UNIT 9: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY (ATMOSPHERE, WATER, AND SOIL) At the end of the unit, the students should be able to: 4. discuss the composition of the atmosphere; 2. describe the variation in pressure and temperature of the earth's atmosphere. 3. explain the nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycle; enumerate the different air pollutants, and the effects of air pollution in the environment; state and discuss the treatment systems for air; describe the structure of a water molecule; list the unique properties of water resulting from hydrogen bonding; explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to form hydrogen bonds, 9. explain how the polarity of water makes it a versatile solvent; 140. enumerate the different water pollutants; 41.define soil and describe the factors that control soil formation; 42. describe the soil profile and list its horizons; 43. compare and contrast the three types of weathering; 44, explain phosphorus cycle; and 45, discuss the effects of soil pollution. » ENOa Scanned with CamScannerToday, major eee a ie ie arene coal the environment have been the focus of Preservation of rought about by environmental degradation. organization trying to palit is the battle-cry of every person or natural processes. or minimize the adverse effect of the disruption of the eran a “ bei ne interaction of the chemicals in the environment and their hysical and ys emiare) emphasized as well as the applications of the basic phy: e and chemical principles of environmental chemistry. Various methods of protecting or repairing our impaired environment are discussed specifically those that must be practiced by industries that contribute much of these disruptions brought about by advancement in technology. Environmental chemistry is simply the study of the different chemical phenomena in the environment. A. CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE 9.1 Composition of the Atmosphere Atmosphere is a mass of gases that surround the planet or a star or a mixture of different gases. It contains jife-giving gases like oxygen for humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants. It helps as a barrier for direct ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun, warms the surface of our planet by about 33°C by means of the greenhouse effect, and mostly prevents tremendous differences between day time and night time temperatures. The earth’s atmosphere is active and always changing, and the reason of these changes includes human activities and many natural cycles. Because of these changes, scientists used different simple and complex instruments to predict weather and climate and to easily determine and’ monitor how light or intense the levels of air pollutants are. Major Gases Ad - Trace Gases ts ‘e Hytrogen 0.00988 Argon 0.934% « Krypton 0.0999" ! « Methane 0.0091 Trace Gane Maur 0.00984 . 9.04% + Moor 0:0018% + Carbon dioxide 2.9384 Figure 9.1: Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere Scanned with CamScannerNitrogen and oxygen are the most common gases of the atmosphere. Dry air is composed of about 78.08% nitrogen (Nz), 20.95% oxygen (Oz), about 0.93% of argon and 0.0001 % of neon, helium and krypton. Itis also composed of 0.038% of carbon dioxide (COz), 0.4% of water vapor (H2Ovap) and trace amounts of methane (CHs), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (Os) and nitrogen oxides (NO, NOz, N20). There are also many small particles like solids and liquids floating in the atmosphere. These particles, which scientists call “aerosols”, include dust, spores and pollen, salt from sea spray, volcanic ash, smoke, and more. 9.2 Variation in Pressure and Temperature 9.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by an atmospheric column or the weight of the overlying column of air. It is generally measured in millibars (mb); this unit of measurement is equivalent to 1 gram per centimeter squared (1 g/cm?). Other units are occasionally used, such as bars, atmospheres, torr or millimeters of mercury. Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer, which indicates the height of a column of mercury that exactly balances the weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer. 1.013 bar = 1013 mb = 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg At higher elevations, there are fewer air molecules than at lower levels, hence the pressure decreases as altitude increases. Since most of the atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's surface by the force of gravity, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slower at higher levels. unit area Figure 9.2: Variation In Earth's Pressure Scanned with CamScanner9.2.2. Temperature Temperature varies as the layer of the atmosphere changes. Usually, the closer the atmosphere to the heat source, the warmer the air becomes. In the: a. 9 a troposphere- the temperature decreases as the altitude increases. The source of heat is the surface of the Earth as well as particles in the air which absorb heat. The troposphere is quite transparent to shorter-wavelength solar radiation and more readily absorbs longer-wavelength terrestrial fadiation; the troposphere is heated from ground up rather than vice versa. stratosphere- the temperature increases as the altitude increases because of the ozone (Os) that absorbs ultraviolet rays from the sun. mesosphere- the concentration of ozone and other gases is low, thus, temperature decreases as the altitude increases. thermosphere — the temperature increases again due to absorption of high energy radiation by atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. 120 410 70 100 Thermosphere ge 80 Mesopause i 80 { | 50 Mesosphere € 408 0 ; z z = Stratopause 4 30 t 40 { 30 Stratosphere 20 20 | v 10 ropopause 10 pee Troposphere CG ! i “100-80 -0 -40 -20 0 20 40 Figure 9.3: Variation in Earth's Temperature Scanned with CamScanner9.3 Environmental Cycles The predominant elements of life are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. They are part of the chemical reactions that involve the growth and decay of living organisms. These elements follow characteristic pathways. called ee that give us the idea of how they become part of the living and non-living forms of the earth. } F The following are some of the environmental cycles that occur in nature. 9.3.1 The Nitrogen Cycle atmospheric Rivogen way gad animals ‘Sho iam = Airatas Kos) a, nitrites NSO") amnmoniony Ha" ptteification ammonia (Hg) @ Encyctopasdia Britannica, inc. Figure 9.4: Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen in the air cannot be assimilated by plants and animals. The nitrogen cornpounds used by plants and animals are synthesized from the free nitrogen by certain bacteria living in the roots of legumes. Some nitrogen can be fixed by natural activities like lightning, or some industrial processes, including combustion of fuels. Reactions of Nz with bacteria to produce NHs is 2Nag) + 6H209 —> 4 NH) + 3 Orc) The NEN is broken down due to an enzyme present in the bacteria. Via nitrification (by nitrifying bacteria), ammonia is converted to nitrite and then to nitrate. These N-containing substances are assimilated by plants, and then by animals, When the plants and animals die or excrete waste, part of the protein 150 Scanned with CamScannernitrogen is set free while the remainder is converted to ammonia (in the process called ammonification), nitrites and nitrates which are in turn absorbed by the soil and are again made available for plant use. The nitrates can be converted to nitrogen gas through denitrification which removes bioavailable nitrogen returning it to the atmosphere. 9.3.2. The Carbon and Oxygen Cycle Carbon Dioxide® Figure 9.5: The Carbon and Oxygen Cycle Atmospheric carbon dioxide comes from various sources including combustion of fuels and animal respiration. This CO2 is converted to plant tissue (starch and cellulose) by means of the sun's energy and the chlorophyil of the plant through photosynthesis. 6 CO2iq) + 6H2Og —> CeH120s(aq) + 6 Orta) The carbon dioxide thus removed is returned to the atmosphere by the decay of dead plants and animals which have eaten the plants for food (carbon dioxide is one of the decomposition products). CeH1206 (aq) + 6 Org) + 6CO%) + 6 H20W 9.4 Air Pollution One of the disruptions of natural processes aside from the depletion of natural resources and disturbance of the natural condition of the earth that causes environmental degradation is pollution. Air pollution is the presence in the atmosphere of waste materials (pollutants) or the unfavorable modification of the atmosphere caused by man's activities. Pollutant is anything which when put into the atmosphere either purposely or through some acts of nature adversely affects the ecosystem. Ecosystem is the total collection of species of population of plants and animals living in an environment. Table 9.1 shows the different air pollutants. 151 Scanned with CamScannerble 9.1. Air Pollutants = Type of Examples Sources Effects tants : a ‘Smoke, dust, Volcanic eruption, Harms the Cae matter scot, fly ash erosion, forest fire, tract, increases harmful mechanical effects of SOz in the processes like lungs, prevents grinding, spraying, circulation of CO2 and copper smelting, Oz through plant leaves, petroleum refining, discolors build ing cement and wood materials and paints, processing plants hastens corrosion : Sulfur oxides SOz, SOs Volcanic eruption, —_{rritates eyes, throat and (S02) oxides of H2S, respiratory __ tract, combustion of oil worsens condition of and coal, aufo asthma, bronghitis, ang exhaust, smelters emphysema ___ patients; of non-ferrous corrodes metals and metals, petroleum _ building materials refinery Carbon Forest fire, Impairs coordination and monoxide (CO) oxidation of metal function, methane, auto symptoms of increased exhaust, cigarette concentration are smoking, pulp and headache, dizziness, Paper refining nausea, vomiting, Nitrogen oxide (NOQ,) Nitric Oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N20), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Hydrocarbons A group of C and H containing compounds which are gases at ambient Electrical discharge in thunderstorms, bacterial action in soil, auto exhaust, explosives (TNT) Forest vegetation, bacterial decomposition of organic matter to methane, Petrochemicals difficulty in breathing Reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood; NQ2 irritates eyes, nose, bronchial tubes and lungs, starts photochemical reactions which produce smog Aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and benzopyrene cause cancer in animals and are carcinogenic in humans ———emperate 109 Scanned with CamScannerType of Pollutants. Petrochemical oxidants Hydrogen sulfides Heavy metals Asbestos Examples Ozone (Oz Pb, Cd, Hg, Be, Ni Sources. Reaction of oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons Volcanic eruption, biological action in swamps, geothermal springs Pb-auto exhaust Cd-fertilizers, paint, plastics Hg-burning of coal and fuel Be, Ni-coal combustion Use of friction products.e.g. brake linings, clutch plates, heat insulation products Effects At low concentration, causes chest pain, coughing and eye irritation, prolonged exposure increases susceptibility to infections Causes sensory irritation and at high levels damage to the central nervous system, tamishes brass and silver Pb-causes brain damage Cd-causes kidney and lung damage Ni-causes dermatitis, headaches, nausea and cancer Inhaled fibers cause mechanical irritation in lung tissues resulting in rare tumor called mesothelioma and lung cancer Causes of air pollution includes: (1) increasing population, (2) increasing per capita consumption, and (3) the kinds of technology employed. 9.5. Effects of Air Pollution in the Environment 9.5.1 Acid Rain The pH of clean rainwater is 5.6, slightly acidic because of the dissolved CO2 which reacts with moisture to form H2COs. Any form of precipitation that has a pH below 5.6 is considered to be acid rain. Sulfur oxides can react with moisture in the air to form nitrous acid and nitric acid, such acids make rainwater more acidic. 152 Scanned with CamScannerAcid rain kills all form of vegetation. Minerals can be leached out of the soil by the acids, and they are carried off into the groundwater, thus decreasing the food nutrients of plants. Acids corrode metals and decompose stone buildings and marble statues. CaCO3s + H2SOs — CaSOu + H20 + COz 9.5.2 Ozone Depletion The ozone layer shields the earth from much of the ultraviolet radiation produced by the sun by absorbing much of the radiation and converting it into heat Many studies indicate that several members of the chlorofluorocarbon family (CFC) of gases seriously damage the ozone shield. CFCs are widely used. Mixtures of trichlorofluoromethane (CFC 11) and dichlorofiuoromethane (CFC 12) are used as chilling agents in air conditioners and refrigerators. Soft foams and rigid polyurethanes use CFC 11 in the foaming process. A mixture of CFC 11 and CFC 12 is used as propellant in aerosol. CFCs are harmless, but in the upper atmosphere, they can be destroyed by ultraviolet radiation releasing chlorine atoms which in turn attack ozone leading to the decrease in the ozone layer concentration. Ozone destruction can be represented as: CCkF2 + UVradiation -» Cl + CChF2 CFC 12 Within seconds, the chlorine combines with the Oz molecule. Cl + Os clo + Oz a chlorine monoxide molecular oxygen Within minutes, chlorine monoxide combines with atomic oxygen to form another molecule and additional atomic chlorine. clo + 0 + Cl + Q2 9.5.3 Greenhouse Effect Figure 9.6: The Greenhouse Effect © globaiwarming up.com 416A Scanned with CamScannerGreenhouse warming is different from the heat caused by ozone depletion. The heat caused by ozone depletion comes from the sun) while the heat generated by greenhouse warming comes from within (from the Earth's surface). The gases of our atmosphere such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, act like a glass in the greenhouse. They allow short-wavelength solar radiation to enter, where it is absorbed by the objects inside. These objects in turn reradiate the heat, but at longer wavelengths, to which glass is nearly opaque. The heat is therefore trapped in the greenhouse, making the temperature of the atmosphere to increase, thereby leading to global warming. 9.6 Treatment Systems for Air 4. The cyclone separator causes air emission to whirl around forcing heavy Particles to slide down the equipment. Spiral tet Passage “b—~pust and Air it Figure 9.10: Cyclone Collector indiamat 2. The wet scrubber essentially washes particulates out of the exhaust. ieangas cuet Contaminated (5 inet Figure 9.11: Wet Scrubber © watermanagementaustralia.com au 155 Scanned with CamScanner3. The electrostatic precipitator electrically charges the particles and attach them to charged plates. High voltage Water out « + Gas Out Stainless steel inner cylinder (ground) Outler cylinder (isolated) 150 mm. Stainless steel wire with inert gas a Pyrolysis oil collection Figure 9.12: Electrostatic Precipitator Research Gate 4. The bag house operates like a vacuum cleaner, trapping particles in fabric filter placed in exhaust streams. damper shut cleaning blower ‘io exhaust fan damper open aS damper open shaking mechanism Figure 9.13. Bag house 156 Scanned with CamScanner4? PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.1 Write “T” if the statement is true and “F” if the statement is false. 1. At lower elevations, there are fewer air molecules than at higher levels, hence the pressure increases as altitude increases. 2. The temperature of the stratosphere increases as the altitude increases. ______ 3. Nitrogen in the air can be assimilated by plants and animals. 4. The COz in the atmosphere is converted to plant tissue by means of the sun’s energy and the chlorophyll of the plant through photosynthesis. 5. The nitrates can be converted to nitrogen gas through nitrification. 6. Acids corrode metals and decompose stone buildings and marble statues. ____ 7. The heat caused by ozone depletion comes from within (from the Earth’s surface) while the heat generated by greenhouse warming comes from the sun. 8. The electrostatic precipitator electrically charges the particles and attach them to charged plates. 9. Ozone layer shields the earth from much of the ultraviolet radiation produced by the gun. 10. Forest fires increase oxygen concentration and decrease carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 11. The earth’s atmosphere allows short-wavelength solar radiation to enter, where it is absorbed by the objects inside. | 12. Inhaled asbestos fibers cause mechanical irritation in lung tissue resulting in rare tumor called mesothelioma 13. CFCs are harmless in the stratosphere. 14. Acids corrode metals and decompose stone buildings and marble Statues. 15. Carbon monoxide impairs coordination and metal function, and causes headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty in breathing Scanned with CamScannerPRACTICE EXERCISE 9.2 Write the letter of the correct answer from Column B which matches correctly with Column A. Column A Column B 4. Anything which when present in the A. Os atmosphere changes the ecosystem ____ 2. Gas that combines with water to form B. sunlight sulfuric acid 3. pH of clean rain water C. hydrocarbon 4. Atoms that attack ozone D. Cycle 5. Ozone E. Greenhouse effect 6. Starch and cellulose F.Cl 7. Trapping of absorbed heat from the sun G. Plant tissue in the soil and air by COz layer in the atmosphere 8. Characteristic pathway of nutrients H. 5.6 9. A group of C and H containing 1. SOs compounds which are gases at ambient temperature _—____.10. Needed in photosynthesis aside J. Pollutant From COz, chlorophyll and water B. CHEMISTRY OF WATER Life on earth probably evolved in water. Water contributes to the fitness of the environment to support life. It covers about % of the earth. In nature, water naturally exists in all three physical states of matter. Water's extraordinary Properties are emergent properties resulting from water's structure and molecular interactions. 9.7 The Water Molecule Water is one of the most abundant and important substances gn earth. Itis essential to the survival of all living things. Water is defined chemically as H20. It means a molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen (H) attached or bonded to one atom of oxygen (0). The two hydrogen atoms are located on one Side of the oxygen atom. This causes the sides of water molecule to carry a positive charge, while the side with the oxygen has a negative charge. 158 Scanned with CamScannerHydrogen bonds Figure 9.14: Structure of Water When atoms in a covalent bond do not share electrons equally, they form a polar bond. A polar molecule is a molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, that is, each molecule has a positive and a negative end. Water is an example of a polar molecule. . There are forces of attraction called hydrogen bonds between molecules of water. These attractive forces are the major factors determining water's unique properties. Hydrogen bonds are important to organisms because they help hold many biomolecules such a proteins. 9.8 Properties of Water 9.8.1 Solvent Properties Substances dissolved jn a liquid are known as solutes and the liquid in which they are dissolved is the solvent. Solutes dissolve in a solvent to form a solution. Solutions made with water are called aqueous solutions. To understand why a substance dissolves in water, we need to consider the chemical bonds in the solute molecules and those in water. The covalent bonds linking the two hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atom in a water molecule are polar. Therefore, the oxygen in water has a slight positive charge. To dissolve in water, a substance must be polar and electrically attracted to water molecule. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is a solid crystalline substance because of the strong ionic bonds between positive sodium ions (Na*) and negative chloride ions (CI). When a crystal of sodium chloride is placed in water, the polar molecules are attracted to the charged Na* and Cl. The ions become surrounded by clusters of water molecules, allowing the Na* and Cr to separate from each other and enter the water — that is to dissolve. Molecules that contain polar covalent bonds will dissolve in water. Such molecules are said to be hydrophilic (water- loving). {n contrast; molecules composed predominantly of carbon and hydrogen are relatively insoluble in water because carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar. These 159 Scanned with CamScannermolecules do not have partial positive and negative charges and therefore are not attracted to water molecules. Such molecules are hydrophobic (water- fearing). Oils are familiar example of hydrophobic molecules. In mixing vegetable oil and water, the two liquids separate into an oil phase and water phase. Very little oil dissolves in the water. 9.8.2 Surface Properties Water has high surface tension than most liquids. Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Surface water molecules are hydrogen bonded to each other and to the water molecules below. One application of surface tension is observed when one cleans the flogr with wax, and then suddenly, a little amount of water drips. Water forms spherical drops. Why? The hydrogen bonding between water molecules is so strong making the surface tension to be high, and thus causing the water to “bead up”. Remember that, sphere shape encloses the greatest volume with a least amount of surface. The liquid molecules interact with each other; however they also interact with the molecules in the solid. The attraction between liquid-liquid (like molecules) is called cohesion while the attraction between solid-liquid (unlike molecules) is called adhesion. Cohesion refers to the ability of water being held together by hydrogen bonds. Because of cohesion, water exists as a liquid under the conditions of temperature and pressure presen} at the earth's surface, The strong cohesion of water molecules is apparent because water flows freely and water molecules do not separate from each other. 9.8.3 Thermal Properties Water has a high heat capacity, thus is very stable in liquid form. A calorie or 4.184 J is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. Conversely, one calorie is the amount of heat that one gram of water releases when it cools down by one degree Celsius. The many hydrogen bonds that link water molecule help water absorb heat without a great change in temperature. This property of water is important not only for aquatic organisms but also for all living things. Because the temperature of water rises and falls slowly, living things are better able to maintain their normal internal temperatures and are protected from rapid temperature changes. Water has a high heat of vaporization. Vaporization or evaporation refers to the transformation from liquid to a gas. Molecules with enough kinetic energy to overcome the mutual attraction of molecules in a liquid, can escape into the air. Heat of vaporization refers to the quantity of heat needed by 1g of a substance to be converted into gas. For water molecules to evaporate, hydrogen bonds must 160 Scanned with CamScannerbe broken which require; vaporization at the boling; A energy. Water has a relatively high heat of Because of water's hign as caU9 Of 2260U/g; Joule = 0.239 cal, becomes moderate, Solar hens heat of vaporization, temperature of the Earth water evaporates (evaporati absorbed by tropical seas dissipates when surface ecosystems helps organieme ne ola). Stabilized temperature in aquatic The boiling Santer from overheating by evaporative cooling. is equal to the external ati a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure of vaporization (AH Mospheric pressure. This is directly related to molar heat Nanoies Gaeta re Which is defined as the amount of energy required to le Of a liquid. Like AHvap, boiling point also depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces, thu: , Be , thus,water wi " * boiling point (100°C), r with strong hydrogen bonding has high 9.8.4 Other Properties Water exhibits hydrogen bonding which is considered the strongest intermolecular forces of attraction. This accounts why water has high surface tension, heat of vaporization, boiling point and high heat of capacity. Aside from these, the most unique property of water is density. Freezing of water will make it expand and thus will make it buoyant. Why? Each water molecule is held to four neighboring molecules in a tetrahedral arrangement by hydrogen bonds. For each water Figure 9.15: Three molecule, every hydrogen interacts with the oxygen —_ Dimensional Network of of a neighboring molecule; each of the two lone Ice pairs on the oxygen interacts with hydrogen of a neighboring molecule. Water therefore can have four hydrogen bonds with its Through this, water molecules in ice combine to form a three- neighbors. ie at inhibits the molecules from getting too close to each dimensional framework th other. On the other hand, when ice melts, some of the water molecules will break bonds, but, will be trapped within the structure. This makes Fee or eT quid water higher than the density of ice. However, above 4°C, thermal expansion will occur, and thus the density of water will decrease. Remember that for the same mass, an increase in the volume would mean a decrease in density. Hence, comparing cold water and hot water having the same mass, the latter can be considered as less dense. 161 Scanned with CamScanner9.9 Water Pollution Water pollution is any addition in water that threatens the health, and survival on activities of humans or other living organisms. Pollutants can enter the water naturally or through human activities. Some pollutants contaminate the areas where they are produced. Others are carried by wind or flowing water to other areas. Table 9,2 enumerates the various pollutants in water. Table 9.2. Water “Type of Pollutant ‘Sources Effects “Organic or Waste foods, ~~ Domestic — Bacterial oxygen human, plant — sewage, decomposition demanding waste and animal slaughter houses, consumes dissolved waste industries like oxygen, waste food processing, produce unpleasant pulp and paper odor and color, manufacture, decomposition tannery, sugar causes multiplication mills, alcohol of microorganisms distillery Infectious Agents Pathogenic Decomposition of Spread of disease bacteria, fecal matter in caused by water- protozoa, domestic and borne viruses and industrial wastes microorganisms parasitic particularly meat worms and tanning operations Plant Nutrients Primary Domestic Promotes algal bloom substances sewage, which blankets the containing N, —_ agricultural body consumes P and K as tunoffs, certain dissolved oxygen fertilizers industrial effluents Persistent Plastics, Domestic Stay in the ‘substances pesticides, sewage, environment for a ‘synthetic packaging long time; biological detergents industry amplification 162 Scanned with CamScanner_ Sources ___ Effects Radioactive substances radioisotopes inorganic Mineral acids, substances salts, metals Heat Over-heated industrial waste-water Mining and processing of radioactive ores and wastes from medical research or use; wastes from nuclear testing; spent fuels for nuclear reactors Acid rnine drainage, intrusion of seawater Operation of nuclear plants, electric power plant, petroleum refining, steel making Lethal at relatively low concentration; maybe mutagenic in minute amounts; effects are not readily detected but can cause considerable damage after a time Render agricultural soil unproductive; make water turbid; affects aquatic life Affects aquatic life sometimes eliminating some ‘species that cannot tolerate heat, decreases solubility of oxygen in water 9.10 Treatment Systems for Water 1. Primary waste water treatment involves such physical techniques as cleaning large debris, skimming off floating materials, and settling out suspended materials in tanks. The techniques remove about 60% of solid waste and 35% biodegradable organic material in wastewater. Secondary treatment biologically breaks down organic matter remaining from the primary treatment by using microorganisms to decompose the wastes. The method increases the, total removal of waste and 2 biodegradable organic to 90%. . Sewage is chlorinated to kill pathogenic microorganisms. The sludge can be reduced in volume by digesting, composing and incineration, Scanned with CamScannerprimary treatment secondary treatment disinfectant aerationtank secondary 9) raw sewage clatiier j=" = primary (jt |secondary” eluent ©) Aefiusnt discharge to primary surface water clarifier ‘ont disposal sludge treatment and disposal Figure 9.16: Sewage Plant Schematic Showing Facilities for Primary and Secondary Treatment © www britannica.com | PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.3 Identify the properties of water that explain the following phenomena. 1. When you fill a spoon with water, drop by drop, the | water volume will actually be bigger than the spoon's | ‘surface before the water falls off. 2. Insects such as water striders can walk on water. 3. When you have a narrow tube in water, the water will rise up the tube. j 4. Water helps maintain a moderate temperature of organisms and environments. 5. Sweat as a cooling effect. 6. Icebergs float. 7. During winter, only the top part of lakes are frozen. 8. The moisture in the atmosphere condenses in the early morning as beads (spherical shape) on the leaves. . 9. Water takes a long time to heat and a long time to cool. | 10. Sugar immediately melts into hot coffee, disappearing entirely. 164 Scanned with CamScannerC. CHEMISTRY OF SOIL 9.11 Composition of Soils Soil chemistry is the interdisciplinary branch between soil sciences and chemistry, or the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soils are complex mixtures of inorganic materials, decaying organic matter, water, zir and living organisms formed by the weathering of rocks. The composition and proportion of these components greatly influence soil physical properties, including texture, structure, and porosity. In turn, these properties affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus the soil’s ability to function. Soils are open systems that undergo continual exchange of matter and energy with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. To humans and most terrestrial organisms, soil is the most important part of the geosphere, which produces most of the food required by living things. 9.12 Soil Horizons Soils are porous and are vertically stratified into horizons as the result of downward-percolating water and biological processes, including the production and decay of biomass. Mature soils exhibit distinctive layers or horizons with increasing depth. Horizons form as the result of complex interactions among processes that occur during weathering and each horizon has a distinct texture and composition that varies with different types of soils. Rainwater percolating through soil carries dissolved and colloidal solids to lower horizons where they are deposited. Biological processes, such as bacterial decay of residual plant biomass, form CO2, organic acids, and complexing compounds that are carried by rainwater to lower horizons, which interact with clays and other minerals, altering the properties bell the minerals. Figure 9.17 presents the distinctive layers or horizons of soil. * © horizon- consists largely of organic materials. * Ahorizon- this zone is largely mineral matter, yet biological activity is high and humus is generally present. + E horizon — contains little organic matter. As ; water moves through this zone, finer Particles } are carried away or washed out, called Figure 9.17: Soil Layers eluviation. oni @ Honzon (remus) AHatizon (topsoi) E Horizon (ekianon layer) B Honzon (subsoil) 165 Scanned with CamScannerB horizon — called subsoil, where fine clay particles which enhance water retention are accumulated. C horizon — a layer characterized by partially altered parent material. . 9.13 Properties of Soil 9.13.1 Soil texture Soil texture refers to the size of the particles that make up the soil and depencis on the proportion of sand (between 0.02 and 2.0 mm), silt (between 0.002 and 0.02 mm) and clay-sized particles (<0.002 mm) and organic matter present in soil. Texture is a very basic soil property because it determines the number of Pores and the amount of water it can hold. The higher the porosity of the soil, the greater amount of water it can hold. The average pore size determines the Permeability of the soil which is the rate of the soil to transmit water and air from upper to lower layers. Soils with predominantly large particles tend to drain quickly and have lower fertility while very fine-textured soils may be poorly drained, and tend to become waterlogged, which is not well-suited for agriculture. Soils with a medium texture and a relatively even proportion of all particle sizes are most versatile. A combination of 10 to 20 percent clay, along with sand and silt in roughly equal amounts, and a good quantity of organic materials, is considered an ideal mixture for productive soil. Soils containing a mixture of clay, sand and silt in which no fraction is dominant are called loams. For other soil textures, the standard system used is shown in Figure 9.18. Figure 9.18: Soil texture triangle 166 Scanned with CamScannerThere are 12 soil textural classes represented on the soil texture triangle and each texture corresponds to specific percentages of sand, silt, or clay. Based on Figure 9.18, a mixture of 15 % clay, 20 % silt and 65% sand is sandy loam. 9.13.2 Soil pH Soil pH is one of the most important properties since it influences the electrica! charge of soil colloids, and controls whether other ions are displaced. It greatly affects the retention of ions in the soil and the short-term availability of nutrients, both of which are key to soil fertility. It also changes the soil ecosystem and changes the ability of different organisms to survive in the soil. Iron becomes less available to plants if the pH is high therefore the soil will suffer from iron deficiency. Acidic soil is less fertile since absorption of nutrients is difficult: Soil can become more acidic over time as minerals are leached away. Lime is often added to soil to make it less acidic while soil which is alkaline can be treated with ammonium sulfate to lower its pH. 9.13.3 Soil Porosity The part of the soil that is not solid is made up of pores of various sizes and shapes- sometimes small and separate, sornetimes consisting of continuous tubes. The size, number, and arrangement of soil pores is known as the soil’s porosity. Porosity greatly affects water movement and gas exchange. Well- aggregated soils have numerous pores, which are essential for organisms that live in the soil and require water and oxygen to Survive. The transport of nutrients and contaminants are also affected by soil structure and porosity. 9.13.4 Inorganic components of soil The weathering of parent rocks and minerals to form the inorganic soil components results in the formation of inorganic colloids. These inorganic colloids. are repositories of water and plant nutrients, and absorb toxic substances in soil which are harmful to plants. The abundance and nature of inorganic colicidal material in soil are important in determining soil productivity. 9.13.5 Organic matter in soil Soil organic matter greatly determines soil productivity and serves as a source of food for microorganisms. Organic matter in soil undergoes chemical reactions such as ion exchange and influences the physical properties of soil. Some organic compounds contribute to the weathering of mineral matter, the process by which soil is formed. For example, oxalate in soil water dissolves 167 Scanned with CamScannerminerals, thus speeding the weathering process and increasing the availability of nutrient ion species. The accumulation of organic matter in soil is strongly influenced by temperature and by the availability of oxygen. Since the rate of biodegradation decreases with decreasing temperature, organic matter does not degrade rapidly in colder climates and tends to build up in soil. In water and in waterlogged soils, decaying vegetation does not have easy access to oxygen, and organic matter accumulates. The organic content may reach 90% in areas where plants grow and decay in soil saturated with water. 9.14 Erosion Erosion is the process of chemical or physical breakdown of the minerals in the rocks. Soil erosion occurs when topsoil components are moved from one place to another by moving water, wind, ice or gravity. Two major agents of soil erosion: 1. Water - surface runoff carries loose soil particles into local stream systems. Can occur by sheet erosion (no defined channels), rill erosion (shallow channels), and gully erosion (greater than 25 cm deep). 2. Wind - usually less effective at removing soil particles than water-related processes unless there is drought or no vegetation holding soil in place. Human activities like excessive farming, logging, mining, deforestation, off- road vehicles and overgrazing hy livestock can also cause erosion. Soil erosion reduces the fertility and water holding capacity of the soil. 9.14.1 Types of Soil Erosion 1. Wind erosion - is the removal soil particles by the force and kinetic engrgy of the wind. These soil particles are transported and deposited when the wind energy drops. 2. Water erosion - is caused by the kinetic energy of rain falling on the soil surface and by the mechanical force of runoff. 3, Gravity erosion- mass movement of soil that accurs on steep slopes. The process involves the transfer of slope-forming materials from higher to lower grounds due to self~ weight. 9.14.2 Causes of Soll Erosion 1. Climatic Factors 168 Scanned with CamScanner2. Land use — by man 3. Soil itself 4. Hydrology 5. Landform and topography 9.15 Weathering Processes Weathering is the alteration and breakdown of rock minerals and rock masses when exposed to the atmosphere and weathering agents such as water, organic and inorganic acids and large temperature fluctuations. Weathering processes occur in the same place, with no major movement of rock materials involved. Weathering converts chemically inactive, hard non porous rocks into soils. which are soft, porous and chemically active. Weathering can be either: 1. Physical or mechanical weathering involves the disintegration of rocks and minerals by mechanical processes into smaller portions without altering their chemical composition. Factors that contribute to the rate and extent of physical weathering include type of rock, climate, presence or absence of vegetation, geographical condition, heating and cooling, freezing and thawing, mechanical hammering, human factors like farming, construction, landfill and mining, action of animals, action of rain, and biotic factors( decay of trees and plants and actions of burrowing animals). 2. Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals through changes in the chemical composition of the material’ due to the interactions with air and water and chemical compounds contained within them. Chemical weathering dominates in regions of high temperature and high rainfall. Dissolution, hydrolysis, acid hydrolysis, and oxidation are examples of chemical weathering. a. Dissolution Some minerals present in the Earth's crust are soluble and will dissolve completely in water moving through soils and rocks. Sodium chloride and gypsum (CaSOs. 2H20) are soluble in water and leached away except in arid regions. During leaching, the less soluble minerals may also be dissolved, leaving behind a deposit on non-soluble material. Feldspar dissolves partially with air and water, leaving behind a solid residue of clay as shown in the reaction: 2 NaAlSisOxgy + 9 HzO +2 H2COs fa) +* AlZSl:Os(OH) + 2 Na” (oy + 2HCOs tay +4 HeSiOaeey Feldspar kaolinite 169 Scanned with CamScannerb. Hydrolysis ; Hydrolysis is a process in which water both reacts and dissolves mineral constituents, forming smaller and less complex products. CaCOxs) + 2H20 + Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2 H2COx a0) calcite carbonic acid The reaction exhibits that hydrolysis produces a strong base but a very weak acid. A However, hydrolysis of ferric sulfate will produce a strong acid as shown in the reaction: Fe2(SO4)3s) + «=8 H20q + Fe(OH)xs) + H2SOs (aq) weak base strong acid c. Acid hydrolysis 7 Most minerals are not easily dissolved in pure water. Calcite (CaCOs), the mineral in limestone and marble, is insoluble in pure water, but dissolves easily if a small amount of acid is added to water. Atmospheric carbon dioxide, or from the decay of organic matter, reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The acidified water can dissolve calcite: CaCOas) + H2COzaqr> Ca** + 2HCOs (aq) + H2Om + COz) The above reaction illustrates how the acidity of rainfall is neutralized during the weathering of minerals. d. Oxidation Oxidation often occurs in rocks containing reduced substances like Fe?* and the process is slow; however addition of water can increase the rate of reaction through dissolution. Fe2SiO4e) + % 02a) + 5 H20y) «+ Fe(OH)3(s) + HaSiOsiaq, Silicic acid 3. Biological Weathering is the process in which plants, animals, and bacteria break down rocks into smaller 'pieces and its action speeds up mechanical and or chemical weathering. Plants and trees grow within the fractures in the tock formation. As plants penetrate into the soil, and their roots get bigger, they exert pressure on rocks and make the cracks wider, and deeper that weaken and eventually disintegrate the rocks. Micrabes can also produce organic chemicals that can contribute to the rock's mineral weathering. Growing plant roots, microbial activity, human activities, and kurrowing of animals are examples of biological weathering. 170 Scanned with CamScannerMechanical and chemical weathering work together. Mechanical weathering increases the exposed surface area and promotes chemical weathering. One of the nutrient cycles that involves weathering process is the phosphorus cycle. 9.16 The Phosphorus Cycle Photphorve cycle t "parted anne The cycle involves the circulation of phosphorus among rocks, soil, water, plants and animals of the earth. In nature, most phosphorus occurs in phosphate rocks which contain phosphate ion (PO."*). Combined with calcium or magnesium, phosphate rocks occurs as sediments at the ocean floor but some were uplifted during the formation of mountain ranges. The weathering of rocks supplies phosphate to the soil which is absorbed by the plants. Man obtains the phosphorus from the plants and animals. When the plants and animals die, certain bacteria break down the dead organic matter and return the phosphorus to the soil. Man accelerates the weathering process by clearing forest through the mining of phosphate rocks for the manufacture of such-products as detergents and fertilizers. 9.17 Soll Pollution Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical compounds, salts, pathogens, or radioactive materials that can affect plant and animal life due to overuse of fertilizers and pesticides and other human activities. Sources of Soil Pollution: 1. metals and their compounds 2. oils, tars and combustible materials 3. pesticides 171 Scanned with CamScanner4. explosive and toxic gases 5. radioactive materials 6. biologically active materials Effects of Soil Pollution 1. reduce agricultural yield 2. increase levels of toxic heavy metals in agricultural products 3. affects the food chain PRACTICE EXERCISE 9.4 | Identification. Write the answer on the space provided. 1. Itrefers to the size, number, and arrangement of soil pores which affects the water movement and gas exchange. 2. Chemical reagent added to soil to lower its acidity. 3. It determines soil productivity and serves as a source of food for microorganisms 4. When earthworms add their wastes to the soil, then die and decay in the soil, they are contributing to the formation of : 5. | The movement of rock particles by ice, wind, water, or gravity. 6. The type of weathering that occurs due to release of pressure 7. The loose material.on Earth’s surface that contains weathered rock particles and hurnus. 8. Degradation-resistant residue from plant decay which improves soil physical properties, exchanges nutrients, reservoir of fixed N. 9. The alteration and breakdown of rock minerals and rock masses when exposed to the atmosphere and weathering agents 10. Disintegration of rocks and minerals into smaller portions without altering their chemical composition. 11. Soil formation begins with the weathering of 12. The actions'of animals most commonly can cause the type of weathering known as Using the soil texture triangle, identify the textural class of each soil 13. 15% silt, 10% sand, 75 % clay 14. 40% silt, 40% sand, 20% clay 15. 52% silt, 13% sand, 35% clay 172 Scanned with CamScanner