Words have changed their meanings in the course of their

development. This change is called semantic change. Every word in its

development has undergone many semantic changes.
The causes of semantic changes may be grouped under two main
groups , linguistic and extralinguistic ones.

By extra-linguistic causes- various changes in the life of speech

community are meant, i.e. changes in economic and social structure or
scientific concepts.
The word car, for example, ultimately goes back to Latin carrus which
meant ``a fourwheeled wagon‘ (Middle English carre). Now car denotes
``a motor-car‘, ``a railway carriage‘ (in the USA)

Linguistic causes are factors acting within the language system. The
commonest form which this influence takes place is called ellipsis – the
omission of one word in a phrase
the verb to starve in Old English meant ‗to die‘ and was habitually used
in collocation with the word hunger. Later this verb itself acquired the
meaning ‗to die of hunger‘.

Another linguistic cause is discrimination / differentiation of

synonyms-means that a word acquires a narrow sense because of a
borrowed synonym which interfered in its semantic structure
for example, in Old English the word land meant both ‗solid of earth‘s
surface‘ and ‗the territory of a nation‘. In the Middle English period
the word country was borrowed as its synonym. The
meaning of the word land was altered and ‗the territory of a nation‘
came to be denoted by the borrowed word country.
One more linguistic cause of semantic change is called fixed context. A
language unit for a number of reasons became restricted in its usage
For example, the word token brought into competition with the word
 sign and became restricted in use to a number of set expressions, such
as love token, token of respect and became specialized in meaning.

TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGES

1) EXTENSION (GENERALIZATION) OF MEANING- range of
meanings of a word increases so that the word can be used in more
contexts than were appropriate before the change
-Salary once had the meaning the money to buy salt for. Now it means
money to buy anything.\
- Season once had the meaning spring, time for sowing. Now it
embraces all parts of the year
2) NARROWING(SPECIALIZATION ) OF MEANING -a gradual
process when the meaning of a word becomes more general on the
course of time
-Coffin once meant a box. Then it began to mean a special box for the
dead.
-wife => OE 'woman' =>'woman of humble rank or low employment'
=> 'married woman, spouse'
-girl => ME 'child or young person of either sex' =>'female child,
young woman'
Toponyms-
3) ELEVATION( AMELIORATION) OF MEANING -shifts in the
sense of a word in the direction towards a more positive value in the
minds of the users
-To adore had the meaning to speak with, to greet, to address. Now it
means to love, to worship.
-Fame meant news (good or bad). Now it means glory
4) DEGRADATION OF MEANING- sense of a word takes on a less
positive, more negative evaluation in the minds of the users
Greedy meant hungry. Now it means stingy.
Villain meant a person living in the country. Now it means a scoundrel
5) TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING -is the transformation from
literal meaning of a word to the figurative one.Figurative language
represents the idea in a new light comparing it to some other objects of
reality
Figures of speech (tropes)-metaphor,simile,metonymy,hyperbole,litotes

Metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity

and thus is actually a hidden comparison.
Metaphors may be created on the similarity of different physical
properties,such as:
- similarity of shape : needle’s eye, table’s leg; вушко голки, павутина
доріг;
- similarity of size: midget, elephantine; карликовий;
- similarity of colour: orange, violet; трояндовий, бузковий;
- similarity of function: hand, finger-post; рушниця стріляє, металеве
перо;
- similarity of position: back of the chair, foot of the mountain;
підніжжя
гори;
- similarity of firmness: egg-shell china, steel resolution; метал у голосі
Simile is a device, which draws a comparison between different
objects, phenomena and processes, having some common characteristics
1) Stable idiomatic similes - as plain as ABC, as merry as a cricket
2) Comparative nominals which are easily tranformed into comparative
constructions- the creature is like a cat,the water is like ink

Metonymy is a device in which the name of one thing is changed for

that of another to which it is related by association of ideas as having
close relationship to one another.
Other examples of metonymy include:
1. The sign for the thing signified: grey hair (old age).
2. The instrument for the agent: the best pens of the day (the best
writers).
3. The container for the thing contained: He drank a cup. Чайник
закипів.
4. The names of various organs can be used in the same way: head can
be used for brains; heart often stands for emotions. Honey tongue, a
heart of gall.У неї золоте серце.
 5. A part of species substituted for a whole or genus: He manages to
earn his bread (the necessaries of life).
6. A whole or genus substitutes for a part or species: He is a poor
creature (man). Він – бідне створіння.
7. The name of the material which stands for the thing made of this
material: iron, kid, фарфор, фаянс.

Hyperbole- an overstatement or exaggerated statement not meant to be

understood literally but expressing an intensely emotional attitude of the
speaker to what he is speaking about
-'I'm so hungry I could eat a horse. ...
-'I haven't seen you in ages!'
-'The teacher gave us a ton of homework.

Litotes- expressing the affirmative by the negative or its contrary.

- not half bad for good, no coward for brave.
-That play was not the best

An archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its

original meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas.
Lexical archaisms are words-single archaic words or expressions used
regularly in an affair or freely
woe (sorrow), nigh (near), aught (anything)
Sometimes the root of the word remains and the affix is changed, then
the old affix is considered to be a morphemic archaism
«beautious» /»ous» was substituted by «ful»/,
«bepaint» / «be» was dropped/,
«darksome» /»some» was dropped/, «oft» / «en» was added/

Neologism- a new word or expression, or a new meaning for an existing

word
1) Connected with computerixation,IT,advertising
PC, super-computer, multi-user, software, monitor, screen
2) Connected with social activities and politics
Youthquake ,pussy-footer