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Comparative study of Kanheri, Mandapeshwar, Elephanta and Jogeshwari

Caves: Reflections from the cave architecture of Mumbai.Research Journal of
The Department of Pali, University...

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

Dr Avkash Jadhav

Head and Associate Professor

Department. of History

St. Xavier's College

Mumbai. India

Comparative study of Kanheri, Mandapeshwar, Elephanta and

Jogeshwari Caves: Reflections from the cave architecture of
Mumbai.
Introduction:
Since Paleolithic times man has entered the dead caverns deep in the earth and in natural rock
shelters. In India, the romancing with the stone set a new benchmark, first with a highly
urbanized civilization, then with the series of cave architecture and temples. The first group
of excavations occurred in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills in Bihar. This art soon penetrated
in the Deccan region, which had a series of basalt rock formation which provided enough
scope to the artisans for trial and error whereby experimenting new style of architecture on
stone. This resulted in the carving of thousands of caves throughout the millennium.

With this kind of diversity, the natives carried the rock architecture to summits beyond the
wildest imagination of their predecessors. The early caves were Buddhist assembly halls and
square or rectangle monasteries. The representation was in iconic or anionic form with a
splendid excavated space within the mountains or small hillocks, this cave architecture gives
us insight about the proficiency and the craftsmanship of the artisans who were engaged for
this purpose. This style does mention the precision of architectural mathematics. These new
skills, which must have first, got imprinted on wood or metal, which now had a mast orbit of
hillocks to experiment upon. As far as the incorporation of sculptures in the cave are
concerned, it went through different stages of representations.

The initial stage was mere pictographic or rather symbolic, which later on transcended into
different themes of representation. The common strokes of an architectural marvel in the
caves would have complex arrangements of sculpture within the interior of the main hall
(mandapa) and especially in the shrines which created a spiritual and sacred environment.
This paper will try to highlight the cave architecture in western India, especially around
Mumbai. It is important to study the cave art, as it is an integral part of our cultural heritage
and regional history as well. They are the earliest bold manifestations of unique human
capacity, for abstraction, synthesis and idealization; they indeed constitute a truly universal
human heritage. It also throws light on the imagination, spiritual and religious life of our

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

predecessor. It also represents successive stages of religious development. It is simple, sharp,

energetic and potential development of our culture. It remains as the principal pieces o f
evidence of the earliest stages of mankind and our cultural history, creative expressions,
economic and social activities, ideas, beliefs and age-old practices.

Throughout the history of ancient India, kings have patronized temples, chaityas or viharas or
else endowed them for repairs and maintenance. Though the kings did not identify
themselves with the gods and shrines in the caves or temples, such monuments were
sometimes named after their royal patrons. The environment with the construction of temples
and the ritual of worship that took place there, as well as the support of resident priest was an
effective method by which kings established their political control and legitimacy of their
rule. In this manner, the king ensured his rule was divinely sanctioned and protected.

This paper will highlight some prominent art forms at Kanheri, Elephanta, Mandepeshwar
and Jogeshwari caves.

The Kanheri Caves :

The Kanheri caves are located in a wild picturesque valley in the heart of the former island of
Salsette, about 8kms west from Thane, 32kms north of Mumbai and few km away from the
National park at Borivali in Mumbai. The site of the caves is lonely, picturesque and not far
from the once- famous and rich trade centres of Sopara, Kalyan and Chemula or chaul, which
combines the leading characteristics of the site and also of the chief groups of western Indian
rock temples. Kanheri is the only rock-cut monastery in western India which was a pleasant
and popular dwelling place for the Buddhist monks.

The rows of cells, water cisterns dining halls, lecture halls and chaityas joined by worn
flights of rock-cut steps, and the crowded burials, gallery show what a huge brotherhood must
have once lived at Kanheri. In many of the better caves, the composition is the front
courtyard with its smooth rock floor, broad benches and gracefully rising sidewalls, the
shaded water cistern, the neat flights of steps leading to the cave door, the deep flat cave, the
cool verandah, the well- lit hall with its windows of stone lattice, the slim graceful sculptures
and the broad easy benches offer the best view-points, have a pleasing air of comfort,
refinement and love for nature. The centre of trade and population on which Kanheri
monastery originally was dependant, is about three miles to the west at the mouth of Tulsi
valley, somewhere near the site of the deserted village of Magathane, which appears in one of
the inscriptions of the caves, as Mangalthan.

The simple style of cave No 5, 8,9,58 and 59 ranks amongst the earliest class of caves which
vary in date from 100 B.C to 50 AD. This early date is supported by an inscription (Cave No.
26) in Nashik cave No III which shows that during the time of Gautamiputra II (177-196
AD), Kanheri, though a small hill was famous enough to be ranked with the Sahya, Vidhya
and Malaya mountains. An inscription in Kanheri cave No.5 shows that, as early as the reign

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

of Vaishthiputra (140 AD), the cistern was made for older caves, of about 50 inscriptions that
have been deciphered 10 seem to date before the Christian era.

The rule of Satavahana kings (225 B.C. to 223AD), especially the reign of Gautamiputra II
(177-196 AD), seems to have been the time of prosperity at Kanheri. To about this time
belong 20 of 50 inscriptions, recording the grants by kings, ministers, traders, for cisterns,
buying cultivable lands and depositing money. Among the caves that belong to this period is
the entire third tier including the great cathedral cave No.3 it was probably in the fourth
century that the sculpture top in the cave No.38 was built, and it was followed in the 5th
century by a tope near cave No.3. The additions both of fresh caves and new ornaments in old
caves seem to have continued through 5th and 6th centuries A.D 10 of 50 inscriptions dating
from that period. These additions belong to the late or the Mahayana school and are much
more ornate than the older caves.

To this period belong the Darbar, (cave No.10) and the others at the end of the first row, the
two large statues of Gautama at the end of the verandah of the cathedral (cave No.3), has
several chapels. The monastery was well supplied with water, the spring on the top flowed
before the rooms encircling each tier, on reaching the lowest chamber passed through the
gate. Before the end of the 8th century, gifts were again bestowed upon at Kanheri, two of the
Kanheri inscriptions reflect on it, which got extended up to the middle of the 13th century.
The district of Thane was under the rule of the Shilaharas, who were the worshipper of Lord
Shiva and seems to have never interfered with the practice of Buddhism.

From the Shilaharas it passed on to the Yadavas of Devagiri (1250- 1318AD), who were the
staunch Shaivas. In either case, Kanheri seems to have been undisturbed till as late as the mid
15th century (1440 AD). Some of the historical records suggest that the Buddhist monks were
building relic shrines nearly a century later (1534 AD), when Portuguese conquered Salsette,
the records suggest Kanheri caves were still the home of a large colony of monks. The 1200
years of Buddhist ascendancy (450 B.C. – 750AD) may be roughly divided into 4 periods,
each period marked by a development of a new theory or a gospel, of the way to
enlightenment.The gospel which offered the way of enlightenment and to take rest. The
gospel of the period one was conduct, of the second metaphysics, of the third mysticism, and
the fourth was magic. These conduct date from Gautama (500 B.C), metaphysics from 200
B.C, mystery from about 100 A.D. and magic from 500AD.

Though almost all the sculptures are in a mutilated condition, in some cases enough is left to
show the name of the donor, the place where he lived and the character of the gift. Of the
fifty inscriptions, twenty-eight give the names of the donors and 21 of them give details of
their professions, mostly merchants, a few goldsmiths, some recluses, and one minister,
except for seven women, four of whom were nuns, rest all the donors were men. The places
in the inscriptions are mentioned of the neighbourhood cities of Kalyan, Sopara, Thane, and
the villages of Mangalthan or Magathane, Sakapadra probably Saki near Tulsi. The gifts
were given in the form of monetary donations for caves cisterns, pathways, images and
endowments in cash or land, we have only four of the inscriptions where we have mentions

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

of the kings. The one in cave No. 36 gives the name of Madhariputra and one in cave No.3
gives the name of Yajnashri or Gautamiputra II.

The cathedral or chaitya, in this case, is the most important part of the Kanheri caves. The
style and plan are much the same as in the Karla-bhaja caves near Pune, but owing to its
softness, the rock is not in good condition. A great rock screen adorns this court from the
verandah, it has three large square openings below, separated by the thick massive pillar, the
central opening being the entrance to the verandah. The roof is high and vaulted and the far
end is semi-circular apse, in the centre of which stands the object of adoration a relic shrine.
It is separated from this central space by two aisles. These are continue d around behind the
relic shrine where they meet forming an unbroken row of pillars. Over each of these pillars is
a group of figures. In the two cases, the figures worship a relic shrine which is placed
between them, on another, a tree is worshipped and o n the rest are men riding elephants and
horses.

As it now stands, all that can be gathered from it is that the cave was made in the time of king
Yajnashri Satakarni Gautamiputra (117-196 AD) by two merchant brothers Gajsen and
Gajvir from Datamitti in upper India and that the temple was dedicated to Bhadrayani school
of Buddhism. The inscriptions mention the names of several Buddhist monks, Kalvarjit the
reverend Thera, Achai, the reverend Gahala, Vijaymitra, Bo, Dharmapala and Aparenuka,
the son of a Buddhist devotee and a merchant. While discussing the Buddhist images
Coomaraswamy (selected papers, Princeton, 1977), states ';icons, serving as reminders of
great monuments of Buddha's life and participating in his essence, are to be regarded as
stations at the sight of which a shock or thrill may or should be experienced by monk or
layman. In the deepest expression that can be induced by the work of art are very being is
shaken to its roots'.

The Elephanta Caves :

Elephanta also referred to as Gharapuri because the Portuguese found a neolithic site at the
docking area when they first arrived at the island, they named it as Elephanta. The inhabitants
refer to this island as Gharapuri, which may mean 'city of priests'. The cave of Elephanta in
the encounter gives a dramatic alteration of light and dark in its interior sections that makes
the caves so disquieting. The island of Elephanta had been for centuries a commercial,
religious and military centre. With the resurgence of Brahmanical religion, we find that the
cave is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

The worshipper at Elephanta is brought into different complex, as the world of passionate
confrontation of opposing force, the violent and dissonant force; all of it is masterly displayed
in the sculptures. The emphasis at this site is more on the movement, away from relic,
towards the chamber-like environment. It displays the kind of synthesis of standing sculpture,
shrine and wall which is an important contribution to the history of art. Some of the panel
figures appear to be stationary and independent of one another, but at the same time each of

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

this figure is performing different functions simultaneously and each can take its place in a
group which is itself non-static.

The cave No. 5 is a panel of eternal Shiva is subject to some of the same principles in the
interrelationship of the three heads and its position in the south hall. The devotee passes
through the daylight at the entrance and is enveloped in the surrounding darkness as he
approaches eternal Shiva. The feeling which the devotee may get is that you are approaching
from light to darkness from outside to inside. The statue has been referred to Mahesha,
Mahadeva, Trimurti and Sadashiv. On the other side, we have a panel of Shiv- Parvati, they
are carved in the round, almost like free-standing sculpture, separated from the conclave
background. In some panels, the action takes place primarily superimposed upon or emerging
out of the black wall for eg: the marriage panel has its side figures turned towards the centre,
but all the action takes place within rather shallow space from front to back. Some of the
panel figures appear to be stationary and independent of one another, but at the same time
each of the figures performs different functions simultaneously and each can take its place in
a group which is itself non-static.

In another panel of Shiva dancing has been violently disengaged from the still, primarily flat
background on its right side. The shoulder is thus forcefully backed by a series of other round
shoulders. The dance theme encourages the sculpture to make experiments in the shapes in
relationship with the body parts at most mobile movements. Everything in the cave exists
only as a stimulus to the psyche to uncover what lies deep beneath the self, thus everything
depends on the experience of the reacting person. It is at Elephanta where Shiva displays his
paradoxical and mysterious nature in different forms.

The cave temple is a setting of divine manifestations of a higher level of associations of the
structure of the universe itself. This energy is identified with the cosmic rhythms of creation
and destructions. All the art is directed at invoking the divine Shiva and visible notions about
cosmic order. These cosmic orders can lead the devotee into another world. The figures are
larger than life.

The Jogeshwari Caves:

The Mahakali or Jogeshwari caves are one of the largest excavations of its kind; it cuts
directly across the trap formation in the outskirts of Mumbai. The excavation itself is axially
arranged due east-west, with two entrances, at either end, the scene depicted within the
Torana enclosures is that of Kailasa with Shiv -Parvati seated. The posture of Parvati
partially reclining upon Shiva, seated towards her right with his legs flexed backwards, in a
typically feminine posture. Shiva is seated in 'Sukhasana' pose. He is surrounded by his
attendants and also by Ganesha.

There is also another figure of Karthikeya, whose exact position is not visible owing to the
badly worn-out character of the rock. We also see below, Ravana kneeling with his twenty
hands and ten heads trying to lift Kailasa. On the north side, the back wall is divided into

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

three separated miniature shrine and in this niche, shrines are relief images of Durga,
Mahishasurmardini, Ganesha and Shiva. The Mukha mandapa as the western side has a
transversely oblong central passage with the two side chambers at a higher level for which
access is provided by rock-cut and flights of steps and which have a pillared façade of two
free-standing pillars. The interior of these chambers is completely worn out by differential
weathering, but it is just possible that as the southern side, the chamber contained on the back
wall, the figure of Mahesha.

The Mandapeshwar Caves :

The Mandapeshwar caves in Borivli would seem that the original Buddhist excavations were
perhaps represented by a simple rectangular cave excavation that is to be found to the south
of the main cave and provided at a later stage with access from one side chamber mandapas
of the main cave. It was not, however, originally to be approached this way, since its main
aspect even in its incompleteness is towards the east. Although the rock scarp in front of it
had not been completely present in the same condition.

In later times with structural walls created on it by the Portuguese, when this cave itself had
been temporarily converted into the church of some description, auxiliary to or perhaps in the
earlier stage of the main church which had come up further above in the upper level as found
today. Even the façade of the cave had been completely blocked by the masonry
constructions providing only for access in the centre, with two windows on either side, not
deserving any detailed description. At the south end of which a masonry, the p latform had
been constructed which provided for an image of Jesus on it. While entering through this
façade, we reach the main central vestibule of rectangular shape provided with three
chambers primarily, one at the back and two on the sides with a raised platform of their own
comprising a basal wall projecting upana, padama, vritta, kumuda a Kantha, with a Kumbha,
a kopota and a fairly thick prati.

The subject matter of Lakulisa is depicted, as the sidewalls show seated pairs, on either side,
four figures of devotees, apparently disciples of Lakulisa immediately flanking these pairs are
two pratiharas or dvarapalas two armed, left arms holding a trisula, right arm indicating a
suchihasta or vismara, with an ayudha going immediately below the suda, and with female
figure carved almost to equal height of the Pratihara on the either side at the outermost par,
probably standing for Ganga and Yamuna. Above them in the upper register are shown in the
lower zone vidyadharas, Gandharvas and horse-riding figures with the horse prancing in the
air, as also seated ganas, while in the upper zone are shown kinnaras, Gandharvas etc, the
kinnaras particularly with the human body and bird's claw and tail, in addition to the dikpalas
of whom we have Yama and Indra on the northern side. While remaining on the southern
side is badly obliterated.

There are also, besides the figures of Brahma to the south, three-headed and two-armed,
seated on a lotus, and Vishnu on the northern side, four-armed, borne on Garuda in the form
of a flying gana. This panel immediately recalls to our mind the similar Lakulisa panel is

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 Research Journal of The Department of Pali, University of
Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

badly eroded state to be found at the western entrances of the Jogeshwari cave on either side
of the chambers and the most well preserved Lakulisa panel also of ‘cut- in’ character, in the
Dhumarlena cave at Ellora. It seems that the sequences among these three which are very
closely related in style and time would be in the order of Mandapeshvar, Dhumarlena, and
Jogeshwari, this kind of sculpture is absent in Elephanta, although Mandapeshvar might as
such be earlier to the Elephanta even this might perhaps, be reinforcing the argument that the
Tandava Siva panel was the first stage.

The more impressive wall panel is, of course, the one cut on the western face of the side
chamber of the main central hall of the cave. This shows Tandava Siva though badly
damaged in its lower part, flanked by the usual paraphernalia of attendant figures of whom at
the base to the proper left are shown three female figures, the central one being Parvati. Since
she is resting on the left arm on the shoulder of the outer figure and is being supported
partially by the inner female figure. The two female figures are her two attendants. To the
proper right at the base is found a drummer in medium- sized figure with two vertically place
drums in its front, behind him are shown at three different levels games in the lowest level
and Ganesha himself flanked by a gana in the upper level, while in the uppermost level at
very corner Brahma seated cross- legged with two arms, at the corresponding inner end above
the figures of Parvati and the attendants in the very closed corner is shown Vishnu.

The four-armed Vishnu he is shown as riding on a fairly sized Garuda in the form of gana.
The figure of the gana is even slightly larger than that of the Vishnu himself. The dancing
Shiva is flanked at the base by a smaller dancing attendant, boldly two armed, to his proper
left and Bhingri to the proper right also dancing. The main figure appears to be elliptical
nimbus behind his head. The representations of Vishnu, Brahma, etc, however, show
devolution in details which would indicate prototypes of structural architecture.

While studying the cave art we must remember that this art is constructed as a largest body of
concrete evidence which testifies to the artistic cognitive and cultural beginning of humanity
at large, after studying an era of cave architecture we should also explore the known cultural
aspects equally, like the setting of the Elephanta caves suggest, the stra tegic political
character of the Salsette island from the very early time, it constituted the most convincing
truths of political as well as cultural supremacy of the western Chalukyas. Although the
sculptures in the cave architecture are characterized by luxurious, proliferation of forms the
underline conception is nevertheless ultimately reductionism and puritan in spirit. The art is
primarily associated with the oral tradition and the belief system of the people which includes
their views, impressions, religious ideas as well as mythical descriptions.

It gives us an understanding of technological development, the ideas which influenced

society and the geographical limitations of these ideas. They help us in understanding how
our cultural-religious ideas took shape and evolved with time.

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Kolkatta, 2017. Volume: XX pp. 192-200. (ISSN 0971-0655)

References:

1) Berkson. Carmel: Elephanta The Cave of Shiva, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt.
Ltd.: Delhi,1999
2) Fergusson James and James Burgess: The Care Temples of India, London,1880.
3) Dr Kannan. R: Bulletin of the Govt. Museum Chennai: Monograph on Rock art and
Cave Art, News series, General Section Vol. XVIII: Nov1,2003.
4) Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Government of Maharashtra Greater Bombay District.
Vol III: edited by K.K.Chaudhari, Published by Gazetteers Dept., Govt. of
Maharashtra; Bombay, 1986.
5) Rao. Gopinath: Elements of Hindu iconography, Vol 1, 2; Madras 1914.
6) Sarasvati Sarasi: A Guide to Elephant, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art:
Vol III. No.1, June 1835.
7) Stevenson. J: The Theory of the Great Elephanta Cave, Journal of the Bombay Branch
of Royal Asiatic Society; Vol.IV, No. XVI, 1850-1852.
8) Vakil.Kaniyalal, H: Rock-Cut Temples Around Bombay at Elephanta, Jogeshwari,
Mandapeshwar and Kanheri, D.B Taraporevala Sons And Co.,1932.
9) Wilson. John: Memoir on the Cave Temples and Monasteries and other Ancient
Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina Remains In Western India, Journal of the Bombay
Branch of Royal Asiatic Society: Vol.III. Part II.1847.
10) Wilson. John: The Religious Excavations of Western India, Calcutta Review; Vol.
XLII, 1866.
11) Zimmer.H: The Art of Indian. Asia in Mythology and Transformations. First Edition
Princeton University Press; Delhi, 1960.
12) Elephanta 'Marg' Vol. XIII. No.4; September,1960.

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