.
99
• Another coat should be re-
applied over the affected area.
• If pin holing is prevalent over
the entire area, it may be
advisable to reapply the full
system over the affected
membrane.
• Material to be left standing 5-
10 minutes after stirring.
• Application to a recommended
coverage and do not work
excessively over same area.
• Using correct application
techniques as recommended by
manufacturer is important.

Figure 2
Blistering • Moisture is trapped beneath • Blister should be cut out to • Ensure the substrate is kept dry
membrane. allow moisture to escape. before application of
• Evaporation rate of the • Substrate should be dry before membrane. The acceptable
membrane is slower than the re-application. moisture content can be
vapour permeability rate of measured with a moisture
membrane. meter.

Figure 3
 Waterproofing defects
Defect Mechanism
Water leakage through joints
Figure 2 Water
Tiles
Tile bed
Waterproofing
Screed
Slab

Figure 1 Stains

Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures

• Deterioration of the waterproofing • The moisture source should be arrested. • Use of a fiberglass mesh at joints to
membrane, since in general the • Membrane should be replaced, if it has accommodate structural movement, thus
durability of waterproofing membrane is severely deteriorated. minimizing the risk of damage of the
10 - 15 years. waterproofing membrane.
• Poor application of the membrane may • Greater supervision is necessary during
cause pre mature failures of the application of the membrane to prevent
membrane or insufficient water- defects due to poor application.
tightness.
• Ineffective accommodation for
movement between two elements (slab
and wall) can cause damages to the
membrane.
 Defect Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures
Water leakage at pipe penetration • Porous infill of the cold • The water leak source should be • Use of a fiberglass mesh at
joint at pipe traced and treated properly. joints to accommodate
penetration. Injection methods can be used structural movement, thus
• Lack of provision or to seal the water source. minimizing the risk of
damage of • The entire membrane should be damage to the waterproofing
waterproofing replaced if the deterioration is membrane.
membrane around the bad. • Greater supervision is
pipe may lead to water necessary during application
Figure 3 leakage through of the membrane to prevent
structural floor. defects due to poor
application.
• Ensure no cold joint since this
may be a passage for water
seepage through concrete.
Defect Mechanism
Water leakage
Water leakage through
through porous
porous concrete
concrete Figure
Figure55 Water splashed
Water on the
splashed onfloor
the floor
seeps through
seeps to the
through tofailed
the failed
waterproofing.
waterproofing.
TheThe migration
migration of water
of water
through
through cracks
cracks saturates
saturates the the
Tiles porous
porous concrete.
concrete.
Tiles
Tile bed
Tile bed
Screed
Screed
Waterproofing Water leakage
Waterproofing
Slab Water leakage
through porous ceiling
Figure 4 Slab through
Figure 4 givesporous
rise toceiling
paint
gives rise to paint
defects
defects

Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures

• Poor design of waterproofing at • It is advisable to replace the entire • Proper waterproofing detailing is
shower area may contribute to the waterproofing system if the damage is large. important to impervious the wall at
water seepage problem through brick • Injection methods could also be used to seal shower areas.
wall (internal wall) and slab. up cracks in the concrete and provide the • Ensure good supervision during
• Aging of waterproofing membrane required water-tightness. concreting as well as application of the
could lead to the losses of water- membrane. This is to ensure the good
tightness around the pipe penetration. water-tightness during the service life.
• Porous concrete attributed by inferior
workmanship may cause water
retention and dampness in the slab.
Together with poor waterproofing
104

membrane, water can leak over the

surface.
Defect Mechanism
Water leak at floor trap Figure 7
“Short” Floor trap
Discharge pipe

Tiles

Screed

RC slab
Figure 6
“Short” gully pipe
Porous in-fill

Possible causes
• Improper laying of floor trap
• “Short discharge pipe” to gully pipe may
cause leakage.
• Porous infill of the cold joint at the
penetration.
• Poor detailing or application of the
membrane around pipe.
• Deterioration of the membrane may loss
water-tightness of the discontinuity.
Sanitary pipe
Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures
• If the pipe is not laid properly, it should be • Ensure good supervision during construction
repaired to stop the water source. to meet the expected standards.
• “Short” discharge pipe should be repaired to stop
water leakage source
• Porous concrete could be repaired with PU
injection to seal up the cracks.
Defect
Corrosion of reinforcements and concrete
spalling
Figure 8
Possible causes
• Water penetration results in the corrosion
of re-bars. The corroded re-bars increase
in volume and causes concrete to spell.
• Water seepage may be attributed to,
1. improper laying such as “short
discharge pipe” and “short gully
pipe”.
2. porous infill of the cold joint at the
penetration.
3. poor detailing or application of the
membrane around pipe.
4. deterioration of the membrane.
Mechanism
Figure 9
Concrete
Corrosion of rebar
Water
Spalling
Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures
• Affected concrete must be hacked out and rust in • Reinforcement can be protected further by
the rebar should be scrubbed off. using the following methods:
• If the rebar is badly corroded, (if the rebar's 1. removal of rust and mill scale before
sectional area reduces more than 15%), additional embedment.
rebar with proper lapping must be added. 2. use of non-metallic coatings such as
• Rebar should be treated with a rust inhibitor. epoxy coatings.
• Concrete/mortar (polymer mortar or epoxy mortar) 3. use of metallic coatings such as Zinc and
is applied over a wet surface in a layer of no more Nickel.
than 20mm to fill up the patch. 4. cathodic protection.
5. use of corrosion inhibitors.
6. use of corrosion resistance reinforcement
(eg. stainless steel).
7. use of low permeability concrete, with
improved resistance to chloride ion
ingress.
Defect Mechanism
Water leak through cracks and efflorescence
Tile
Figure 11
Tile bed
Screed
Waterproofing Water migrating
Concrete slab through the cracks
Paint

Figure 10
Efflorescence

Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures

• Salts in concrete which form due to water
seepage, and upon drying, efflorescence is
formed.
• Water seepage due to the cracks resulting
from excessive shrinkage of the concrete
• Efflorescence should be removed • Greater supervision or quality checking is
• Moisture source should be traced and treated required during application.
with a proper method. PU injection may be • Manufacturer’s instructions should be
suitable in this regard. followed closely.

Defect Mechanism
Grout Staining
Figure 6
Water seeps into the Tiles
grout and dissolves Tile bed
colour pigments. Screed
This surface as dark Waterproofing
grout stains. Slab

Figure 5

Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures

• Water seeping into the grout joints may • Suitable stain remover such as washing • Polymer modified grouts which are more durable
erode the grouting material and black stains soda may be used to remove the stains. could be used for long term performance with
may be formed. constant wetting in wet areas.
Defect Mechanism
Efflorescence Figure 4

1 Water
Tile
Alkaline salts surfacing from
Screed beneath
Tile bed
Concrete Slab Waterproofing membrane

Efflorescence formed on the tiles Water

Tile
Figure 3 2 Alkaline salts moving upwards
Tile bed
Waterproofing membrane
Screed

Concrete Slab

Possible causes Recommended remedial methods Preventive measures

• The presence of loosely bonded sand, pre- • Efflorescence should be removed with a • Clarification should be sought with the
hydrated cement and un-hydrated cement suitable solution. architect/supplier on the selection of suitable
mix due to poor mixing during the • Water repellent coating could be applied materials.
construction may leach the soluble salt, over the tile, if the tiles are porous to • Apply sufficient sealer over the tiles if they are
forming efflorescence. prevent any further water seepage. porous.
• Excessive seepage of water due to cracks • Pointing should be properly done with a suitable
in tile or grout may lead to leaching of material to seal up the tile joints. Polymer modified
soluble salts in concrete. grouting materials are more suitable for long term
performance.
Chemical injection 1/3
Chemical injection 2/3
Chemical injection 3/3 Video
Organic stains Tea, coffee o A solution of 20% peroxide (hair bleaching strength) and a few
drops of ammonia can be used to remove the stains.

Mildew Dampness in toilet o Clean with a dilute solution of chlorine bleach in water,
o Using a mildew-retardant household spray.
o The directions on the label of the solutions should be strictly
followed.

Soap Scum Soap o sponging with a mixture of 1/2 cup packaged water softener, 2
tablespoons rottenstone and 1 cup hot water
o with a solution of 1-2 tablespoons trisodium phosphate in 1 gallon
hot water.

Rust Stains Corrosion of metallic o A commercial rust remover should be used to remove the stain.
fittings The directions for usage given on the label should be followed
exactly and the solution should not be left on the surface longer
than the specified duration. This is to prevent the acid in many
rust removers from etching the tile surface.

Dark stains Fungi growth on o They may be removed by covering them with full-strength liquid
moisture film laundry detergent for a couple of hours and following by
sponging with water.
o If the stains do not come off, they should be scrubbed with a
brush.
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