Aging and The Life Course An Introduction To Social Gerontology 7th Edition Quadagno Solutions Manual Download

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Chapter 10: Work and Retirement
Aging and the Life Course An Introduction to Social

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Chapter 10
Work and Retirement
Brief IM Outline
 Chapter Outline
 Class Discussion Topics
 Student Project and Research Suggestions
 Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
 Lecture/Class Activity Ideas
 Community, State, and National Resources
 Internet Resources and Activities
 Suggested Readings
 Films and Videos
Chapter Outline
I. Trends in Labor Force Participation
A. The Decline of Career Employment
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People can no longer expect to work for the same employer from middle age to retirement. A
direct way to show the decline in career employment is to see how many workers nearing the
end of their careers are with the same employer they had at age 50.
B. Labor Force Participation of Men
Nearly all men who are in their 30s and early 40s are in the labor force. A few men drop out of
the labor force when they are in their late 40s or early 50s, primarily because of health
problems, but most men continue to work into their early 50s. In 1990, 55 percent of men 60
to 64 were in the labor force compared with 60 percent by 2010. The change is even more
dramatic among men in their late 60s. In 1990, just 21 percent of men age 65 to 74 were in the
labor force compared with over 30 percent by 2010. There is a similar pattern of increased
work among men in their 70s.
C. Labor Force Participation of Women
In 1990, just 55 percent of women 55 to 59 were in the labor force compared with 68 percent
by 2010. A similar pattern of greater work among women in their sixties and seventies is seen.
Several factors are responsible for the rising labor force participation of women. One factor
has been a dramatic increase in the labor force participation of married women. Even more
spectacular has been the increase in labor force participation among women with young
children. Women have more intermittent patterns of labor force participation than do men and
at all ages are more likely to be working part-time.
At all ages men have higher rates of labor force participation than women, and black men
have lower rates of labor force participation than white, Asian and Hispanic men. Why do
older black men work less? One factor is a greater risk of disability. Black men are more than
twice as likely as white men to suffer from hypertension, circulatory problems, diabetes, and
nervous disorders. Another factor is the nature of their jobs. Black men are more likely to be
employed in physically strenuous jobs where chronic health problems make work difficult or
impossible. Finally, black men are more likely to be unemployed in later life because of a
history of racial discrimination.
D. International Trends in Labor Force Participation
Most European countries also experienced a decline in labor force participation among older
men in the 1980s. To a large extent, this trend was a result of specific policies adopted by
European countries to reduce high unemployment among younger worker by encouraging
early retirement (Taylor, 2005).
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II. The Transition from Work to Retirement
A. Bridge Jobs
Many older people do not leave the labor force entirely when they leave their full-time jobs.
Rather they gradually disengage from work by taking part-time or bridge jobs. Between one-
half and two-thirds of older men and women take what are called bridge jobs before leaving
the labor force entirely (Mermin et al., 2007). People who take bridge jobs often work in a
different occupation or industry from that of their career jobs. The U.S. Department of Labor
makes a distinction between voluntary part-time work and economic part-time work.
Voluntary part-timers do not wish to work full-time. Economic part-time workers are unable
to find full-time jobs.
B. Phased Retirement
Older workers may also choose phased retirement. Phased retirement is any arrangement
that allows older workers to reduce their responsibilities and ease gradually into full
retirement (Townsend, 2001). Some companies allow employees to work fewer hours each
day, work fewer days a week, or share one job with another worker (Clark and Quinn, 2002).
C. Contingent Work
Some older workers engage in contingent work. This refers to an arrangement in which
workers are hired on a temporary basis to do a specific task. Contingent jobs often come with
no health or retirement benefits (Belous, 1990).
D. Unemployment among Older Workers
Older workers who lose their jobs take longer than other workers to find a new job. Perhaps
the greatest cost of job loss in later life is the loss of health insurance. To help unemployed or
displaced workers keep their health insurance, Congress passed the Consolidated Omnibus
Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) of 1985. COBRA requires that employers of 20 or more
workers provide laid-off workers the opportunity to buy the health plan they had received
while employed. COBRA policies are often quite expensive, since the employer is no longer
paying part of the premium, and COBRA does not apply to workers in small firms. COBRA
coverage continues for only 18 months. Once the 18 months have passed, workers lose their
COBRA eligibility. To resolve this problem, Congress enacted the Health Insurance
Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). HIPPAA gives workers who have
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exhausted their COBRA eligibility the right to convert their policies to individual coverage.
III. Factors Affecting Labor Force Withdrawal
A. Economic Incentives
Social Security has had a significant effect on the work behavior of older people. From the
1960s to the 1990s, both men and women were most likely to retire at age 62 when they were
first allowed to receive benefits even though they had to pay a penalty for retiring early.
Disability Insurance is a part of the Social Security system. People who qualify for benefits
receive a monthly benefit like Social Security, regardless of their age. Disability Insurance
thus provides disabled workers a way to retire before they normally would and still have a
secure income source.
Another reason for the increase in labor force participation among older workers is a shift
from defined benefit to defined contribution pension plans. A defined benefit (DB) plan is a
traditional pension. It pays a specified amount when a worker reaches a given age. Under DB
plans, there is no advantage in continuing to work beyond retirement age because a worker’s
pension does not increase with additional years.
Since the 1970s, a different kind of pension plan has become increasingly popular. This newer
plan, called a defined contribution (DC) plan, is basically a savings plan with some tax
advantages. Between 1981 and 2010 the number of workers covered by a defined benefit plan
only declined from 58 to 11 percent while the number with a defined contribution plan only
rose from 20 to 59 percent.
B. Retiree Health Benefits
With no health insurance, older employees are likely to continue working until age 65, when
they become eligible for Medicare (Johnson and Kaminski, 2010). People also return to work
after retiring to obtain health insurance (Kail, 2012).
C. Age Discrimination
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) banned discrimination

against workers aged 40 to 65 and forbade employers from firing, demoting or reducing the
salaries of older workers without good cause (Bessey and Ananda, 1991). Yet age
discrimination still occurs, as evidenced by the fact that each year over 20,000 claims of age
5
discrimination are filed with the greatest number of claims being filed by workers of pre-
retirement age (Schrader and Nazarov, 2015).
D. Retirement as an Individual Decision
If financial issues were the most important factor in the decision to retire, then people with
more income would retire sooner, but that is not the case. Individuals who are most likely to
work in their late sixties and even into their seventies have the most wealth and the highest
incomes (Sass, 2016).
Dual-worker couples can retire at the same time, a choice called joint retirement; or they can
retire in sequence, with either the husband or the wife retiring first while the other continues to
work, a pattern called sequential retirement (O’Rand et al., 1992).
E. Future Trends in Retirement
The trends discussed in this section suggest that, in the future, people will be retiring later.
Among the factors contributing to later retirement are the following:
 Improved health among the elderly.
 Fewer physically demanding jobs.
 A decrease in defined benefit plans
 A decline in retiree health benefits
 Incentives in Social Security to work until 70
IV. Being Retired
A. Satisfaction with Retirement
Given the importance of work for most people in middle age, the transition to retirement can
involve an abrupt adjustment that transforms an individual’s social world, relationships, and
daily routines. Retirees may find that they miss a more structured existence with clear goals,
and they may also feel a loss of the social status that comes with a job (Kim and Moen, 2001).
Often, happiness in retirement is associated with good health (Lahey and Boyle, 2010).
Adequate income is also an important predictor of life satisfaction in retirement. In sum, men
and women who have adequate income and good health, reside in a suitable environment, and
have access to a satisfactory social support system are more likely to be satisfied with
retirement than those who do not.
B. Daily Activities and Health
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People who are in poor health tend to engage in more passive activities than those who are in
good health; those in the poorest health are least active (Cutler and Hendricks, 1990). Many of
the oldest–old, people who are 85 or older, are limited in their mobility and must organize
their activities around their health problems. Overall, most elderly people find ways to cope
with hassles that might seem daunting to much younger individuals, conducting their daily
business with a sense of accomplishment and good spirits.
C. Volunteering
Virtually the entire increase in volunteering is concentrated among people aged 60 and over.
Older people today are in better health, more highly educated, and more financially secure
than any previous generation. They enjoy longer and more active postretirement lives than
their predecessors. Sociologists have also identified a cohort effect. Men and women who
were born before World War II have been engaged in civic affairs their entire lives—more so
than either their predecessors or their successors. Older people who remain productive and
maintain their social networks have higher levels of life satisfaction than do those who
disengage from their activities (Morrow-Howell et al., 2003).
D. Religious Participation
Religious involvement is related to a variety of demographic and social characteristics.

Women tend to be more involved than men in religious organizations and to state that prayer
is important to them. Older African Americans are more likely than whites to be involved in a
variety of religious activities. Research on the impact of religion on adaptation to aging shows
that it can improve health and reduce disability, increase self-esteem, reduce symptoms of
depression, and enhance life satisfaction (Levin and Taylor, 1997).
Class Discussion Topics
1. Retirement Plans and Satisfaction

Have students share the age at which they plan to retire. Also, ask them to indicate the
activities in which they will be engaged once they retire and to list some factors likely to
influence their own satisfaction with retirement.
2. Volunteerism
If students are volunteering with the elderly, what patterns have they experienced with
volunteerism by and for the elderly? What community opportunities and coordinating
bodies exist? What role does volunteerism play in the lives of the elderly they have
7
interviewed or know?
3. Religious Participation and Spirituality

Have students share their experiences—from their families or their work/volunteer sites—
about the role of religious participation and spirituality in the lives of elderly. Do the
patterns they see confirm the research cited in the chapter? Do patterns of religious
participation they observe in the elderly correspond to or diverge from patterns in the same
cohort’s earlier years? Have students share conversations or observations concerning
spirituality among the elderly they know.
4. Income Security and Sources of Support

Have students share what they know about their parents’ and their grandparents’ planning
for income security in their retirement years. So far, have their plans worked out? What
factors have influenced income security? Could better planning alone have addressed
obstacles or shortfalls? How are issues of financial support, inheritance, and income
security addressed or not addressed in various families? Ask the students if they plan to use
their parents or grandparents as role models in planning their retirement security.
Student Project and Research Suggestions
1. Retirement and Health Care Issues for Older Immigrants

New immigrants to the United States who are at or near retirement age often face daunting
challenges in securing necessary services and sufficient income. Immigrant and refugee
centers offer English-language and job training services but are often unable to secure
necessary services for the older immigrant. Similar problems confront people with
insufficient work history to qualify for Social Security or downsized workers in their late
fifties and early sixties. Students could research the particular problems that confront these
groups by visiting the Social Security website or by consulting with local Social Security,
Medicaid, Adult Services, and immigrant services offices. The issues could be highlighted
through interviews with immigrants or caseworkers with relevant agencies. The real needs
of these constituencies are often overlooked in the political rhetoric about immigration. The
project presents a genuine challenge for students to design ways in which public policy
could address the needs.
2. Community Resources and Volunteer Opportunities for Retirees

Successful retirement entails maintaining social connections and meaningful activity that
uses the skills and knowledge of the retiree. Have students investigate community
resources and volunteer opportunities for retirees in their area. Area agencies on aging,
senior centers, and other private initiatives should provide an overview of resources and
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opportunities. Students could interview seniors working in those agencies or get referrals to
agencies and facilities that use senior volunteers. (Refer to the State and Community
Resources below). Student projects could focus either on the significance of these resources
and opportunities for retirement satisfaction or on the contribution seniors with such
opportunities can make to the community.
3. The Wisdom of Elders

Have students reflect on what wisdom today’s elders have to offer society. They may want
to interview others in preparation for a brainstorming session on ways to design
opportunities and contexts for elders to share that wisdom. Native American communities
often have established programs for transmitting language and traditions and preserving
heritage. Do other communities have such mechanisms? What could be done to identify
and value such wisdom and to create contexts within which elders can share it?
4. Contingency Work, Bridge Jobs, and Early Retirement

The chapter discusses the growth of contingency work, bridge jobs, and forced early
retirement. A useful student project would be either to interview elders who have
confronted these realities or to work with case studies illustrating various scenarios of these
work-related challenges. Have students identify the major social and economic issues
involved, discuss how these challenges affect older workers and their families, and design
programs or policies that would alleviate the impact of this trend.
Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions
1. Many older women drop out of the labor force to care for ill or aging relatives. In doing so,
they forgo Social Security benefits later in life. Should the government give these women
credit for the unpaid work they do? What might be the practical problems in doing so?
Answer: Women who drop out of the labor force to provide caregiving to an ill or aging
relative perform an extremely significant service to society. Their service reduces the cost
that the public has to pay for the caregiving; it should be rewarded as paid work, and
women should receive Social Security credit for it.
2. What can government do to help older workers who have lost their jobs and health
insurance but are not yet old enough to retire?
Answer: Downsizing and a trend of earlier involuntary retirement have created a gap of 5
to 10 years for workers who face age discrimination, unemployment, and contingency jobs
without benefits. Some recent legislation has attempted to fill this gap, but much more
9
should be done. The extension of Medicare benefits to early retirees or the expansion of
Medicaid to cover unemployed or uninsured workers could alleviate the major problems
facing older workers.
3. What do you think of the trend toward hiring contingency workers who do not receive the
same benefits as permanent employees? Does it provide employment opportunities that
older workers would not otherwise have, or does it undermine their well-being?
Answer: One problem with contingency work is that the worker receives a wage that
makes them ineligible for state healthcare benefits but provides insufficient resource for
privately purchased coverage. Contingency work also fails to utilize the full potential and
experience of older workers and can present serious threats to physical and emotional well-
being.
4. Has anyone in your family been discriminated against because of his or her age? If so, what
were the circumstances?
Answer: Students’ responses will vary depending upon the circumstances.
5. How soon do you yourself hope to retire? Why?
Answer: Students’ responses will depend upon many factors: rules of their employment,
the meaning of work to them, health, income, and family responsibilities.
Lecture/Class Activity Ideas
1. Invite guest speakers from Foster Grandparents, RSVP, and other prominent organizations
of senior volunteers in the community. Students are often quite impressed with the energy
and imagination of such seniors, and they often discover volunteer opportunities through
them.
2. Invite a senior fitness, educational travel (Elderhostel), or other leisure-activities

professional to describe innovative programs as well as professional opportunities for
gerontology students.
3. If you can, find a financial counselor or retirement specialist not interested in selling plans
to your students. Such a person could be useful in providing an overview of the current
issues confronting retirees and workers, even young people, who are planning their
retirement.
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4. Invite the local or state labor and industry or human rights commissioner to class. She or he
should be experienced in dealing with age discrimination and the remedies available.
Hearing how cases are handled and gaining some understanding of the challenges in age
discrimination cases could generate an interesting discussion on effective policy to address
such discrimination.
5. Invite local volunteers over age 60 to discuss why they volunteer and what they get from it.
Hearing that older people do these things may inspire students to get involved and discuss
volunteer opportunities throughout the life course instead of just at older age.
Community, State, and National Resources
Community and State Resources
1. Area Agencies on Aging

2. College and university senior and retirement learning centers
3. Elder Hostel, and other elder leisure and continuing learning efforts
4. Older Americans Act Programs (through local Senior Centers)
5. National Senior Service Corps (Senior Corps) local programs:
 Foster Grandparent Program
 Senior Companion Program
 Retired and Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP)
 Service Corps of Retired Executives (SCORE)
 Volunteers in Parks (VIP)
National Resources
1. The Active Retirement Center (http://www.yourretirement.com/)

This website is oriented as a guide for retirees.
2. Administration on Aging (http://www.aoa.gov/)

This website has resources of the Administration on Aging related to retirement.
3. American Association of Retired Persons (http://www.aarp.org)

This website has extensive resources on work and retirement issues.
4. Center for Retirement Research, Boston College (http://www.bc.edu/crr)

This website publishes extensive issues in briefs, working papers, and other research
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online.
5. Elder Web (http://www.elderweb.com)

This website has resources on housing, finance, health care, and other retirement issues.
6. Families USA (http://www.familiesusa.org)

This website focuses primarily on health care, including Medicare issues.
7. Institute for Women’s Policy Research (http://www.iwpr.org)

This is a published report on Women and Social Security Conference (March 2000) and
other resources.
8. National Commission on Retirement Policy, Center for Strategic and International Studies
(http://csis.org/)
This bipartisan commission focuses on all aspects of retirement policy from a national
perspective.
9. Retirement Research Foundation (http://www.rrf.org)

This website has extensive resources, publications, and fact sheets.
10. Setting Priorities for Retirement Years (http://www.spry.org)

This website has resources on all aspects of retirement.
11. The Urban Institute (http://www.urban.org)

Its Retirement Project includes several publications.
Internet Resources and Activities
1. The Administration on Aging (http://www.aoa.gov)

In addition to the fact sheet on work and age discrimination discussed in the text, students
will find the Retirement and Financial Planning section of interest (refer to National
Resources).
2. The National Council on Aging (http://www.ncoa.org) provides many news and research
links and resources. Maturity Works provides fact sheets on trends related to work and
retirement. Research and Demonstration provides several surveys and studies on aging,
work, retirement, and other issues confronting the elderly.
3. Depending on the focus on the course, students will find the websites referenced under
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National Resources of interest for research projects or for quick facts on particular issues
related to work and retirement.
4. “Working Past Retirement Age, Meaningfully” is a radio clip that discusses career post-
retirement (2011, Face the Nation, 30 minutes). The video is available online at
http://www.npr.org/2011/05/09/136144264/working-past-retirement-age-meaningfully.
5. “US Pensions in Crisis, but not in Rohde Island” is a radio clip that discusses the reforms in
Rhode Island to alleviate the pension crisis (2012, Around the Nation, 30 minutes). The
video is available online at http://www.npr.org/2012/09/24/161696119/u-s-pensions-in-
crisis-but-not-in-rhode-island.
Suggested Reading
Cheung, Chau-Kiu, Ping Kwong Kam, and Raymond Man-hung Ngan. 2011. “Age
discrimination in the labour market from the perspectives of employers and older workers.”
International Social Work 54(1):118–136.
Esping-Andersen, Gosta. 2009. The Incomplete Revolution: Adapting to Women’s New Roles.
Cambridge: Polity Press.
Feldman, Daniel C. and Seongsu Kim. 2000. “Bridge Employment During Retirement: A Field
Study of Individual and Organizational Experiences with Post-Retirement Employment.”
Human Resource Planning (March) 23 (1): 14f.
Goldberg, Beverly. 2000. Age Works: What Corporate America Must Do to Survive the Graying
of the Workforce. New York: The Free Press.
Johnson, Richard. 2012. “The Growing Importance of Older Workers.” Public Policy and Aging
Report 21 (4): 26–30.
Kajakazi, Kilolo. 2002. “Impact of unreported social security earnings on people of color and
women.” Public Policy and Aging Report, 12 (3): 121–127.
Markson, Elizabeth W. and Lisa Ann Hollis-Sawyer (eds.). 2000. Intersections of Aging:
Readings in Social Gerontology. Los Angeles: Roxbury. [Chapters 17–24 include several
articles on work, retirement, and income security.]
Price, Christine A. 2000. “Women and Retirement: Relinquishing Professional Identity.” Journal
13
of Aging Studies (March) 14 (1): 81f.
Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community.
New York: Simon and Schuster.
Robertson, Ann. 2000. “‘I Saw the Handwriting on the Wall’: Shades of Meaning in Reasons for
Early Retirement.” Journal of Aging Studies (March) 14 (1): 63f.
Savishinsky, Joel S. 2000. Breaking the Watch: The Meanings of Retirement in America. New
York: Cornell University Press.
Taylor, Philip. 2005. The Ageing European Workforce. London: International Longevity Center.
Films and Videos
Aging and Saging (1998, Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 24 minutes)
The following films are available from Terra Nova Films (http://www.terranova.org).
 Aging with Grace (1999, 20 minutes)
 Downsizing in an Aging Work Force: The Law, the Limits and the Lessons (1991, 25
minutes)
 Forever Young (58 minutes)
 Maximizing Retirement Supports for Persons Who Are Aging and Developmentally
Disabled (1992, 15 minutes)
 Time on Earth (1997, 51 minutes)
 You Won’t Need Running Shoes, Darling (1996, 53 minutes)
Work, Retirement and Economic Status (1993, The University of Hawaii Center on Aging, 57
minutes) This is film 9 of the 13-part series of Growing Old in a New Age. The video is available
online at http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=464.

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1

Chapter 10: Work and Retirement

Aging and the Life Course An Introduction to Social

I. Trends in Labor Force Participation

A. The Decline of Career Employment

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

B. Labor Force Participation of Men

C. Labor Force Participation of Women

D. International Trends in Labor Force Participation

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

II. The Transition from Work to Retirement

D. Unemployment among Older Workers

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

III. Factors Affecting Labor Force Withdrawal

B. Retiree Health Benefits

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) banned discrimination

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

D. Retirement as an Individual Decision

E. Future Trends in Retirement

IV. Being Retired

A. Satisfaction with Retirement

B. Daily Activities and Health

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Religious involvement is related to a variety of demographic and social characteristics.

Class Discussion Topics

1. Retirement Plans and Satisfaction

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

3. Religious Participation and Spirituality

4. Income Security and Sources of Support

Student Project and Research Suggestions

1. Retirement and Health Care Issues for Older Immigrants

2. Community Resources and Volunteer Opportunities for Retirees

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

3. The Wisdom of Elders

4. Contingency Work, Bridge Jobs, and Early Retirement

Answer Guidelines for “Thinking about Aging” Questions

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Answer: Students’ responses will vary depending upon the circumstances.

5. How soon do you yourself hope to retire? Why?

Lecture/Class Activity Ideas

2. Invite a senior fitness, educational travel (Elderhostel), or other leisure-activities

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Community, State, and National Resources

Community and State Resources

1. Area Agencies on Aging

1. The Active Retirement Center (http://www.yourretirement.com/)

2. Administration on Aging (http://www.aoa.gov/)

3. American Association of Retired Persons (http://www.aarp.org)

4. Center for Retirement Research, Boston College (http://www.bc.edu/crr)

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

5. Elder Web (http://www.elderweb.com)

6. Families USA (http://www.familiesusa.org)

7. Institute for Women’s Policy Research (http://www.iwpr.org)

9. Retirement Research Foundation (http://www.rrf.org)

10. Setting Priorities for Retirement Years (http://www.spry.org)

11. The Urban Institute (http://www.urban.org)

Internet Resources and Activities

1. The Administration on Aging (http://www.aoa.gov)

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

Quadagno: Aging and The Life Course, 7e

of Aging Studies (March) 14 (1): 81f.

Films and Videos