7th-Biology-PDF-Study Package-Final

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DISTANCE
LEARNING PROGRAMME
CLASS - VII
BIOLOGY
Contents
Chapter 1. Nutrition in Plants ....................................................... 01 – 12
Chapter 2. Nutrition in Animals .................................................... 13 – 28
Chapter 3 Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Animals ............. 29 – 40

to Climate
Chapter 4 Soil ............................................................................ 41 – 50
Chapter 5 Respiration in Plants and Animals .............................. 51 – 60
Chapter 6 Transportation in Animals and Plants .......................... 61 – 76
Chapter 7 Reproduction in Plants ............................................... 77 – 90
Chapter 8 Forests: Our Lifeline ................................................. 91 – 100
Chapter 9 Waste water story .................................................. 101 – 110
Additional Topics ........................................................... 111 – 120
Olympiad Segment .......................................................... 121 – 147
[2023]
Food is one of the important requirement for sustaining life. Food has different components is it like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughage and water content also. All these components are
required by living things for proper growth and development. In fact to perform various life processes living
organisms need energy. This energy is obtained from food. In the case of green plants food is synthesised by
them only. Energy released from food is in the form of high energy rich molecules called ATPs (Adenosine tri
phosphate).
Nutrition
The process of taking food and its utilization by the body is called nutrition.
The various components of food are called nutrients. These are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, roughage & water.
Nutrition in Plants
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Interdependence
Photoautotrophic Chemoautotrophic
(All green plants) (Nitrifying bacteria,
sulphur bacteria)
Parasitic Plants Saprophytic plants

Insectivorous
(obtain nutrition from host) obtain nutrition
plants feed on insects
e.g., Cuscuta, santatum from dead and decay
e.g. Drosea, Dionea
e.g., Agaricus, Rhizopus
Symbiotic plants
2 organisms sharing
mutual benefits
e.g. Lichens, Mycorrhiza
MODES OF NUTRITION
Living organisms exhibit two main modes of nutrition:
1. Autotrophic Nutrition (Auto = self + trophos = nourishment)

The mode of nutrition in which organisms make their own food from simple inorganic substances is
called autotrophic. Green plants, Cyanobacteria make food for themselves. They are called autotrophs.
They are also called producers.
AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 1

Class VII: Nutrition in Plants Biology
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition (heteros = other + trophos = nourishment)

The mode of nutrition in which organisms obtain food from plants or other animals, is called
heterotrophic nutrition.
All animals and non-green plants are called heterotroph. They obtain their food from plants or other
animals.
Comparison between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic nutrition
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
1. It occurs only in green plants and few It occurs in all non-green plants and
bacteria like Cyanobacteria. animals.
2. Carbondioxide and water are needed Heterotrophs derive their food from
for the synthesis of food. green plants or autotrophs directly or
indirectly.
3. Chlorophyll and sunlight are essential Chlorophyll is absent and sunlight is not
for the synthesis of food. needed for synthesis of food.
Detailed Structure of Chloroplast
1. Chloroplasts are the cell organelles found Lamellae

inside the plant cells. Chloroplasts are
double membrane bound cell organelles.
Animal cells do not have chloroplast.
2. Chlorophyll and other photosynthetic
pigments are present inside chloroplast.
3. Chloroplast is surrounded by a double
membrane which encloses matrix.
4. Each chloroplast has two parts, (a) Grana,
(b) Stroma.
5. Grana is made up of stacks of thylakoids. Thylakoids are the flattened sac like structures embedded in
the matrix of chloroplast. They have chlorophyll molecule on the surface and other photosynthetic pigments
are also associated with them. One thylakoids stack is called granum.
6. The light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in the grana thylakoids.
7. The matrix has enzyme for the dark reaction of photosynthesis.
AUTOTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION

Green plants are autotrophs as they make their own food with the help of mechanism photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants make their food is called photosynthesis (photo = light + synthesis = to
make). During photosynthesis, green plants prepare complex organic food substances (starch) from simple

inorganic compounds like carbon dioxide and water with the help of chlorophyll (green pigment) and energy
from sunlight.
 Carbohydrates are synthesized during photosynthesis and the main raw materials are carbon dioxide
obtained from air and water from soil.
Sunlight
Carbondioxide  Water  
(chlorophyll)
 Glucose  Oxygen
(from air) (from soil) (food stored in plant) (released into the
atmosphere)
Equation of photosynthesis
During photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy. The food is synthesized
as glucose. It is distributed to different parts of plants for immediate use in the form of sucrose and left
over is converted into starch for storage.
DO YOU KNOW?
Amino acids and proteins are made by combining carbohydrates with nitrogen obtained in
the form of nitrates from soil.
Requirement for Photosynthesis:
 Chlorophyll: The chlorophyll is present in the chloroplasts.

These cell organelles occur in green parts of plants, mainly
in the leaves. In lower plants like algae whole plant is green
and take part in photosynthesis.
 Sunlight: Sunlight provides energy for photosynthesis. Light
energy is used in splitting of water molecule into hydrogen
and oxygen.
 Water & Minerals: These are obtained from the soil by
the roots and are transported to the leaves via vessels called
xylem.
 Carbon dioxide: Plant obtained carbon dioxide through
pores called stomata present on the surface of leaves.
Terrestial plants use atmospheric carbon dixoide while
aquatic plants used carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
Site of Photosynthesis
Green leaves and stems of young plants contain green coloured

structures, the chloroplasts. These are the plastids which contain
the light absorbing green pigment chlorophyll, which traps energy
from sunlight.
DO YOU KNOW?
In cactus leaves get modified to spines and stem becomes green leaf like to do
photosynthesis.

Mechanism of Photosynthesis
There are two main stages in the entire process of photosynthesis.
The first stage is light dependent (light reaction).
Other light independent stage (dark reaction).
During these two stages following events occur:
(i) Chlorophyll molecule absorb light energy from sunlight.
(ii) The absorbed energy causes splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. During the process
the light energy gets converted into chemical energy.
(iii) Finally, carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates (end product of photosynthesis).
Photosynthetic Pigments
Different types of photosynthetic pigments are present inside the chloroplast viz Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll
b, Carotenes and Xanthophyll.
In some algae chlorophyll c and chlorophyll d are also present. Chlorophyll a is present in all photosynthetic
organisms. So it is called universal photosynthetic pigment. It is also called primary photosynthetic pigment
because it carries out the primary reaction of photosynthesis that is converting light energy into chemical
energy.
Other pigments are called accessory pigment because they absorb light and transfer it to chlorophyll a
Photosynthetic bacteria has bacteriochlorophyll. Chlorophyll is absent in them. One important source of
carotene is carrot.
An important source of Xanthophyll is seaweeds Chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments are present
inside chloroplasts.
DO YOU KNOW?
Carrot has betacarotene which is required by our body for producing vitamin A.
Activity: Test of Starch
 Take a leaf from a green plant.
 Boil it in 90% alcohol for few minutes in a water bath.
 Now wash the decolourised leaf in water.
 Put few drops of iodine on the decolorised leaf.
 It turns blue black, which indicates the presence of the starch because iodine gives blue-black colour
with the starch.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

The rate of photosynthetic process is affected by several factors. These factors are discussed below :
Light
The ultimate source of light for photosynthesis in green plants is solar radiation (i.e., radiation coming from
sun). Out of the total solar energy reaching the earth, only a very small portion is used in photosynthesis.
Light varies in intensity, quality etc. Under low light intensity (e.g., during cloudy days), the rate of photosynthesis
is also low. Increase in light intensity causes increase in the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain limit. At
very high light intensity, the photosynthesis is decreased.
The quality of light also affects photosynthesis. Green pigment, chlorophyll absorbs mostly the blue and the
red regions of the spectrum. It reflects green light. Therefore, photosynthesis is high in blue and red light.
Photosynthesis does not occur in green light.
Temperature
The rate of photosynthesis increases by increase in temperature upto 40ºC. Above this temperature, there is
a decrease in the photosynthesis. Similary, low temperature also inhibits photosynthesis. The temperature
affects photosynthesis by affecting the activity of enzymes. These enzymes function at a specific range of
temperature. Low temperature lowers the activity of enzymes and high temperature causes inactivation of
enzymes.
Carbon dioxide
The rate of photosynthesis generally increases by increasing the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.
But very high concentration of CO2 becomes toxic to plants and inhibits photosynthesis.
Water
Water is an essential raw material in photosynthesis. Less than 1% of the water absorbed by a plant is used
in photosynthesis. The rate of photosynthesis is lowered if the plants are inadequately supplied with water.
Under water deficient conditions the stomatal pores remain closed to reduce the loss of water by transpiration.
As a consequence, the entry of CO2 is also stopped into the leaves.
Functioning (Opening and Closing) of Stomata
Stomata open into small air cavities inside the leaves.

Each stomata is guarded by two kidney shaped guard
cells, which may be kidney shape or dumble shaped.
The outer wall of the gurad cells is thin while the inner
wall is thick. The main function of stomata is to let the
CO2 from atmosphere enter the leaf for photosynthesis.
During the day time photosynthesis takes place and
stomata keep on opening and closing.
At night when, there is no light and, no photosynthesis

takes place, the stomata get closed to avoid loss of
water by transpiration in most of the plants.

The opening and closing of stomata is carried out by guard cells. In sunlight water from surrounding cells
diffuses into the guard cells. The guard cells became turgid by the accumulation of water, their outer thin
walls bulge out and the inner thick walls are drawn apart. The stomatal opening between the two guard cells
widens making the stomata open.
diffuses into
Water   Guard Cells 
 Stomata pore open
At the time of closing of stomatal opening, water diffuses out of the guard cells. The guard cells become of
flaccid, their inner thick walls became straight and stomata get closed.
diffuses out
Water   Guard Cells 
 Stomata pore close
Synthesis of Nutrients other than Carbohydrates

Plant synthesise only glucose (simple carbohydrate) through photosynthesis. These simple carbohydrates are
then used for the synthesis of other nutrients like proteins and fats.
Complex carbohydrates and fats are synthesised from simple carbohydrates.
Plants needs nitrogen for the synthesis of proteins. Though nitrogen is present in abundance in gaseous form
in the air, plants cannot use this free nitrogen. They can absorb only the nitrate compounds along with water.
The soil contains some nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria prepare nitrate compound from the nitrogen and
enrich the soil with nitrates.
Farmers add nitrogen rich fertilizers (like urea and ammonium sulphate) to the soil to increase its fertility.
DO YOU KNOW?
1. Nitrogen rich fertilisers provide nitrogen to the soil. Plants obtain nitrogen from soil
and use it for protein synthesis. Proteins are needed for plant growth.
2. Coloured leaves of Coleus which are red, brown or with patches of brown and pink also
have chlorophyll. But their green pigment is masked by the abundance of other
pigments.
How nutrients are replenished in the soil?

Soil supplies nutrients to the plants for growth. When crops are growing they absorb nutrients from the soil.
This results in loss of nutrients in the soil and soil losses its fertility. The soil fertility has to be maintained for
proper growth of plants.
Methods of Replenishing Nutrients in the Soil
 Addition of manures and fertilizers in the soil. Manures are normally added to the soil after harvesting a
crop and before sowing the seeds after next crop. Manures have all the nutrients required by the plants
though less in amount. Manures improve soil texture and water holding capacity of the soil.
Fertilizers are added when crops are growing. Fertilizers contain nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous.
Hence fertilizers are nutrient specific.
 Leguminous plants such as gram, peas, beans, etc., have root nodules in which Rhizobium bacteria are
present. These bacteria take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a usable soluble form. Plants use
this nitrogen for making proteins.

Heterotrophic Modes of Nutrition in Plants

Non green plants like fungi, some bacteria and some flowering plants are without chlorophyll. They cannot
synthesize their own food by photosynthesis like animals, they depend on green plants for their food. Such
non green plants are called heterotrophs and their mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Based on the method of obtaining food, heterotrophic plants may be
 Parasitic plants  Saprophytic plants  Insectivorous plants  Symbiotic plants
Parasitic Plants
Non-green plants that obtain their food from some other

green plants are called parasitic plants.
The plant that provides food is called the host plant.
The parasitic plants absorb food from the root or the stems
of host plant. They develop special roots called haustoria
which penetrate the host tissues and reach the vascular
bundles (xylem and phloem).
Some parasitic plants are total parasites. While others may be partial parasites.
DO YOU KNOW?
Xylem: Water and mineral conducting in the plants.
Phloem: Food conducting tissue of plants.
Total parasitic plants completely depend on the host plant

for their food. For example Dodder (Cuscuta - Amarbel)
and Apodanthes are common total parasitic plants.[Fig. 3]
Partial parasitic plants have green leaves and can synthesis

their food. They depend on the host for water and minerals.
Mistletoe is a partial parasite. [Fig. 4]
The plant that bears the largest flower in the world is a

parasitic plant. Its flower may be 106 cm in diameter and
about 10 kg in weight. The plant has no leaves. It was
discovered by Sir Stamford Raffles on a tour to Sumatra
and hence is named after him as Rafflesia. [Fig . 5]
DO YOU KNOW?
The parasitic plants obtain food from host plant
and thus interrupt food supply of the host. This
weakens the host plant. Cuscuta covers woody
plants and causes great damage to timber
industry.

Saprophytic Plants
Saprophytic plants or saprophytes obtain their food from dead and decaying plants and animals. They release
digestive enzymes on the decaying matter or animal excreta to break down their complex organic compounds
into simple ones. These simple organic compounds are absorbed by the saprophytes Fungi such as bread
mould and mushrooms, and some bacteria have saprophytic nutrition. [Fig. 6]
DO YOU KNOW?
The white cottony mass of fine threads that grow on stale bread, fruits, pickles, leathers
goods and cowdung etc. is bread mould. Umbrella shaped nongreen, white or pinkish
plants are called mushrooms. Some mushrooms are poisonous, but some are edible and
form a delicacy.
3. Insectivorous Plants
Insectivorous plants are green plants. They make their food by photosynthesis
but trap and digest insects to meet their nitrogen need. These plants grow in
nitrogen deficient soil and have devices to trap insects. The examples of
insectivorous plants are pitcher plant, venus flytrap, sundew and bladderwort.
Pitcher plant (Nepenthes) has long pitcher like structure This pitcher is a
modified leaf.
It has a lid which can open and close the mouth of pitcher.The inner surface
is hairy when an insect visits the pitcher for nectar, the lid closes. The insect
is trapped and entangled into the hairs. The digestive juice is secreted in the
pitcher and insect is digested.
4. Symbiotic Plants
When two organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients, their association is called symbiosis or
symbiotic relationship and the organisms are called symbionts. They mutually help each other.
Certain fungi live in the roots of some plants. The plant provides nutrients to the fungi and fungi help the plant
to take up water and nutrients from the soil.

Lichens are symbiotic organisms in which an alga and a fungus live together and derive nutrients from each
other. The alga is green and autotroph. It makes food for both by photosynthesis. The fungus provides shelter,
water and minerals to the alga [Fig. 8].
Roots of leguminous plants or pulse plant (gram, moong, urd, peas and beans, etc.) have nodules. Bacteria
belonging to genus Rhizobium live in these nodules and convert atmosphere nitrogen into soluble nitrates.
These nitrogenous compound are used by leguminous plants to make proteins. Rhizobium cannot make its
food and hence depends on the plant for it. Thus leguminous plants and Rhizobium have a symbiotic relationship.
[Fig. 9]
Fig. 8: A lichen showing symbiotic Fig. 9: Root nodules on the roots of

relationship between fungus and a tree a leguminous plant
DO YOU KNOW?
Pulses are obtained from leguminous plants. Growing pulses in the field increases soil
fertility and farmers do not need to add nitrogen rich fertilizers to the soil.


LEVEL - I
1. Which of the following is an insectivorous plants?
(a) Sundew (b) Cuscuta (c) Cactus (d) Mistletoe
2. Which of the following is a life process?

(a) Respiration (b) Excretion (c) Reproduction (d) All of these
3. Stomatal opening is surrounded by
(a) Epidermal cells (b) Chloroplasts (c) Guard cells (d) Chlorophyll
4. Which of the following is a saprophyte?

(a) Gram (b) Cuscuta (c) Rafflesia (d) Mushroom
5. The green coloured pigment in plants is

(a) Carotene (b) Chlorophyll (c) Chloroplast (d) Xanthophyll
6. During photosynthesis food is synthesized in the form of

(a) Protein (b) Fats (c) Carbohydrates (d) Vitamins
7. What is the ultimate source of energy?

(a) Sun (b) Water (c) Moon (d) Wind
8. In cactus , photosynthesis is carried out in

(a) Leaves (b) Spines (c) Stem (d) Roots
9. Which part of a plant is called its food factory?

(a) Seed (b) Root (c) Flower (d) Leaf
10. Human beings are

(a) Autotrophs (b) Heterotrophs (c) Saprophytes (d) Parasites
11. Pitcher plant traps insects because it

(a) is a heterotroph (b) grows in soils which lacks in nitrogen
(c) does not have chlorophyll (d) has a digestive system like human beings
12. Which of the following raw material is available in the air for photosynthesis?
(a) Oxygen (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Nitrogen (d) Hydrogen
13. In the absence of which of the following will photosynthesis not occur in leaves?
(a) Guard cells (b) Chlorophyll (c) Vacuole (d) Space between cells
14. The term that is used for the mode of nutrition in yeast, mushroom and bread mould is:
(a) Autotrophic (b) Insectivorous (c) Saprophytic (d) Parasitic

15. Two organisms are good friends and live together. One provides shelter, water and nutrients while
the other prepares and provide food. Such as association of organisms is formed as
(a) Saprophytic (b) Parasitic (c) Autotrophic (d) Symbiosis
LEVEL - II
1. Match column I with column II and select the correct option from the codes given below:
Column - I Column - II
(A) Chlorophyll (i) Rhizobium
(B) Symbiosis (ii) Starch
(C) Insectivorous plant (iii) Lichen
(D) N2 fixing organism (iv) Mistletoe
(E) Partial parasite (v) Pitcher plant
(a) (A) – (i), (B) – (iv), (C) – (iii), (D) – (ii), (E) – (v)
(b) (A) – (iii), (B) – (v), (C) – (ii), (D) – (i), (E) – (iv)
(c) (A) – (ii), (B) – (iii), (C) – (v), (D) – (i), (E) – (iv)
(d) (A) – (v), (B) – (iv), (C) – (i), (D) – (ii), (E) – (iii)
2. On Saturday, Sumit after having his lunch forgot his lunch box is the school. When he opened it on
Monday, he found that it had some blackish brown cottony stuff on it. Which of the following organisms
can it most likely be?
(a) Mushroom (b) Amoeba (c) Rhizopus (d) Either (a) or (c)
3. Most crops require a lot to synthesize the proteins. The bacterium Rhizobium helps some of the
crops to get nitrogen. Which of the following statements is incorrect for Rhizobium?
(a) It converts atmosphere nitrogen into a soluble form that the plants can absorb.
(b) It can make its own food
(c) It lives in the roots of leguminous plants like grams, peas, moong etc.
(d) Leguminous plants provide food and shelter to Rhizobium
4. The given list shows the five steps needed to do a starch test but in a random order.
I. Pluck a leaf from the plant
II. Leave a potted plant out in the Sun for a few hours.
III. Boil the leaf in alcohol
IV. Boil the leaf in water
V. Wash the leaf then add a few drops of iodine solution over it.
Select the option with correct order of these steps.
(a) I, II, III, IV (b) I, II, IV, III, V (c) II, I, V, IV, III (d) II, I, IV, III, V

5. Monu is a poor farmer. He cannot spend money on buying fertilizer in this season. What should he do
to increase fertility of his farmland?
(a) He should use Eucalyptus trees in his field (b) He should water his field more frequently
(c) He should grow pea plants in his field (d) He should grow mustard plants in his field

LEVEL - I
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b)

6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d)


Food: Any nutritive material derived from plants or animals that an organism recognises as suitable to eat or
ingest is called food.
The process of taking in food by an animal and its utilisation in the body is called animal nutrition.
Animals are heterotrophs. They obtain food from green plants or animals that feed on plants.
MODES OF NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
The mode of nutrition in herbivorous, carnivorous or omnivorous animals is called holozoic nutrition. However,
some animals are parasites, saprophytes or scavengers:
 Herbivorous Animals: They feed only on plants or plant parts. Examples. Cow, buffalo, goat, deer,
rabbit, horse and elephant.
 Carnivorous Animals: They feed on the flesh of other animals. Examples: Lion, Tiger and Leopard.
 Omnivorous Animals: They feed on both plants and animals. Examples: pig, man, cockroach.
 Parasitic animals obtain food and shelter from the host. They may be endoparasites or ectoparasites.
Endoparasites live inside the host body and derive nutrients from the hosts body fluid blood or tissue.
Examples: Malarial parasites live in RBCs, flat worms and round worms reside in liver or intestine.
Ectoparasites such as ticks, mites, body louse and bed bugs cling on the body surface of their hosts and
suck their blood.
 Saprophytic animals feed on dead and decaying organic matter. Earthworms are saprophytes.
 Scavengers feed on decaying animals. Vulture, crow and jackal are scavengers.
PROCESS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
In holozoic nutrition, animals take solid food into its body, this food contains insoluble complex nutrients. The
body can use these nutrients only when these are digested and broken down into simple soluble molecules.
The soluble molecules are then absorbed by the intestinal wall.
The process of holozoic nutrition involves the following steps: Ingestion, digestion, absorbtion, assimilation
and egestion.

Class VII: Nutrition in Animals Biology
INGESTION
It is the process of taking in the food items from outside into the body through mouth. Different organisms
have different methods of food intake and their food habit also vary. The organ involved in the food intake,
i.e., the mouth varies from lowest animals (protozoans) to highest animals (mammals). The mouth part of
animals are modified to enable them to catch their prey or procure food. For example:
a) Unicellular Amoeba engulfs tiny particles of food by surrounding it with false feet or pseudopodia. The
pseudopodia then join together to form a small cavity, a food vacuole (Fig.1).
b) Paramoecium, another unicellular organisms has fine hair like structure called cilia all over its body. The
cilia sweep the food particles along with the water current into its mouth like structure. (Fig. 2)

c) In a multicellular organisms like Hydra there are numerous tentacles around its mouth which entangle
small aquatic animals and kill them with their stinging cells. Then the food is pushed inside the mouth
(Fig. 3)
d) In insects like butterflies houseflies, mosquitoes, bees, etc., the mouth parts are modified to form a
feeding tube to suck nector from flowers. The feeding tube is called a proboscis (Fig,.4)
e) A frog capture its prey with its long sticky tongue. The tongue is thrown out and the insect sticks to the
tongue (Fig. 5).
 Spider weave a sticky web in which small insects get stuck.

 An earthworm uses its muscular pharynx to swallow its food.
 Human beings use their hands to put food into their mouths.
DIGESTION
The food that we take in is normally solid and complex. The cells of the body cannot use this solid food. All
living organisms, except parasites must digest their food to get energy.
Thus, the process of breakdown of complex food molecules into simpler forms is called digestion.
Most animals use both physical and chemical methods for digesting food. Enzymes are the biocatalyst,
secreted by glands found in the digestive system. Enzymes help in the breakdown of complex molecules like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc., into simple molecules.
 Digestion in lower animals like Amoeba, Paramoecium is generally intracellular (within the cell) as the
food is digested inside the food vacuole present in the cell cytoplasm and the digestive enzymes are
secreted by the cell itself.

 The higher animals like frogs humans, etc., the food passes through the alimentary canal and the digestion
occurs in its lumen. In animals with well developed organs and organ systems, digestion is extracellular
(outside the cell). Various digestive enzymes are mixed with the food as it passes through the alimentary
canal. Examples are saliva in mouth and gastric juices in the stomach.
 Hydra is a multicellular organism, where digestion is extracellular (outside the cell) as well as intracellular
(in the cells of the inner layer).
ABSORPTION
 The digested food mixes in the body fluid i.e., the blood of the animal and gets absorbed.
 In unicellular organisms like Amoeba, the absorption occurs in the cytoplasm.
 In Hydra, absorption occurs by diffusion of digested food through the cells, lining the body cavity.
 In higher organisms (man), absorption of food occurs in the small intestine with the help of villi.
ASSIMILATION
The process of conversion of absorbed food into living protoplasm is called assimilation. The food absorbed
by the body is used as a fuel to produce energy from glucose by respiration for carrying out different life
processes like growth, development, etc. Proteins are the building blocks of our body and help in making new
tissues as well as repairing worn out tissues.
In case of Amoeba and Paramoecium assimilation of food occurs through streaming movements of protoplasm
inside the body cavity. In Hydra, food is assimilated inside the cells.
EGESTION
The process of removing undigested solid food from

the body in the form of faeces is called
egestion.
In Amoeba, the undigested food material remains

in the food vacuole and this vacuole is pushed
towards the cell membrane and ruptures at any
place to throw out the undigested food.
In Hydra, the waste materials are thrown out

through the single body cavity that works both as
mouth and anus.

Nutrients Functions Sources
Carbohydrates Give energy to our body Cereals, potato, etc.
Fats Give energy to our body Ghee, oil, butter, nuts, etc.
Help in growth, repairing of tissues, healing

Proteins Milk, eggs, meat, pulses, fish, etc.
of small cuts and wounds
Vitamins Help us to resist diseases, increase immunity Fruits and vegetables, eggs, fish, etc.
Milk, green-leafy vegetables, fruits,

Minerals Help us to resist diseases, increase immunity
etc.
Helps the body to easily get rid of undigested Wholemeal cereals, vegetables, fruits
Roughage
food (waste matter) etc.
Maintains balance of body fluids, helps to

Water, juices, soups, fruits with high
Water remove waste matter, helps to transport
water content, e.g., water melon etc.
nutrients to cells, etc.
DIGESTION IN HUMANS
Humans have a well developed digestive system. This consists of the gut or alimentary canal, along with
the associated digestive glands.
Parts of alimentary canal and accessory glands
The food that we take-in can provide energy only if it is digested, absorbed and assimilated to be distributed
to all parts of the body.

Enzymes are the digestive juices prepared by cells in various part of the digestive system. Table 1. Lists the
details of the source, their substrates, affects and the resultant products.
Table 1: Digestive enzymes: sources, affects and resultant products
Substrate
Part/Organ Source Enzyme Resultant
products
Mouth Salivary glands Amylase Starch Sugars
Peptides and
Stomach Gastric glands Pepsin Proteins
amino acids
Trypsin,
Pancreas Pancreatic juice carboxypeptidase, –– ––
amylase, lipase
Glucose and
Aminopeptidase, Peptides,
Small intestine Intestinal glands other simple
maltase maltose
sugars
During digestion, large insoluble complex food are broken down into soluble substances which are small
enough to be absorbed through the walls of the intestine and into the bloodstream. This process involves
certain physical and chemical reactions, as follows:
1. Physical Action
 Chewing the food with teeth, so as to break the solid food into smaller pieces.
 Churning by the stomach to mix the food with the gastric juices.
2. Chemical Action
 Carbohydrates to simple sugars

amylase
Carbohydrates   Sugar
 Fats to fatty acids and glycerol
Lipases
Fats   fatty acid and glycerol
 Proteins to amino acids
pepsin
Proteins   peptides and amino acids
The alimentary canal is a long tube of varying diameter which begins from the mouth and ends at the anus.
It consists of mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and
anus.
Mouth: Food is ingested by us through the mouth. The mouth contains tongue, teeth and salivary glands.
They work together in chewing (masticating) the food. The chewed food is mixed with saliva, a watery fluid
secreted by the salivary glands. This process is called mastication. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary
amylase or ptyalin, which converts starch into sugar, so it tastes sweet to us.

Teeth: Our teeth cut, tear and grind the food before
we swallow it. There are four types of teeth in our
mouth.
a) Incisors: These are the front 8 teeth, four on upper

and four on lower jaw. These are flat, chisel -
shaped teeth, well adapted for cutting and biting
of food items.
b) Canines: One canine each is found on either side

of each jaw. These round, sharp and pointed teeth
are well adapted to hold and tear the food.
c) Premolars: There are two premolars on each side of each jaw. They have flat surfaces bearing small
grooves and ridges, and are well adapted to crush and grind food.
d) Molars: These are the last three teeth on both sides in both the jaws. They have almost flat surfaces
with small projections for effective grinding of the food. (Fig. 7)
Milk and Permanent Teeth: All of us have two sets of teeth in our lifetime. The first set erupts when we
are babies and lasts until we are about 8 years old. These are known as the milk teeth or temporary teeth.
A child has only 20 such teeth, 10 in each jaw. These teeth fall out one by one and are replaced by permanent
teeth. A human adult has 32 teeth in all, 16 in each jaws.
Structure of a tooth: Each tooth remains buried in the

jaw bone by its root and the crown remains outside the
gum. Incisors and canines have single root, while premolars
and molars have two roots each. The crown is formed of
dentine and has a layer of enamel outside.
Enamel: Enamel forms the shining white part of the crown

of each tooth. It is deposited on the surface of crown of
the tooth. Enamel is the hardest substance in our body,
even harder than bones. It is also chemically the most stable
substance. (Fig. 8).
(Fig. 8. Structure of a Tooth)
Tooth Decay
Tooth decay is a process in which the tooth becomes rotten due to the formation of cavities (holes) inside it
leading to toothache.
The cause of caries is bacterial breakdown of the hard tissues of the teeth. This occurs due to acid made
from food debris or sugar on the tooth surface.
Tooth decay is caused by biofilm (dental plague) lying on the teeth and maturing to become cariogenic
(causing decay).

Why do we get Hiccups?
The windpipe carries air from nostril to our lungs. Normally, when we swallow food, then a flat piece of
cartilage (called epiglottis) drops over the mouth of windpipe forming a bridge over which food passes and
goes into food pipe. Sometimes, however, when we eat too fast in a hurry, or talk too much or laugh while
eating, then the windpipe remains a little open due to which food particles may enter the windpipe. When
food particles try to touch even the windpipe we may get hiccups.
Tongue: The tongue is a muscular organ and helps to mix saliva in the food. It pushes food towards our
teeth. The tongue rolls the food into a bolus which is easy to swallow. It is pushed down the food pipe or
oesophagus, by means of a series of rhythmic muscular contractions that go by the name ‘peristalsis’.
The tongue is the main organ of taste. Different sets of taste buds located in specific areas of the tongue,
distinguish whether the food is sweet, salty, sour, bitter, etc. Thus, taste buds helps us to select the right quality
of food. The tongue also helps us to speak. There are no taste buds for chilli in food. The tongue also helps
us to speak.
Oesophagus: It is the tube connecting the mouth and the stomach, and is about 30 cm long. It takes about
six second for solid food to reach the stomach after it is swallowed. Liquids travel faster down the oesophagus.
The powerful muscles in the oesophagus gently push food down to the stomach in a wave like action, called
peristalsis as mentioned earlier.
Stomach: It is a J-shaped muscular bag. It can hold upto two litres of food at a time. Food stays in the
stomach from a few minutes to a few hours depending on the type of food. Gentle movements of the
stomach wall churn the food up with digestive juices like hydrochloric acid and gastric juices and change it
into a semi-liquid state called chyme. The enzymes present in the gastric juices break down proteins. The
hydrochloric acid kills the harmful bacteria and also helps the enzymes to work. In the stomach, the milk is
changed to curd. Thus, food gets partly digested in the stomach.
Sometimes, we experience vomiting. It is nothing but antiperistaltic movements in the stomach wall and
oesophagus.
Small intestine: The food leaves the stomach at intervals and enters the small intestine, which is the longest
part of the digestive system. It is about twenty feet or seven meters long and is a highly coiled tube, consisting
of three parts:
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum.

In the duodenum the liver and pancreas pour their

secretions,bile and pancreatic juices respectively. These
juices contain salts and enzymes.
The bile break up fats into tiny droplets , known as

emulsification of fats, which are then acted upon the
enzymes and split up into fatty acids and glycerol by the
action of enzymes.
The pancreatic juice breaks down starch into simple sugars

and proteins into amino acids, fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Minerals and vitamins need no change. Cells are able to

absorb them as such. As the food moves further into the Fig. 9 Human digestive system
jejunum and ileum - the lower part of the small intestine, it is in simple soluble form and is readily absorbed
into the bloodstream.
Absorption occurs through numerous finger - like projections on the inner walls of the small intestine called
the villi, which have fine blood capillaries. After absorption, the food mixes in the bloodstream and is carried
to all the cells of the body by the blood. The cells utilise this food and release energy. Complete digestion and
absorption of food takes place in small intestine.
Large intestine: Not all the food that we eat is digested and absorbed. The undigested food enters the large
intestine where water is absorbed from it. The semi solid residue is stored in the last part of the large intestine
called the rectum and is finally thrown out of the body through the anus. The large intestine is about 1.5
metre long and has a larger diameter than the small intestine. (Fig. 9).
Liver and Pancreas

Liver is the largest gland of the body
weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult
human, it is brown in colour. It is situated
in the abdominal cavity, just below the
diaphragm and has two lobes. The hepatic
lobules are the structural and functional
units of liver containing hepatic cells
arranged in the form of cords. Each lobule
is covered by a thin connective tissue
sheath called the Glisson’s capsule. The
bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes
through the hepatic ducts and is stored and concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the gall bladder. The
duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic duct from the liver forms the common bile duct (Fig.
10). The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as the common hepato -
pancreatic duct.

The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) elongated organ situated between the limbs of
the ‘U’ shaped duodenum. It is second largest gland in human body. It is pinkish in colour. The exocrine
portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes
hormones like insulin and glucagon.
Digestion in grass eating animals
Humans cannot digest the cellulose present in the food as the human system lacks the cellulase enzyme
required to digest it. Ruminants are hooved, plant eating animals that digest their food in two steps. Their
stomachs are divided into four compartments the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum.
The half-chewed food is swallowed and it first goes from mouth to the rumen, the first chamber of the
stomach. Here it is acted upon by bacteria and micro-organisms. This half digested food then goes to the
second muscular chamber, the reticulum, from where it is sent back to the mouth as cud to be chewed again:
This action is known as ruminating. Grass eaters which chew the half-digested food, i.e., ruminate are called
ruminants. Examples are cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, bison, etc.
The rechewed food is swallowed for the second time. By passsing the first two chambers, it enters the third
chamber, the omasum. Here the food is further broken down into still smaller pieces and finally enters the
fourth chamber, the abomasum. Here, the enzymes act upon the food and digestion is completed as in the
human stomach.
After this, the digested food is sent to the small intestine, where the nutrients are absorbed.
Vitamins
These are organic compounds and essential for proper functioning of body parts as well as regulation of
various metabolic processes.
The various types of vitamins, thir functions, their deficiency diseases, symptoms and sources are listed
below:

Deficiency
Vitamin and Sources Function Symptoms
Disease
A (Retinol) Keeps eyes, hair and Night blindness Dryness of eyes;
Source: Green leafy skin healthy. (Xeropthalmia) improper vision.
vegetables, fruits, butter, egg
yolk, carrots, fish, etc.
B1(Thiamine) Aids in digestion; Beriberi Inflammation of nerves;

Source: Egg, whole grains, maintains nervous digestive problems and
and sprouts. system heart abnormalities.
B2 (Riboflavin) Keeps skin and mouth Skin disorders Irritation of eyes; skin
Source: Eggs, milk, and healthy. and intestinal disorders;
green leafy vegetables. inflammation of the
tongue.
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Formation of red blood Pernicious Pale skin; lack of

Source: Meat. Cabbage and cells. anemia stamina and appetite;
intestinal microflora frequent headaches.
C (Ascorbic acid) Helps to resist Scurvy Pale skin; lack of

Source: Citrus fruits such as infections and keeps stamina appetite;
lime, orange, lemon, teeth, gums, and joints frequent headaches,
tomatoes and sprouts healthy. bleeding from gums,
etc..
D (Calciferol) Aids in the normal Rickets in Weak bones, joint and

Source: Milk, fish and eggs, growth of bones in children bone deformities such as
sunlight. children. Osteomalacia in bow legs and pigeon
adults chest, softening of ribs,
protruding abdomen.
K (Phylloquinone) Helps in blood Haemorrhage Affects clotting of
Source: Spinach, cabbage, or clotting. (excessive blood.
any other green leafy bleeding)
vegetables.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Balances cholesterol, Impairment of Vision is affected,
Source: Vegetable oils, repairs damaged skin, immune delayed transmission of
sunflower seeds, almonds, essential for good and response, nerve impulses,
hazel nuts, wheat germ, thick hair, essential neuro-muscular increased cholesterol
mango, avocado, broccoli, during pregnancy problems, level, thinning of hair,
spinach, tomato, kiwi etc. retinopathy, dry skin.
sterility
Do You Know?
Daily intake of vitamin C for adult men and women is 90 milli grams and 75 milli grams
respectively, which is highest amount among all the vitamins.
Animals like goat can produce sufficient amount of Vitamin C in the bodies.

LEVEL - I
1. The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances is called

(a) Digestion (b) Breathing
(c) Nutrition (d) Respiration
2. The set of teeth that exists in the mouth during the period from six to eight years of a human being
are called ________.
(a) Permanent teeth (b) Molar teeth
(c) Premolar teeth (d) Milk teeth
3. The stomach is a thick–walled bag of ________.
(a) J-shape (b) U-shape
(c) X-shape (d) Z-shape
4. The function of the digestive juices present in the stomach is the breakdown of:
(a) Proteins into simpler substances (b) Starch into sugars
(c) Fats into juices (d) Food into gases
5. The largest gland in the human body is:
(a) Oesophagus (b) Salivary gland
(c) Liver (d) Villi
6. Length of small intestine is:
(a) 10.5 m long (b) 23.4m long
(c) 40 m long (d) 7 m long
7. The process of digestion taking place in grass-eating animals is called:
(a) Egestion (b) Rumination
(c) Assimilation (d) Absorption
8. Diarrhoea is caused due to
(a) Infection (b) Indigestion
(c) Poisoning (d) All of the these
9. Plenty of boiled water mixed with a pinch of salt and sugar dissolved in it is called
(a) An acid (b) An indicator
(d) A base (d) Oral rehydration solution
10. Single celled organism among the following is:
(a) Bees (b) Mushroom
(c) Hydra (d) Amoeba
11. Given below from (i) to (iv) are some food items.
(i) Boiled and mashed potato (ii) Glucose solution
(iii) A slice of bread (iv) Mustard oil

Which of the above will give blue-black colour when tested with iodine?
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (iii) and (iv)
12. Which of the following pair of teeth differ in structure but are similar in function?
(a) canines and incisors. (b) molars and premolars.
(c) incisors and molars. (d) premolars and canines.
13. Read carefully the terms given below. Which of the following set is the correct combination of
organs that do not carry out any digestive functions?
(a) Oesophagus, Large Intestine, Rectum
(b) Buccal cavity, Oesophagus, Rectum
(c) Buccal cavity, Oesophagus, Large Intestine
(d) Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum
14. The swallowed food moves downwards in the alimentary canal because of
(a) force provided by the muscular tongue.
(b) the flow of water taken with the food.
(c) gravitational pull.
(d) the contraction of muscles in the wall of food pipe.
15. The acid present in the stomach
(a) kills the harmful bacteria that may enter along with the food.
(b) protects the stomach lining from harmful substances.
(c) digests starch into simpler sugars.
(d) makes the medium proteins.
16. The finger-like outgrowths of Amoeba helps to ingest food. However, the finger-like outgrowths of
human intestine helps to
(a) digest the fatty food substances. (b) make the food soluble.
(c) absorb the digested food. (d) absorb the undigested food.
17. Read the following statements with reference to the villi of small intestine.
(i) They have very thin walls.
(ii) They have a network of thin and small blood vessels close to the surface.
(iii) They have small pores through which food can easily pass.
(iv) They are finger-like projections.
Identify those statements which enable the villi to absorb digested food.
(a) (i), (ii) and (iv) (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (iii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iv)
18. The enzymes present in the saliva convert
(a) fats into fatty acids and glycerol. (b) starch into simple sugars.
(c) proteins into amino acids. (d) complex sugars into simple sugars.
19. Cud is the name given to the food of ruminants which is
(a) swallowed and undigested. (b) swallowed and partially digested.
(c) properly chewed and partially digested. (d) properly chewed and completely digested.

20. Choose the correct order of terms that describes the process of nutrition in ruminants.
(a) swallowing  partial digestion  chewing of cud  complete digestion
(b) chewing of cud  swallowing  partial digestion  complete digestion
(c) chewing of cud  swallowing  mixing with digestive juices  digestion
(d) swallowing  chewing and mixing  partial digestion  complete digestion
------------
------
LEVEL - II
1. HCl acid secreated in the stomach is strong enough to kill bacteria that enter along with food, then,
how inner lining of the stomach is protected from such a corrosive action of HCl
(a) inner lining of stomach is thick enough to prevent corrosive action of HCl.
(b) inner lining of stomach secretes mucus that forms a protective layer over it.
(c) The glands in the stomach secrete some bases that neutralize the effect of HCl.
(d) All of the above
2. The ___(i)___ secretes bile juice which is stored in the ___(ii)___. The bile breaks up ___(iii)___
into any droplets that can be digested and absorbed more easily. The digestive juices then act on
these tiny droplets to form simpler compounds known as ___(iv)___ and ___(v)___.
Select the option which correctly completes the above paragraph.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
(a) Pancreas Spleen Proteinis Amino acids Glycerol
(b) Liver Gall bladder Starch Fructose Maltose
(c) Liver Gall bladder Fats Fatty acids Glycerol
(d) Small intestine Spleen Fats Amino acids Fatty acids
3. Read the given statements.
(i) Paramecium has skebder like structures called _______ all over its body, which are used for
_______ .
(ii) Hydra has a number of _______ around is mouth, that entangle small aquatic animals and kill
them with their ________cells.
(iii) Frog uses its long, sticky _______ to catch insects.
(iv) Mosquito sucks up the blood of animals with its _______ .
Select the option which correctly fills the blanks in any two of these statements.
(a) (i) - Cilia, Absorptive, (ii) – Head (b) (i) - Tentacles, iingestion, (iv) - Feeding tube
(c) (i) - Cilia, ingestion, (ii) Tentacles, Stinging (d) (ii) - Tongue, (iv) - Pseudopoda
4. The given figure slows the movement of food through the oesophagus. This
movement is aided by the muscles of the oesophagus in a wave-like action
called
(a) Diapedesis (b) Peristasis
(c) Rumination (d) Muscularisation

5. Match Column - I with Column - II and select the correct option from the codes given below.
Column - I Column - II
(A) Energy value of food is measured in calories (i) True
(B) Starch and sugar are proteins (ii) False
(C) Cellulose can be digested in our digestive system
(D) In absence of peristaisis food from oesphagus cannot enter stomach
(a) (A) – (i), (B) – (ii), (C) – (ii), (D) – (i) (b) (A) – (ii), (B) – (i), (C) – (ii), (D) – (i)
(c) (A) – (i), (B) – (i), (C) – (ii), (D) – (ii) (d) (A) – (ii), (B) – (ii), (C) – (i), (D) – (ii)
---------
---

LEVEL - I
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c)

6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a)


WEATHER
Hot, humid, cold, windy, dry, cloudy, these are
all weather words and tell us what the weather
is like. Weather changes have a great impact
on our lives. So before planning for activities
like organizing a school sports or going out for
vacation to a hill station, it is important to know
weather conditions in advance. Newspapers
therefore, publish weather reports and weather
forecast daily for the benefit of all. Weather
report is also an integral part of news bulletins in television and radio. A sample of week’s weather report
from the newspaper is:
The daily weather report carries information of temperature, humidity and rainfall. The report includes weather
conditions that prevailed the previous day and a forecast for the current day. In weather reports on television
the satellite pictures of the earth tell us where a storm is blowing, which places are expected to have rainfall
or snow and which places will have calm weather.
Weather forecasting is one of those activities that is governed by United Nations in a common effort from
which people benefit worldwide. It is based on the readings made by the Meteorological Department which
studies various aspects of weather scientifically. Today, there is access to pictures from satellites with special
remote sensing instruments that are continuously surveying the earth. Computer programmes analyse the
data quickly and make enormous number of calculations.
Weather Tips
i) Don’t look at the sun directly.
ii) Prefer to stay indoors during a bad weather.
iii) If you are outside during a thunder storm, stay away from all objects like electric polls and tall trees.
iv) Stay on the lowest floor of the building during a cyclone.
We can define weather as the day to day conditions of the atmosphere at a particular place at a
given time. The factors or elements determining the state of atmosphere include temperature, air pressure,
humidity, rainfall and conditions of sunshine. Weather conditions are temporary and can change over short
period of time.

Class VII: Weather, Climate & Adaptations of Animals to Climate Biology
Elements of Weather
a) Temperature: Temperature is how hot or cold the atmosphere is, how many degrees celsius (centigrade)
it is above or below freezing (0°C). Temperature is a very important factor in determining the weather
because it influences or controls other elements of the weather such as precipitation, humidity, clouds
and atmospheric pressure.
b) Humidity: Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
c) Atmospheric pressure (or air pressure): It is the weight of air resting on the earth’s surface. Pressure
is shown on a weather map often called a synoptic map, with lines called isobars.
d) Precipitation: It is the term given to moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Precipitation includes
snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain.
e) Wind: Wind is the movement of air masses from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
CLIMATE
Climate means the general sort of weather conditions that are to be found in an area or in a
particular region. It is the average weather conditions or the pattern of weather conditions of that place.
Climate and weather are inter related conditions prevailing in the atmosphere, i.e., rain, clouds, sunshine and
wind. Their day-to-day changes make up the weather. Weather of a place may change from day to day or
even from hour to hour. Climate tells us what it is usually like in a place round the year.
The climatic conditions of any place in the world vary and are dependent upon:
1. Distances from the sea or high mountain ranges: Places near the sea have a moderate climate, i.e..
neither too hot nor too cold. Mountain ranges in an area generally affect the rainfall and winds and hence
the climate of that area. For example, the climate in Darjeeling is cold, while that in Mumbai is warm and
humid, and hot and dry in Jaisalmer.
2. Height of an area above sea level: The higher we go above sea level, the cooler the climate becomes.
3. Winds blowing towards or from the sea: It also affects the climate. Thus, climate is affected by hot
or cold and humid or dry winds.
4. Humidity: Humidity or the amount of moisture in the air also affects the climate. High humidity makes
the climate hot and humid.
5. The distance of a region from the equator: It is also a very important factor that affects the climate
of the region.
SEASON
The twelve months of a year can be divided into different climatic pattern. This we call the season such as
spring, summer, autumn and winter.

It is important to understand that the seasons in the Northern and Southern hemisphere are reversed. When
it is summer in the Northern hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern hemisphere. This is again
because of the earth’s permanent inclination of its axis and earth’s revolutions around the sun.
CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF ANIMALS

Climate is the most important element of the natural environment. The types of organisms and where they
are found depends on it. All living organisms have adapted in different ways to the climates in which they live.
The effect of climate on the adaptations of animals living in polar regions and in the tropical rainforest are
given below:
The Polar Regions

Polar regions constitute the Arctic and the Antarctic regions. Some countries belonging to this region are
Greenland, Alaska Finland, Siberia and the entire of Antarctica continent.
The tropical rainforests as the name suggests are the regions in the tropics. India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil
and Kenya are example of some of the countries where these forests are found.
These are the world’s coldest, driest, iciest and windiest regions. The coldest temperature recorded in the
inland regions of Antractica was as low as –89°C in winter, going up to –30° in summer. There is no permanent
settlement in Antarctica. The Arctic region is sparsely populated and people live on the highlands along the
sea coast. Normal winter temperature are as low as –40° while the warmest month of June has a temperature
of about 10°. Due to the tilt of Earth’s axis while it is orbiting the sun, the polar regions do not get any sunshine
for some months of the year.
Animal Life
There is very little vegetation in the Polar region. The population of animal life is also very small. As these
regions have very low temperature, the animals have adapted themselves well. This makes them compete
for food, protect themselves from predators and breed. Some adaptations as in birds is to migrate to warm
climates thus avoiding, the harsh months of winters. Birds fly thousands of kilometers to warmer climates
and breed. Siberian crane is one such example that migrates to different parts of India like Haryana,
Rajasthan and Bihar during winter months. This movement of birds as known Migration.
Large warm-blooded animals like Polar bear, Reindeer, Musk ox and Wolves can survive harsh winter.
They lose less heat since they have a small surface as compared to their large size. They are also well
insulated by a thick layer of fat and dense fur. Whales, Seal and Walrus living in the sea also have protective
layers of fat.

Adaptations of Polar Bear:
i) The dense fur made of keratin keeps the polar

bear warm and dry. The white fur merges with
the snowy background and hence protects them
from predators.
ii) Polar bears have thick layer of fat under their

skin called blubber. They are as thick as 11 cm.
This provides complete insulation
from cold.
iii) Ears are short to prevent heat loss.
iv) The feet has soft bumps which provide traction on ice and short tough claws grip the ice.
v) Polar bears are strong swimmers and are known to swim at a speed of 100 km/hour.
vi) Their nostrils can remain closed underwater for over two minutes. They can catch fish. Their front paws
propel them through water while hind feet act like rudders.
The keratin fur of polar bear is transparent with a hollow core. It absorbs the UV light of sun which provides
it with extra warmth.
Polar bears have a unique thermoregulation system. They are so well protected against cold, that they can
often get over heated. They cool down by moving slowly, resting and dropping in cold water. Heat is also
released from areas where there is thin fur coat as nose, ear, foot pad and inner thigh.
Adaptations of Penguins
Penguins are birds most closely identified with the Antarctic regions, their unique features are:
1. They are birds, but designed for life in the sea. They cannot fly but are very good swimmers.
2. A coat of fat which is upto 3 cm thick helps them to survive in freezing conditions.
3. Their feathers are stiff and very tightly packed which act like a water proof coat.
4. The dark plumage absorbs heat.
5. On land, most penguins walk upright on their hind feet. They can rest on their heel and tail, thereby
reducing contact with cold ice.
6. Penguins have a unique social behaviour. They live in huge clusters and also huddle close together to
keep warm.
7. Unlike the flying birds, they have heavy solid bones which allow them to stay underwater effortlessly.
8. Their wing-shaped “flippers” make them “fly underwater” at speed of 14-15 km/hour.
9. Their streamlined body and webbed feet make them good swimmers.

Penguins are the only birds that migrate hundreds of kilometers by swimming. They can drink salty water
without any ill effects. They have much better vision underwater. On land, they are almost short sighted.
ADAPTATIONS FOR DESERT LIFE

Climatic Conditions: Desert climate is dry and hot in the daytime but becomes cold at night. There is
excessive shortage of water. Because of this, desert vegetation is scarce.
Plant Life
1. The desert plants are succulent and spiny, and are called cacti.
2. Their leaves are modified into spines to avoid loss of water by transpiration.
3. Their stem becomes green to carry out photosynthesis in the absence of leaves.
4. The stem also becomes fleshy for storing water.
Adaptations in Desert Animals
Animals living in deserts are insects, reptiles birds, small mammals and camels. They show adaptations
for protection from the scorching heat and for the conservation of water.
Protection from heat: Many animals escape from hot and dry conditions of climate and avoid moving
during the day time. They go deep into the burrows. Such animals are called burrowing animals. Many of the
desert animals live in burrows and come out to feed at night when it is cooler. Such animals are called
nocturnal animals, e.g., Desert rats.

Conservation of Water
Desert animals conserve water in the following ways:
 The skin of desert animals is without sweat glands to avoid loss of water by evaporation.
 They excrete concentrated urine, again to avoid loss of water.
 Camel is so well adapted to desert.
Conditions that it is called the ship of the desert
Camel: The height of a camel can vary from 1.8 m to just over 2 m tall at the shoulders. It can weigh from
250 kgs to 680 kgs.
In spring, the camels lose their fur and grow a new coat. It looks sleek after losing fur but looks normal after
a new layer of fur comes in autumn. A bactrain camel has long hair while Arabian camel has short hair.
Adaptations of a Camel:
1. Desert are hot and dry so when the winds blow, sand blows all around. A camel has long eyelashes and
3 layers of eyelids to prevent this.
2. A camel can go for weeks without any food or water as it stores fat and water in its humps.
3. Unlike most mammals, a healthy camels body temperature fluctuates according to the temperature of its
surroundings.
4. Camel’s feet are broad and hoofed so that they can walk on sand without letting their feet sink into it.
5. It’s nostrils can open or close so that sand doesn’t enter their nose.
6. The colour of their body helps them to camouflage.
7. Camels have thick lips so that the spiny plants don’t harm it when it eats desert plant.
8. It has thick leathery patches on its knees to prevent it from the heat of the sand.
9. Thick fur and underwool helps them stay warm during desert nights and keep it insulated in the day.
10. Long and strong legs keep it away from the hot sand and help it in carrying heavy loads.

HIBERNATION
It is the process in which animals escape cold freezing temperature of a place. Many animals of cold climate
go for a long winter sleep. They remain inactive and don’t take any food. Examples of animals showing
hibernation - frog and lizard.
Adaptations in animal living in tropical rainforests

Geographic location: Tropical rainforests are located around the equator. They are found in Western
Ghats and Assam in India, Southern Asia, Central America and Central Africa.
Climatic conditions: Tropical rainforests are hot and humid. During hot summer, the temperature is usually
above 40°C and in winter it is never below 15°C. The length of the day and night remains almost equal
throughout the year. The rainfall is in plenty and occurs almost the whole year.
Animals living in rainforests

The tropical rainforests have a large variety of plants and animals because of very conducive climatic conditions
and mild weather throughout the year. The major types of animals living in these forests are monkeys,
snakes, lizards, birds, amphibians and insects.
Adaptations in Animals
Since the climatic conditions in trophical rainforests are most suitable to support life, the animal life is abundant
and shows a great variety. The animals face a tough competition for food and space . Therefore, they have
adapted to various modes of existence.
Arboreal Habit
Many animals living in tropical rainforests are adapted to live on trees. They are called arboreal
for example:
 Monkeys have a long and coiled prehensile tail for grasping tree branches. Their hands and feet are also
modified to hold on to the branches, i.e., they have grasping feet with opposable thumb.
Note: The tail that can be used to grasp tree branches just like
hands is known as prehensile tail.
 Red eyed frog and other tree frogs have sticky pads on the tips of
digits. These help them to cling and climb on the trees.
 Birds are adapted to roost on trees. Snakes and lizards can also
move on the tree twigs.
Feeding Habits
Since the tropical rainforests are thickly populated, there is a competition

for food. The animals living there have developed several methods for
obtaining food, for example:
 Bird Toucan possesses a long, large beak. This help it to reach the
fruits from branches on which it cannot sit.
 Most forest dwellers are herbivorous because of plenty of

vegetation.
Camouflage
The forest animals have thick skin. Their skin colour camouflages and
blends with the surroundings. This enables the predator to locate the
prey and also protects the prey from the predator because it cannot be
spotted out easily.
Sense Organs
Animals living in tropical forests depend on their senses and agitity. They have sharp eyesight and are
sensitive to hearing.
Animals of Indian tropical forests

Lion-tailed macaque, bearded ape and Indian elephant are
the animals found in Indian tropical forests. Lion-tailed macaque
has silver white mane that surrounds the head, cheek and chin as in
lion. It is a good climber. It feeds mainly on fruits but also enjoys
seeds, young leaves, flowers and buds. It also loves insects under
the bark of trees.
Fig. 9: Lion tailed macaque
Elephants are adapted to live in tropical rainforest. They have large fan like ears, long pointed tusks, a long
prehensile trunk and pillar like legs.
Their adaptations are:
1. Large fan like ears help in the regulation of body temperature. The skin over them is thin and highly
vascular able to lose heat quickly.
2. The tusks are used to dig roots of food plants, to debark or to dig into trees to get the inside pulp.
3. The trunk acts as a human hand for picking and holding things. Elephant trunk can pick even a single
blade of grass or rip a branch of the tree. It can put food in the mouth,
4. The pillar like legs balance the bulky body while cushion like pads of tough gelatinous material act as
shock absorber while moving on the ground.
Elephants are able to lift upto 200 kg or more with their trunk. Therefore,
they are used to transport logs of wood in forests where other means of
transport cannot be used.
Insects form the largest community in a tropical rainforest. A variety of

insects like termites, mosquitoes, spiders, ants and butterflies are found
here. Many of them have brilliant colours.

There are intense competition for food and survival in the tropical rainforest. Since a huge variety of species
live here, survival from its own predators is a priority and it largely depends on the adaptations.
Predator Protection Mechanism

i) Hiding: Animals simply hide in burrows, under rocks, under leaves or under tree barks.
ii) Camouflage: Animals blend into the surroundings viz walking stick insects and some butterflies are
perfectly invisible when they are still.
iii) Scare the predators: Some animals convince the predators that they are bigger or fierce than they really
are viz. many butterflies have large “eye designs” on wings which make them look like head of large
animals.
iv) Warning colour and scent: Poisonous animals openly advertise their defence with colour and scent.
When a predator eats one member of the group it gets sick. The memory stays with the predator who
will avoid that animal in future.
LEVEL - I
1. The Department which prepares weather report is
(a) Telecom Department (b) Electrical Department
(c) Meteorological Department (d) Civil Department
2. The amount of humidity in the atmosphere is a measure of ______________ in air
(a) Heat (b) Temperature (c) Thermometer (d) Moisture
3. The instrument used to measure rainfall is called
(a) Barometer (b) Rain Gauge
(c) Thermometer (d) maximum–minimum thermometer
4. The temperature, humidity, rainfall wind speed, etc., are called the ______________ of weather.
(a) Elements (b) Compounds (c) Indicators (d) Chemicals
5. All changes taking place in the atmosphere are caused by the ______________
(a) Moon (b) Sun (c) Earth (d) Stars
6. The average weather pattern taken over a long time is called the ______________
(a) Climate of the place (b) Temperature of the place
(c) Humidity of the place (d) Rainfall of the place
7. The temperature in Polar Regions in winter will be as low as
(a) – 40ºC (b) 34ºC (c) 45ºC (d) – 37ºC
8. How does the polar bear keep itself warm in cold weather
(a) It has two thick layers of fur (b) It has a coat of wool
(c) It covers its body with a woollen coat (d) It sits by the side of the fire

9. The tropical climate is such that

(a) Duration of days and nights are almost equal (b) Duration of day is more than that of night
(c) Duration of day is less than that of the night (d) Duration of day and night both is less
10. A carnivore with stripes on its body moves very fast while catching its prey. It is likely to be found in
(a) Polar regions (b) Deserts
(c) Oceans (d) Tropical rainforests
11. The maximum and minimum temperature displayed daily in the weather bulletin refer to the –
(a) highest day temperature and lowest night temperature of the day.
(b) highest day temperature and highest night temperature of the month.
(c) temperature recorded at 12 noon and at mid night (00.00 hrs).
(d) average highest temperature of day and average lowest temperature of night.
12. Out of the given definitions, which is the most appropriate definition of climate?
(a) Changes in weather conditions in a year. (b) Average weather pattern of many years.
(c) Change in weather pattern in a few years. (d) Weather conditions during summer.
13. Which of the following briefly describes the desert climate?

(a) Hot and humid (b) Dry and humid (c) Hot and dry (d) Hot and wet
14. Paheli went to a wildlife sanctuary where she saw dense vegetation of trees, shrubs, herbs and also
a variety of animals like monkeys, birds, elephants, snakes, frogs, etc. The most likely location of this
sanctuary is in the –
(a) temperate region (b) tropical region (c) polar region (d) coastal region
15. Given below are some adaptive features of animals:

(i) Layer of fat under the skin
(ii) Long, curved and sharp claws
(iii) Slippery body
(iv) Thick white fur
Which of them are the adaptive features of a polar bear?
(a) (i) only (b) (i) and (ii) only (c) (i), (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i), (ii), and (iv) only
16. Which of the following statement is incorrect for penguins?

(a) They huddle together (b) They cannot swim
(c) They have webbed feet (d) They have streamlined body
17. Read the following environmental conditions of tropical rain forests.

(i) Hot and humid climate
(ii) Unequal lengths of day and night
(iii) Abundant rain fall
(iv) Abundant light and moisture
Identify the conditions from the above list that are responsible for the presence of large number of
plants and animals in tropical rain forests.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i), (iii) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iv)

18. The coldest region on earth is the –

(a) polar region (b) tropical region (c) temperate region (d) coastal region
19. Choose the odd one from the following options :

(a) Thick layer of fat under the skin (b) White fur
(c) Long grasping tail (d) Wide and large feet with sharp claws
LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following adaptations of polar bear are not meant for hunting prey and getting protection
from predators?
(i) White colour of the fur (ii) Huge teeth
(iii) Long hair between the pads on its feet (iv) two thick layers of the fur
(a) (i) and (v) (b) (iii) and (iv) (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (i) and (iv)
2. Read the following statements carefully and select the option which correctly identifies true (T) and
false (F) ones.
(i) The seasonal movement of the complete population of animals from one area to another is
termed migration.
(ii) Heavy and solid bones help penguins to swim through water at a speed up to 15 miles per hour.
(iii) Toucans have four claws in each leg, two in front and two at the back.
(iv) Most rainforests lie between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, that is why they
are often called as Tropical Rainforests.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) F T T T
(b) T T F T
(c) T F T T
(d) F F F T
3. Rohit made the following statements about an Indian state.

 The temperature is high during most part of the year.
 Winter lasts only for a few months in the state.
 This region receives very little rainfall
Which of the following states is being referred by Rohit?
(a) Sikkim (b) Kerala (c) Jammu and Kashmir (d) Rajasthan
4. Organisms in a particular environment have special teeth structure, feet, body shape and body
coverings. These adaptations are called______.
(a) Structural adaptations (b) Ornamental adaptations
(c) Behavioural adaptations (d) Temporary adaptations


LEVEL - I
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)

6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (c)


Soil is very important natural resource and a gift from mother earth. It is capable of supporting life on earth.
It forms a very thin layer on the surface of the earth, ranging from few mm to 3 to 4 meters. It is in this layer
of the soil that the nutrients are produced and held along with air and water. These nutrients nourish the plants
and support their growth. Plants, as we know provide food for all land animals directly or indirectly through
different food chains. It holds the roots of plants firmly. It is also the home of many living organisms.
Thus, there would be no life on earth without soil. But surprisingly, there are places on the earth which have
no soil at all. Large areas of Antarctica and the Arctic are covered with snow and have no soil for plants to
grow on.
SOIL FORMATION
Soil is formed when large rocks on the surface of the earth break into smaller pieces by the action of natural
agents such as rain, wind, the roots of plants, etc.
Soil has not always existed on earth. In very early times, millions of years ago, the ground was mostly solid
rock. It partially changed into soil by the process called weathering. Thus, the process of breakdown of large
rocks into smaller pieces by action of natural force, such as sun, water, wind, glaciers, roots of plants, etc., is
called weathering. Weathering is a very slow process and occurs continuously.
Some of the agents which bring about weathering of rocks are:
1. Physical components like rain, wind and temperature.
2. Biological components like plants, animals and microbes.
Physical Components
Rain: Rain water is one of the causes of the weathering of rocks. It enters the crevices of rocks. In winter,
this water freezes and form ice. Since water expands on freezing, the ice in the crevices of the rocks expand
which further break down to form even smaller pieces.
Wind: The broken pieces roll down by the force of flowing water or strong winds. These pieces further
break down on hitting other rocks. The river currents break these into still smaller pieces which mix with
humus to form soil.
Temperature: The rocks get heated during the day and cooled at night at places which show large variation
in the day and night temperatures. Alternate heating and cooling cracks the rocks and causes weathering.
The rocks expand during the day and contract at night. This continuous expansion and contraction weakens
the rocks, and they crack and crumble.

Class VII: Soil Biology
Minerals present in the rocks react with the atmospheric oxygen during hot and humid climates. Oxidation
produces acid and gases which further break the rocks to form soil.
Biological Components
Plants: Roots of plants can penetrate to great depth for the absorption of water and nutrients. They push
their way across rocks in the earth’s crust and exert lot of pressure on the rocks. Thus, cracks are formed in
the rocks and cause weathering. The acid produced by the roots of some plants also play a role in breaking
down rocks.
Animals and Microbes: The organic acids formed by organisms bring about the biological weathering of
the rocks. The weathered mineral matter and decomposed organic matter get mixed to form soil.
Atmospheric weathering is brought about by the influence of temperature changes and frost. Chemical
weathering involves the action of atmospheric gases and acids dissolved in water.
Weathering of rocks takes a very-very, long time. It takes hundred of years to produce a few centimeters of
soil. Small plants such as mosses, lichens and ferns grow in small cracks and fissures in rocks. When they
die, the residue mixes with the soil to become part of the humus.
Humus is the nutrient rich part of soil that makes it fertile.
Properties of Soil
1. Soil contains air 2. Soil contains water and minerals
3. Soil can absorb water 4. Soil allows water to percolate
AGENTS OF GRADATION
Any natural force which is capable of transporting the weathered rock material is called an agent of gradation.
Running water, ground water, glaciers, wind, sea waves are the chief agents of gradation. These perform the
work of erosion, transportation and deposition of rock materials. They build different soil types and land
forms.
Soil Profile
Soil profile is the side view of the vertical section cut through the soil to the
underlying layer of solid rock (Fig. 1). The process of soil formation directly
leads to the development of the soil profile. The colour of the soil changes
as we dig deeper. Similarly, the size of the rock pieces also changes. Soil
profile shows up different layers called horizons, which are called the A, B
and C layers. These three horizons correspond to the three main layers of
soil, viz, top soil, subsoil and parent rock followed by the impervious or non-
porous layer of bed rock.
Top Soil or A-Horizon

This is the upper most layer which is dark in colour containing organic
matter, the humus. It is soft and porous consisting of fine particles of soil.
Humus makes the soil fertile. Minerals like phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium and calcium are found in this layer. These minerals are very
useful nutrients for healthy growth of plants. Roots of small plants are buried
in this layer. This layer also provides shelter to organism like worms, beetles
and moles.

Sub-soil or B-Horizon
Below the top soil is sub-soil which contains weathered rock materials silt and clay. It is generally coarse and
is rich in minerals that have been washed down from the top layer. Sub-soil is poor in humus, so it is lighter in
colour. It provides minerals to plants with deep roots.
Weathered Rock or C-Horizon

Below the sub-soil is the zone of infertile, partly weathered rock. It does not contain any humus and is not
fertile. This layer is first stage in the soil formation process. It eventually forms the upper two layers.
Bed Rock or Parent Rock or D-Horizon

The fourth layer consists of unweathered, non-porous and impervious parent rock. This is known as bed
rock. This layer provides a base to other three layers. The soil forming materials are derived from weathering
of this layer.
Soil Composition
About one-fifth area of the Earth’s surface is covered with soil. It is the topmost layer of the Earth’s crust.
But not all top soil is the same. The composition varies for different types of soil and depends upon the type
of rock from which it is formed. The colour and size of the soil particles also vary with the minerals present
in the rocks. Some kinds of rocks break into very small particles, whereas others break into larger ones.
Some basic components present in all types of soils are:
1. Rock Particles: These are of different sizes and can be a part of clay, sand and gravel.
2. Minerals: Clay and sand contain minerals like silver, iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium necessary for
healthy plant growth.
3. Humus: Humus is made up of dead and decaying organic plant and animal remains. Humus is formed
by the action of microbes like bacteria and fungi that at on these dead organisms. Humus adds to the
fertility of the soil by providing organic nutrients into it. It improves the soil texture and water holding
capacity. It also prevents minerals from being washed away by water.
4. Moisture: Rain water seeps through the soil and collects above the bedrock. The amount of water
above bedrock determines the natural level of ground water, which is called ‘The Water Table’. All three
types of soil, viz., sandy, clayey and loamy contain some water in the spaces between the soil particles.
This water is taken up to the plant leaves by the root hairs through the xylem tissue of plants. The amount
of water contained in a particular type of soil is called its water holding capacity and depends on the
particle size of the soil.
5. Air: Air is present in the spaces between the soil particles. Plants need air to breathe or respire. Other
living organisms present in the soil also need air to survive and perform the vital function of converting
dead and decaying organic matter to humus.
Texture of Soil
Rock break into smaller pieces of different sizes. This is why the size of soil particles also vary. The texture
of the soil thus depends on the relative proportions of the various types of soil particles.

Depending on particle size, soil is of three types:
1. Sandy Soil 2. Clayey Soil 3. Loamy soil
Sandy Soil Clayey Soil Loamy Soil

Contains more than 60% Contains more than 60% clay. Consists of a mixture of sand,
sand and less than 10% clay. clay, silt and humus.
Sand particle size are big. Clay particle size are very Particle size are intermediate
Diameter greater than small, Diameter less than between the two. Diameter
0.2 mm. They are coarse to 0.002 mm. They are smooth between 0.2 mm and
touch. and sticky. 0.002 mm. They are partially
gritty and smooth.
Have large space between Have very little space between The space between particles
sand particles. the clay particles. is intermediate between the
two.
Sandy soil can hold air, but They can hold water but They have the right water
cannot hold much water. Not cannot hold much air. Not holding capacity and are well
good for plant growth. good for plant growth as soil aerated.
cannot hold air for roots to
breathe.
It is used in construction Used for making pottery idols Loamy soil are good for
along with other cementing and bricks. farming and gardening and is
material best for plant growth.
Finally, depending upon the size of soil particles, soil can be classified into:
Gravel 5.0 mm (diameter)

Fine gravel 2.0 mm (diameter)
Coarse sand 0.20 mm (diameter)
Fine sand 0.02 mm (diameter)
Silt 0.002 mm (diameter)
Clay Less than 0.002 mm (diameter)
Soil Types
Different geographical regions have different types of soils with their own characteristic colour, texture and
contents. Six types of soils are commonly found in India, as described below:

1. Red Soil or Red Latosol: This soil is red in colour due to the presence of iron oxides. It contains quartz
and clay particles but is deficient in nitrogen and humus. This soil can be enriched with nutrients by the
addition of manures and fertilizers. This type of soil is found in the interior regions of Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, Southern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Eastern Madhya Pradesh.
2. Black Soil or Regur: This rich black loamy soil is rich in minerals, humus and is porous in nature. It
contains large proportions of iron and magnesium which are derived from basaltic rocks - the rocks
formed from the lava of volcanic eruptions. This soil is ideally suited for growing sugarcane and cotton.
In India, regur soil is found in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
3. Alluvial Soil or Khadar: It is the most important and widespread of all the soil types. It covers
approximately 40% of the land area . It is formed by the deposition of silt which has been brought down
by the great Himalayan rivers - Sutlej, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. In India it is found in the
plains of Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Coastal Orissa and Andra Pradesh.
4. Desert Soil: This soil contains large proportions of sand. It is greyish brown in colour, porous in texture
and is rich in soluble salts. It does not have good water holding capacity but it can become fertile when
watered. Sandy soil is mainly found in the Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat and in Rajasthan.
5. Mountain Soil: This is highly fertile soil and has the highest humus content among all the soils in India.
The proportion of its contents vary from place to place. It is found in the Himalayan region and North
Eastern parts of India and some parts of the Western Ghats and other hilly ranges such as the Malabar
range in Kerala.
6. Laterite Soil: It is red in colour and is found in regions of heavy rainfall with highly humid tropical
climates. It is clayey in texture and good for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee and coconut. In
India, it is mainly found in the Westsern Ghats, parts of Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Assam.
Water Holding Capacity of Soil
The amount of water absorbed and retained by the soil is called its water holding capacity. It depends upon
the amount of humus present in the soil and the texture of the soil. Since the texture of soil varies from place
to place, its water holding capacity also varies.
Sandy Soil: Sandy soil has very poor water holding capacity because of the large spaces between the soil
particles.
Clayey Soil: Clayey soil has very good water holding capacity, so in areas that have a lot of clayey soil,
waterlogging is common. Waterlogging mean the collection of stagnant water above the soil whenever there
is rain. The water logged soil cannot hold air for plant roots to breathe, hence plants cannot grow
well in it.
Loamy Soil: It has good capacity to hold and absorb water. This soil is ideal for agriculture.

Soil Quality and Suitability

Quality of soil depends upon:
1. Fertility of Soil: The capacity of soil to sustain plant life is known as fertility of soil. Soil fertility can be
enhanced artificially by adding to the soil:
a) Chemical fertilizers.
b) Biomanures like cow dung compost and vermicompost to the soil.
2. Soil Particles: On the basis of the particle size, soil can be classified as gravel, fine gravel, coarse sand,
fine sand, silt and clay.
3. Soil Texture: Relative proportion of different size of soil particles forms the texture of the soil. On the
basis of texture, soil can be classified as sandy, clayey and loamy.
4. Water Content: Plants are propagated mainly in soil and get their water supply from soil. Chief source
of water for soil is rainfall. As we have seen, the water holding capacity of different types of soil varies.
There are different ways in which water finds its way into the soil, and these are known as follows:
a) Gravitational Water: The type of water that moves down through the layers of soil due to the effect
of gravity.
b) Capillary water: Water held between the soil particle. This is the water that the plants take
from soil.
5. Soil Air: Air is required for respiration in roots and for release of energy.
6. Soil Colour: Colour of soil may be white, yellow, red, grey or black. Red soils are rich in iron oxides.
Dark coloured soils contain more organic matter. Red and yellow colour of soil increases as we proceed
towards the equator from cold or polar regions.
Soil and Crops

Suitability of soil for growing a particular crop also depends upon the texture and type of soil. For example
sandy soil is not suitable for plant growth because of its low capacity for water retention. Clayey soil, on the
other hand, is rich in nutrients but has good water holding capacity. In fact, it gets water logged easily. It is
therefore, badly aerated. It is suitable for crops like paddy, which require lots of water. Loamy soil is ideal for
growing crops because of good aeration, good water holding capacity and is rich in nutrients and humus.
Soil Erosion
The process by which the top soil is carried by different agents like rain, wind, rivers, etc., from one place to
another is called soil erosion. This leads to loss in fertility of the soil.
Soil erosion is more common in areas which are not covered by trees or grass and are bare. In the absence
of any vegetation the top soil becomes loose and gets easily carried away. Soil does not get eroded if it is
covered by vegetation. The roots of the plants bind together the top soil particles and prevent soil
erosion (Fig. 3)

Causes of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion can occur mainly due to:
1. Overgrazing: When cattle are allowed to
graze on the same land for a long period of
times, they eat up most of the plants (or grass)
of that land. This removes the vegetation cover
from the top soil. This bare top soil can be
easily carried away by rain or wind leading to
soil erosion.
2. Deforestation: This is another major cause
for soil erosion. Cutting down of trees in a large
scale is called deforestation. The roots of the trees bind the soil particles. Strong wind and rain water
then carry away the top soil and cause soil erosion.
3. Excessive ploughing of fields: If farmer plough or till their fields excessively to grow crops, the soil in
the field becomes loose and can be easily eroded by rain and strong wind.
4. Fast blowing winds: Fast blowing winds carry away the dry top soil.
5. Heavy rainfall: In regions with heavy rainfall, the top soil is washed away by flowing of flood waters.
Effects of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion can harm the environment in many ways. Soil erosion can lead to floods, famines and can also
cause landslides in hilly areas.
Soil Conservation
The judicious and economic use of a natural resource is called conservation.
Soil can be conserved by:
1. Aforestation: The growing of trees on a large scale is called afforestation. This helps in soil conservation
as the roots of plants bind the soil particles together.
2. Covering the soil: To prevent the fields in the plains from being eroded, cover the soil with dried
vegetation. Tall trees act as wind screens to prevent the erosion of soil by wind.
3. Step farming: In mountainous regions step farming help in slowing down the downward flow of water.
4. Construction of river embankments and dams: The embankments and rocks and stones on the
banks of river help in preventing soil erosion caused by the flooding of the river.
5. Preventing overgrazing: The overgrazing by cattle should be prevented so the soils are not devoid of
green cover and thus are not eroded easily.
6. Preventing deforestation: Avoiding large scale deforestation.
7. Searching of alternative sources of energy like biogas, etc., instead of wood for fuel.
8. Crop rotation: Crop rotation should be adopted to maintain the fertility of soil (including planting of
legumes and ploughing biomatter bank into the soil).

LEVEL - I
1. The rotting dead matter in the soil is called:
(a) Humus (b) Salt (c) Protein (d) Weathered rock
2. Breaking down of rocks by the action of wind and climate is called:

(a) weathering (b) soil vegetation (c) cultivation (d) percolation
3. Which soil horizon contains humus?

(a) A - horizon (b) B - horizon (c) C - horizon (d) Bed rock
4. The water holding capacity is highest in:

(a) sandy soil (b) clayey soil
(c) loamy soil (d) mixture of sand and loam
5. Water can easily pass through:

(a) sandy soil (b) loamy soil (c) clayey soil (d) all of these
6. The smallest particle of soil is:

(a) clay (b) sand (c) silt (d) gravel
7. The hard layer of rocks below the C-horizon is called:

(a) Bottom rock (b) substratum (c) bed rock (d) gravel
8. Which of the following soil is best suited for agriculture?

(a) Black soil (b) Red soil (c) Alluvial soil (d) Mountain soil
9. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Soil is formed by ________ of rocks.
(b) ________ soil is found in Gujarat.
(c) ________ soil is mainly found in western ghats.
(d) ________ soil is red in colour due to presence of iron oxide.
10. State whether the following statement is true or false:

(a) Soil is affected by climatic factor.
(b) In desert, soil erosion occurs through wind.
(c) The colour of black soil is due to presence of iron oxide.
(d) The layer which is hard and difficult to dig with spade is called top soil.
(e) Sandy soil is used to make pots, toys and statues.

LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following type of soil is loosely packed with large air spaces?
(a) Sandy soil (b) Clayey soil (c) Loamy soil (d) None of these
2. Soil formation is a:
(a) Slow process (b) Fast process (c) Rapid process (d) None of these
3. Soil profile refers to an arrangement of:

(a) its horizontal layout (b) its vertical layout
(c) the size of soil particle (d) the colour of soil
4. Percolation of water is the least in _____?

(a) sandy soil (b) clayey soil (c) loamy soil (d) none of these
5. Which soil layer is made up of small lumps of rocks?

(a) A - horizon (b) B - horizon (c) C - horizon (d) Bed rock
6. Why do earthworms come out of water logged soil during heavy rain?
(a) To feed on insects (b) To keep its skin moist
(c) To breathe air (d) To swim in water
7. In addition to rock particles, the soil contains ______.

(a) air and water (b) water and plant
(c) mineral, organic matter, air and water (d) water, air and plants
8. Which of the following soil is good for growing plants as it is a mixture of sand, clay and humus?
(a) Clayey soil (b) Loamy soil
(c) Sandy soil (d) All of these
9. The technique of watering plants by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at
the base of the plant is known as ____.
(a) Bawris (b) Water harvesting
(c) Drip irrigation (d) None of these
10. A farmer grows paddy crop in his field for two consequent years. After second year, the yield of
paddy crop decreased markedly. Which agricultural practice should be implemented to increase
the yield?
(a) Field fallow (b) Manuring (c) Weeding (d) Crop rotation


LEVEL - I
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)

6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c)
Fill in the blanks:

9. (a) weathering, (b) black, (c) laterite, (d) red
Write True or False
10. (a) True, (b) True, (c) False, (d) False, (e) False
LEVEL - II
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (c)

6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)


A living organism requires energy for performing various activities to survive. This energy is released by the
breakdown of digested food stuffs during the process of respiration. Thus, respiration is the fundamental
process of energy release in our body. Respiration occurs in all living cells. The energy rich food stuffs like
glucose and fructose are oxidised in our body (in the presence of oxygen) and changed to water and carbon
dioxide. This reaction with oxygen is known as oxidation. Thus, respiration is the process of taking in
oxygen, using it for the release of energy by oxidation of food and elimination of waste products
carbon dioxide and water.
Respiration process can be summarized as
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Respiration is carried out in two steps:
1. External respiration or breathing.

2. Internal respiration or cellular respiration.
BREATHING
It is the process of breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dixoide. The exchange of oxygen
and carbondioxide is brought about by breathing mechanism differently in different animals. In higher animals,
from frog to man, this exchange of gases takes place in the respiratory organ, the lungs. Here oxygen is
absorbed and distributed by the blood to each and every cell of the organisms.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Oxygen present in the blood combines with the food present in the form of glucose in the cells, to release
energy. The energy released during respiration takes place only with the help of several chemical reactions,
generally catalysed by enzymes. This energy is utilized for various metabolic activities. This part of respiration
is called internal or cellular respiration and occurs in the mitochondria or the power house of the cell.
Cellular respiration takes place in all living organisms, from bacteria to man. This shows functional unity
inspite of structural diversity in living organisms.

Class VII: Transportation in Animals and Plants Biology
Table 1: Differences between cellular respiration and breathing

Breathing or external respiration Cellular or internal respiration
1. It is a preliminary step for respiration and 1. It is a biochemical process involving
is a physical process. It involves exchange of gases and oxidation of food.
inspiration of fresh air and expiration of
foul air.
2. It does not release any energy. 2. It releases energy that is stored in ATP.
3. It is an extracellular process. 3. It is an intracellular process.
4. No involvement of enzymes. 4. It involves a number of enzymes in
oxidation of simplest food components.
5. Breathing mechanism varies in different 5. Respiratory mechanism is similar in all
animals. animals.
6. It is confined to certain organs only. 6. It occurs in all cells of the body.
TYPES OF RESPIRATION
Depending on whether oxygen is used in the process or not respiration is of two types:
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, where food (glucose)
is broken down into carbon dixoide, water and energy is released which is stored as ATP molecules.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbondioxide + Water + Energy (38 ATP)
Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen. It is normal
feature in certain microscopic organisms like bacteria and yeast. Such organisms that can survive in the
absence of oxygen are called anaerobes. In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks partially into carbon
dioxide and ethyl alcohol. The energy released during anaerobic respiration is much less than in aerobic
respiration.
Glucose  Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy (2 ATP)
The process whereby micro-organisms like yeast and bacteria respire anaerobically to produce alcohol and
carbon dioxide from food is called fermentation.

Table 2: Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. It occurs in the presence of oxygen. It occurs in the absence of oxygen.
2. Complete oxidation of glucose produces Incomplete oxidation of glucose produces
Carbon dioxide, Water and Energy. Ethyl alcohol, Carbon dioxide and Energy.
3. It is a two-stage process and occurs in It occurs only in the cytoplasm of the living
cytoplasm and mitochondria of the living cell.
cell.
4. Large amount of energy (38 ATP Very little energy is released during
molecules per glucose molecule) is released. anaerobic respiration.
5. Water is formed as an end product. Water is not formed as an end product.
6. It takes place in all living organisms. It takes place in some lower organisms like
yeast and bacteria.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Human beings have a more extensive and complex respiratory system. This is because our metabolic rate is
high and so is the energy demand. Since our body cannot store oxygen so we need to breathe day and night
to move air into and out of our system.
The respiratory system of human being includes:
1. Respiratory Tract 2. Respiratory Organ
Respiratory Tract
Nostrils and Nasal Passage: Nostrils are a pair of slits that open into left and right nasal chambers. The
nasal chamber possesses a border of hairs, which trap dust particles and germs in the air and filter them. It
is richly supplied with blood vessels that warm the incoming air. The sticky mucus lining of the nasal chamber
moistens the air and filters dust particles.
Pharynx: Pharynx is a common passage at the back of the mouth for air and food. Air enters the front tube
called the windpipe. The entrance of the food pipe and the windpipe is guarded by a stiff flap – like structure,
the epiglottis. It helps in controlling and directing food to the food pipe and air along the windpipe respectively.
It opens during breathing, but closes the passage of windpipe while swallowing or drinking thus preventing
the food from entering the respiratory tract.

Trachea: The pharynx leads to trachea, a tube lying in front of the food pipe. It passes through the neck and
extends into the chest cavity. Its walls is supported by C-shaped cartilagenous rings which prevents collapsing
of windpipe.
Bronchi and Bronchioles: At the lower end trachea splits into two bronchi that leads to the lungs on their
respective side. Each bronchus further divides and subdivides into smaller tubes known as bronchioles. Each
bronchiole ends in tiny air sacs called alveoli. It is here that exchange of gases takes place. Each lung of an
adult human contains about 300-400 million alveoli. Alveoli have very thin walls and are richly supplied with
blood capillaries. The oxygen present in air, we breathe in goes into the blood and CO2 present in the blood
passes out of the blood into the alveoli. Thus exchange of gases takes place.
Respiratory Organ
Lungs: These are a pair of respiratory organs that are spongy bag – like structures, lying in the chest cavity
on either side of the heart. The left lung is two lobed and slightly smaller than the right lung which is three
lobed.
The two lungs are protected by the flexible ribcage and sternum on the front and the vertebral column at the
back. Just beneath the lungs, is a dome-shaped muscular sheet, the diaphragm.
The co-ordinate action of diaphragm and ribcage help in the mechanism of drawing oxygen (inhalation) and
expelling the CO2 (exhalation).
The process of breathing is aided by the rhythmic expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. It is the
intercoastal muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm that make this possible. Breathing involves two
steps:
1. Inspiration or Inhalation 2. Expiration or Exhalation
Inspiration: Breathing in or the entry of air from the atmosphere to the lungs is called inspiration. During
inspiration, intercoastal muscles contract and push the ribs upwards and outwards, making the cone - shaped
diaphragm flat. This causes decrease in the air pressure inside the alveoli as the volume of thoracic cavity is
increased. The atmospheric air, which is at higher pressure, rushes in through the respiratory tract to equalize
the pressure. Finally, the exchange of air takes place in the alveoli surrounded by fine blood capillary. Oxygen
is taken up by haemoglobin of RBCs of blood and carbon dioxide is given up by blood to the alveoli (fig.1A).

Fig. 1
Expiration: The process of breathing out or expelling carbon dioxide and water from the lungs through the
respiratory tract is called expiration. During expiration intercoastal muscles relax, the ribs, move inward and
the diaphragm becomes dome – shaped again. The volume of the chest cavity decreases and the air pressure
inside the alveoli increases. Thus air is pushed out under increased pressure through the respiratory tract (fig1B).
Cellular Respiration
In inhalation, there is more oxygen in the atmospheric air in the alveoli than in the blood capillaries. So the
oxygen moves from the air to the blood. Here it combines with the haemoglobin (the red coloured pigment of
Red blood cells) to form oxyhaemoglobin (Fig, 2).
Fig. 2 The alveoli, showing its blood supply and how gases are exchanged
The oxygenated blood goes from lungs to the blood vessels and returns to the heart. The heart pumps this
blood throughout the body through the arteries. The arteries further subdivide many times to form capillaries
which supply the cells of the body, the oxygen they need to breakdown food (glucose) and release energy.
Carbon dioxide and water are produced as waste products during cellular respiration, which need to be
eliminated from the body. This carbon dioxide is now absorbed by the blood in the blood capillaries which
combine to form veins. This carbondioxide is exchanged with oxygen in the alveoli. The carbon dioxide is
then expelled from the body through exhalation or expiration.

Table 3: Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration
1. It is an anabolic process as it results in (i) 1. It is a catabolic process as it result in (i)
synthesis of organic molecules (glucose) breakdown of organic molecules (chiefly
from simple inorganic molecules, and (ii) glucose) into simple inorganic ones, and
increase in weight. (ii) decrease in weight.
2. In uses CO2 and H2O. 2. It releases CO2 and H2O.
3. It is endergonic process as it stores 3. It is exergonic process as it releases
chemical energy in the bonds of organic chemical energy of the bonds in organic
compounds formed. compounds.
4. It takes place in sunlight only. 4. It takes place all the time (day and night).
5. It is confined to the green parts of the 5. It occurs in all the cells of the body.
plants.
6. It occurs in the chloroplasts. 6. It occurs partly in the cytoplasm and
purify in the mitochondria.
7. Plants can live for many days without 7. Organisms soon die without respiration.
photosynthesis.
Respiration in Other Animals
We have lungs for respiration. But all animals do not have lungs. Frogs, snakes, crocodiles, birds and mammals
possess lungs. They have nostrils (not the nose) to inhale air. However, primitive animals like earthworm
cockroach, mosquito, snail and fish are without lungs. Their respiratory organs are much different.
Respiration in Earthworm
Worms breathe through their skin, as they don’t have any lungs or nose. The mouth is used for eating
organic and rotting material along with soil. Breathing through their skin allows them to stay underground for
long periods. They also don’t have any eyes or ears but rather sense their way along with chemical and light
sensitive cells.
The skin’s moisture plays a key role in how oxygen travels into the
worm. The worm exposes itself to oxygen by either lying out in the
open or burrowing into the soil. Oxygen meets the dampness of the
skin and breaks down to be absorbed through the small tiny blood
vessels called capillaries just under the skins surface. The oxygen
then travels through these blood streams and is pushed throughout
the body with their five larger blood vessels that resemble hearts.
Once through the body, the capillaries push the waste of Fig. 3 Respiration in Earthworm
carbondioxide back out the same capillaries through the skin and
away from the worm.

Worms often, spend most time underground or underneath things as their skin has to stay moist. It cannot be
allowed to dry out or the pores will not enable oxygen to be broken down and then absorbed. There is usually
enough oxygen in the soil to keep worms alive. During rainy times, it is suspected that the ground is so moist,
there is not enough oxygen to breathe in so they often come to the surface in an effort to avoid suffocation.
Worms also come to the surface more at night to avoid the heat of the day. They are unable to breathe
underwater as the water blocks off the pores. Staying moist but not wet is the key of
their survival.
Respiration in Cockroach
Cockroaches, like all insects breathe through a system of tubes
called tracheae. The tracheae of insects are attached to the
spiracles, excluding the head. Thus cockroaches, like all insects
are not dependent on the mouth and windpipe to breathe. The
valves open when the CO2 level in the insect rises to a high
level; then the CO2 diffuses out of the tracheae to the outside
and fresh O2 diffuses in. Unlike in vertebrates that depend on
blood for transporting O2 and CO2, the tracheal system brings
the air directly to cells, the tracheal tubes branching continually
Fig. 4 Tracheal system in cockroach
like a tree until their finest divisions, tracheoles, are associated
with each cell, allowing gaseous oxygen to dissolve in the cytoplasm lying across the fine cuticle lining of the
tracheole. CO2 diffuses out of the cell into the tracheole (Fig. 4).
While cockroaches do not have lungs and thus do not actively breathe in the vertebrates lung manner. In
some very large species the body musculature may contract rhythmically of forcibly move air out and in the
spiracles, this may be considered a form of breathing.
Respiration in Fishes (Aquatic Respiration)

Fishes and other animals living in water are called aquatic animals. They obtain oxygen dissolved in water.
Their respiratory organs are gills. Gills are projections of skin. They have a network of fine blood capillaries.
The oxygen dissolved in water diffuses into the blood. Capillary carbondioxide present in capillary blood
diffuses into water. The oxygenated blood from capillaries is taken to heart and pumped to different parts of
the body and carbondioxide rich blood from body tissue is taken to gills for the exchange of respiratory
gases (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 Gills in Fish

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Like animals, plant also need energy to grow and perform life functions. Plants get this energy through the
process of respiration. Plants use atmospheric oxygen to break down glucose into carbondioxide and water,
accompanied by a release of energy. Generally, the plants do not have any organs for breathing. The exchange
of gases in plants is performed by a simple process of diffusion.
In higher plants, oxygen and carbondioxide move in and out of the roots and stem through the outer layers of
cells. But the majority of gas exchange takes place through small openings in the leaves called stomata,
(Sing.Stoma). Stomata with nearby cells is known as stomatal apparatus (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 Stomatal apparatus showing (a) open

and (b) closed stomata. Right-hand side shows
enlarged section view.
On each side of stoma is an oval shaped guard cell and several accessary or subsidiary cells. The expansion
and shrinking of the guard cell due to the flow of water from surrounding cells result in the opening
and closing of stomata. Under normal conditions, the stomata remain open during the daytime and closes at
night time. The stomata help in the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. All parts of the plant produce
carbondixoide as a result of respiration. However, the rate of exchange of gases in plants is much slower
than in animals.


LEVEL - I
1. The process by which gases are exchanged between the body and surrounding is:
(a) digestion (b) excretion (c) reproduction (d) respiration
2. Plants exchange gases through:
(a) stem (b) leaves (c) stomata (d) none of these
3. The food material used to release energy in body cells is:
(a) Oxygen (b) CO 2 (c) Glucose (d) Water
4. The biological fuel is:
(a) Glucose (b) Water (c) CO 2 (d) Oxygen
5. Respiratory part of man is:
(a) skin (b) gills (c) trachea (d) none of these
6. The product of Aerobic respiration are:
(a) Sugar and oxygen (b) CO2, H2O and energy
(c) Water and energy (d) CO2 and energy
7. Name the tiny pores present in leaves of the plants for exchange of gases:
(a) Tracheae (b) Spiracle (c) Stomata (d) Xylem
8. Which one of the following is an air borne disease?
(a) Typhoid (b) Tuberculosis (c) Malaria (d) Cholera
9. Fill in the blank:
(i) _______ breathes through its skin.
(ii) Giving out air rich in carbon dioxided is called _______.
(iii) _______ is the process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy.
(iv) Fishes uses _______ for respiration.
10. Which of the following statements are true/false?
(i) In insects, circulating body fluids serve to distribute oxygen to tissues.
(ii) Yeasts respire aerobically, therefore, they are used to make wine and beer.
(iii) CO2 concentration is more in alveolar air than in inspired air.
(iv) On an average, an adult human being at rest breathes in and out 15-18 times in a minute.
(v) Capacity of human lungs for air in a healthy person is 1500 ml.
LEVEL - II
1. During respiration exchange of gases takes place in:
(a) alveoli (b) larynx (c) villi (d) none of these
2. The blood receives _____ from lungs.
(a) carbon dioxide (b) water (c) haemoglobin (d) oxygen
3. The opening and closing of stomatal pore is controlled by:
(a) oxygen (b) carbon dioxide (c) guard cell (d) all of these
4. What are the end product of aerobic respiration?

(a) CO 2 (b) Ethyl alcohol (c) Pyruvic acid (d) Glucose
5. In cockroach, air enters the body through:
(a) lungs (b) gills (c) spiracles (d) skin
6. One molecule of glucose produces energy equal to:
(a) 8 ATP (b) 18 ATP (c) 28 ATP (d) 38 ATP
7. During heavy exercise, we get cramps in the legs due to the accumulation of :
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Lactic acid (c) Alcohol (d) Water
8. During inhalation, the diaphragm :
(a) moves downwards (b) moves upwards
(c) moves towards left (d) moves towards right
9. Kreb’s cycle takes place in:

(a) endoplasmic reticulum (b) lysosome
(c) ribosome (d) mitochondrial matrix
10. Which of the following processes involves oxidation of food within a living body for the release of
energy?
(a) Photosynthesis (b) Respiration
(c) Reproduction (d) Excretion

LEVEL - I
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b)
Fill in the blanks:
9. (i) earthworm, (ii) expiration, (iii) respiration, (d) gills
Write True or False
10. (i) True, (ii) False, (iii) True, (iv) False, (e) True
LEVEL - II
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (b)


In biology, transport is a life process in which a material absorbed (or made) in one part of the body of an
organism is carried to other parts in its body.
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
All organisms have a way of transporting substances from one part of the body to another. Complex animals
and plants have well developed transport system. It is responsible for the following:
 Supply of nutrients and oxygen to every cell of the body.
 Transport of substances formed in one part of the body to those parts where they are needed, like
hormones and certain enzymes in animals and food in plants.
 Removal of harmful substances produced during metabolism like carbon dioxide ammonia and urea etc.,
from the place of formation of the region of excretion.
Mode of Transport
Animals and plants have different modes of transport of substances The substances transported are also
different.
 Transport in animals is by circulatory system.
 Transport in plants is by vascular system.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Circulatory system is the life support system that provides our body cells with food and oxygen. It takes away
waste products from the body cells.
Circulatory system is a system of vessels which connects all the cells, tissue and organ of the
body together.
Parts of Circulatory System

There are three main parts of the circulatory system - heart, blood vessels and blood.
Heart: The human heart is a conical muscular organ, about the size of a man’s fist. It is the main pumping
organ and lies in the rib cage, between the two lungs. The human heart has four chambers. The upper two
chambers are larger and are called the right and left auricles / atrium.
Auricles have comparatively thinner walls. The auricles receive blood from different parts of the body
through the veins, which pour the blood into the ventricles. The opening of the auricle to the ventricle is
guarded by a valve which controls the flow of blood.
The ventricles have thick muscular walls which pump the blood to various parts of the body through the
arteries (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 A. Simplified diagram showing flow of blood in human heart.

B. Events of cardiac cycle and their durations - One cardiac cycle - 0.8 sec
From the Deoxygenated

body parts Vena Deoxygenated Right Deoxygenated Right Deoxygenated
except lungs cava atrium ventricle
Oxygenated Left Oxygenated Pulmonary Oxygenated

Lungs
Deoxygenated Pulmonary
atrium veins artery
Left Oxygenated Oxygenated Rest of

Aorta
ventricle the body

The right auricle and the right ventricle receive carbon dioxide rich blood through the inferior-vena cava and
superior-vena cava and pour it into the right ventricle. The left and right side of heart are separated by a
muscular wall called septum. The left auricle and left ventricle receive the oxygen rich blood from the lungs
through the pulmonary veins. There is a complete separation of the pure and impure blood in the heart. This
is ensured by the number of valves present in the heart, that allow unidirectional flow of blood. Thus, the
passage of blood in the heart can be summarized as follows:
When the right and left ventricles are full of blood, the heart is in an expanded condition, called the diastole.
Then the ventricles contract, the left ventricle sends oxygen rich blood to different parts of body through the
aorta, while the right ventricle sends the carbon dioxide rich blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries
for purification. This state of contraction is called systole.
The alternate systole and diastole produce a lub:

dub sound – the heart beat. A normal human
heartbeats 72-80 times per minute, while a new
born baby’s heartbeat can be upto 140 beats per
minute. The human heart pumps about 5 litres of
blood per minute.
Thus, impure blood from the body first enters the

right side of the heart and then goes to the lungs
for purification. From lungs, the blood again enters the heart from the left side, from where it is pumped to
various parts of the body. This type of circulation of blood is called double circulation. The force or
pressure, with which the blood is forced out of the heart can be felt in the artery near the wrist.
This is called the pulse. Doctors use a stethoscope (Fig. 2) to record the pulse / heart beat. The pulse
rate increases during fever and exercise.
The pressure in the arteries during systole and diastole is called the blood pressure. The normal blood
pressure of an adult is 120/80. Excessive consumption of fats and anxiety are the two major and most
common factors responsible for increase in blood pressure. Blood pressure is monitored by an known as
sphygmomanometer.

Blood Vessel
The blood circulatory system makes food, water and oxygen available to every part of the body and helps in
removing waste materials of the body like carbon dioxide, etc.
There are three types of blood vessel. (a) arteries; (b) veins; (c) capillaries
Arteries: Each heart beat pumps blood into blood vessels. The arteries carry oxygen rich blood away from
the heart to the various organs of the body. They lie deep in the muscles and can be noticed only at the places
where we feel the pulse, like the throbbing at the hollow spot on the wrist.
Veins: Veins carry blood towards the heart. They usually bring carbon dioxide – rich blood from the various
organs of the body to the heart. Veins are located just below the skin. The pressure with which the blood
rushes through the veins can be measured with the help of an instrument called
sphygmomanometer.
Capillaries: Capillaries are the thinnest and finest blood vessels. The arteries branch into smaller arteries
and finally into capillaries. The capillaries unite to form the vein. The thin walls help in performing their
functions effectively.
Table 1: Differences between artery, vein and capillary
Artery Vein Capillary

1. Thick-walled with narrow Thin walled with wide lumen Thin walled narrow tubes with
lumen valves are absent. valves are present. narrow lumen.
2. Blood flows from heart to Blood flows from body organs Capillaries join artery with the
other body parts under high to the heart under low pressure. vein and form a network in the
pressure. body organs.
3. Supplies blood to body Collects blood from body Helps in the exchange of food
organs. organs and brings it back to oxygen and CO2 between blood
heart. and tissues.
4. Situated deeper under the Situated just under the skin. Situated very deep within the
skin. organs.
5. Carries oxygenated blood Carries deoxygenated blood Carries both types of blood.
(except pulmonary arteries). (except pulmonary veins).
Importance of Capillaries:
Capillaries have very thin walls which help
a) In picking up CO2 and other wastes from every cell and passing them into the alveoli and kidneys
respectively.
b) Picking up oxygen and digested food from the alveoli in lungs and small intestine respectively and passing
them to each and every body cell for cellular respiration.

Blood
Blood is the main transporting tissue in our body. It carries food, air, waste products, hormones etc. Our body
contains 3 to 5 litres of blood. Blood consists of plasma (the fluid part) and blood cells (of three types,
which float in the plasma).
Plasma: A yellowish coloured fluid medium and contains water (about 85 – 90%) inorganic and organic
substances. Organic substances are mainly proteins. Plasma also carries dissolved excretory products,
hormones, enzymes, digested food and even CO2.
Blood also contains three types of blood cells:
a) RBC or red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes.
b) WBC or white blood cells or leucocytes.
c) Platelets or thrombocytes
RBC. RBC’s are non nucleated disc-shaped cells. The red colour of RBC is due to the presence of the
protein haemoglobin. There are about 5- 5.5 million RBC’s in one ml of oxygen blood and are responsible to
different parts of the body. Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin.

reversible
Oxygen + haemoglobin  
 Oxyhaemoglobin
reaction
When oxygen rich blood reaches the tissue and cells of the body, oxygen is released for use in cellular
respiration. Hence the haemoglobin free to carry more oxygen.
Anaemia is a very common disorder in which the amount of haemoglobin gets lowered. This leads to decrease
in the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
WBC: The number of WBCs in blood is less than the number of RBCs. They are comparatively bigger in
size than RBCs and are meant for protecting the body against harmful bacteria and diseases. They show
Amoeba like movements and are capable of ingesting foreign material. WBCs are the first ones to reach at
infected or injured part of the body by passing through the walls the blood vessels.
Platelets: These help in blood clotting at the area of injury and block blood flow. Hence they prevent blood
loss. These are smaller in size than RBCs. Haemophilia or bleeder’s disease is a genetic platelet disorder.
In a person suffering from haemophilia, there is no clotting of blood. Even a small wound or cut can prove
fatal for such people as they can bleed to death.
Functions of Blood
1. It is a medium for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli of lungs and body cells.
2. Blood capillaries present in the villi of small intestine help in the absorption of food.
3. Hormones secreted by different endocrine glands in the body are also circulated throughout the body
via blood.

4. Plalelets present in the blood help in blood clotting and thus prevent excessive blood loss.
5. Blood circulates in the body and perform the function of collecting and transporting waste materials to
the excretory organs for excretion.
6. Blood circulation also maintains a constant internal body temperature.
7. WBCs present in blood protect us from germ and infections.
TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS
Different flowering plants herbs, shrubs and trees draw water from soil through their roots. Many of the
outer cells at the root extend to form root hairs.
Root Hairs
The root hairs absorb water along with dissolved minerals and transport it to the leaves through xylem part of
vascular system (Fig.3). Leaves are known as the “Food factories”. Food is prepared here by the process
of photosynthesis.
Food that is prepared in the leaves is in the form of glucose. It is converted into a soluble sugar and transported
through phloem to storage organs like seed, fruits, stem and root. Thus xylem and phloem are present as
vascular system in plants throughout their body, that is from roots to leaves covering the stem and the
branches.
DO YOU KNOW?
A group of cells, mostly of similar type performing specialised function. Group of tissues
make an organ. Xylem and phloem are examples of plant tissues.
Conduction of Water and Minerals through Xylem
The process by which water and minerals salts are transported from xylem of root and carried upward to the
stem, branches and leaves is called Ascent of sap. There are two important forces responsible for the
uptake of water and minerals in plants — one arising from the roots and the other by the leaves from the top.
The mode of transport in different kinds of plants – herbs, shrubs and trees is almost the same. [Fig. 4]

The two kinds of forces are:
1. Root pressure
2. Transpiration pull
Root Pressure
The roots of a plant are in direct contact with water in the

soil. The branching nature of root hairs provide a large
surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts. The
continuous absorption of water by root hairs build up
sufficient force to push the water upwards through the
xylem.
Transpiration Pull: The loss of water from the aerial parts

of plants in the form of water vapours is known as
transpiration. Water evaporates through stomata, the tiny
pores present on leaf surfaces. When water is lost from
the leaves either due to transpiration or consumed in the
process of photosynthesis, the water column becomes
greatly stretched and creates a pull. The continuity of water
column does not break due to the forces operating between
the water molecules and also between the water molecules
and the wall of the xylem . The transpiration pull is sufficient
to raise water in leaves of the tallest trees.
Thus due to combined effect of push force due to root pressure and pull force due to transpiration by leaf
cells, water moves upwards along the xylem vessel (Fig. 5).
OSMOSIS
(i) The movement of water molecules takes place across the membrane from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution
(ii) This is a physiological process taking place when two solutions having different concentrations are
separated by a semipermeable membrane.
(iii) A semipermeable membranes is one that allows only water molecules to pass through. .
(iv) This process enables cell to cell movement of water in the root cells after it is absorbed from the soil by
the root hairs. Thus water finally reaches the xylem of root.
Conduction of prepared food through Phloem

Food prepared by the green leaves by the process of photosynthesis needs to be sent to storage organs and
other parts of the plant body. The process by which it takes place is known as Translocation of prepared
food. Special type of vascular tissue, the phloem is responsible for carrying the prepared food to all parts of
the plant.

EXCRETION
Many harmful and unnecessary substances or by-products are produced in the body of living organisms due
to continuous synthesis (nutrition) and breakdown (respiration) of materials. The unwanted by products or
waste materials include carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid, etc. If they are
allowed to accumulate in our body beyond a certain concentration, they poison the cells and slow down the
metabolic process. Thus, these waste products must be thrown out of the body as such or changed into
harmless material before being removed form the body.
Hence, the process of removal of metabolic waste materials from the body is called excretion.
Excretion in Unicellular Organisms
A large part of ammonia remains unused in our body. It is either excreted as such, or after conversion to urea
or uric acid. In unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Paramoecium, Hydra and Sponges, there are no special
organs for excretions. The waste products are thrown out into the surrounding water through the general
body surface by diffusion directly from the cells in which they are produced.
Excretion in Plants
Plants don’t have well developed excretory organs but plants have a unique method of waste disposal:
 Oxygen and water vapour, the waste products or byproducts of photosynthesis also diffuse out through
the stomata and lenticels throughout the day, by a process called transpiration. The waste material
produced due to respiration is carbon dioxide. Plants need CO2 and water vapour in the presence of
sunlight to perform photosynthesis. So carbon dioxide is partly used by the plant itself for the synthesis of
food by photosynthesis. The excess carbon dioxide escapes through stomata and lenticels from the
surface of leaf and stem respectively.
 In older plant cells, some harmless excretory products may remain trapped in the large vacuoles. These
may remain inside the cell throughout their life.
 Plants also get rid of wastes by shedding their leaves in the autumn. Some plants also shed bark at
regular intervals.
 Not all plant wastes are useless. Some wastes are of great values, such as gum, resin, sandalwood oil,
eucalyptus oil (a pain reliever used in many medicines), tannins (found in the bark of trees and used for
tanning leather), latex (making rubber products) and alkaloids (very poisonous compounds, some of
which like quinine, or digitalis, a powerful toxin used for cardiac medicine, extracted from Foxglove, etc.,
are used to make medicines).
Excretion in Animals
In higher or multicellular organisms direct diffusion process for waste removal is too slow. Larger animals
have a well developed excretory system. For example:

 Earthworms and leechs have developed specialised organs nephridia (tubular structure).
 Insects have Malpighian tubules.
 Vertebrates have kidneys.
Excretion in Humans
The human body has specialized organs for the removal of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes. These
organs are:
Large intestine: The undigested food is removed from the large intestine and thrown out of the body
through the anus in the form of faeces.
Lungs
Carbon dioxide and water vapours are the respiratory

wastes which are exhaled out of the body through the
nostrils during breathing process.
Skin: Our skin helps in eliminating excess of water,

urea, salts and other metabolic wastes in the form of
sweat. Sweat is secreted from the sweat glands below
the skin (Fig. 6)
Thus excess salt (NaCl), nitrogenous waste (urea produced due to breakdown of proteins in the body) and
water (diffusing into sweat glands from the blood capillaries) are removed from the body through the sweat
pores.
Sweating or perspiration regulates the body temperature as it causes cooling due to evaporation.
Liver: Dead RBC and excess amino acids and proteins are removed from the body in the form of urea from
the liver by the blood.
THE URINARY SYSTEM
Blood circulates in the body and collects water and waste products from different body organs. The blood
now needs to be filtered, so it enters the urinary system (Figure 7.). The human urinary system consists of :
1. A pair of Kidneys
2. A pair of Ureters
3. One Urinary bladder
4. One Urethra

Kidneys
Kidneys are situated along the back of the abdominal wall,

at the level of the waist on either side of the vertebral
column. Kidneys are brick red in colour and bean shaped
in structure. Each kidney weighs about 150 gms and is
about 12 cm long, 6 cm wide and 3 cm thick. Each kidney
has two layers a thin outer covering, the cortex, forming a
capsule and inner layer of medulla. The basic structural
and functional unit of a kidney is a nephron. There are
more than a million nephrons in each kidney (Fig. 7).
Structure of Nephron
The basic structural and functional unit of kidney is

composed of:
(i) Bowman’s capsule is a bowl-shaped structure which

encloses a cluster of capillaries called the glomerulus.
(ii) Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries, which filters water

and wastes (like urea and salt) the filtrate passes to
the tubules.
Note: The clean blood then flows out of the kidney,

while impure blood then flows into the urinary tubules.
(iii) Renal tubule is the tubular part of nephron that

performs the function of reabsorbing (sodium salts and
water from the filterate)
Many collecting tubules further join to form bigger tubes, the ureters. The urine formed in the collecting
tubules flows into the ureters, which carry it out of the kidney and collect it in the urinary bladder.
Ureters
Human beings have two ureters, one coming from each kidney. Ureters are thin walled, urine-carrying ducts.
They are about 30 cms long, and run down ward from each kidney to open into the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder
It is an elastic, sac-like structure where urine is stored. Its size varies with the amount of urine present in it.
The kidneys of an adult produce only about 1.5 litres of urine whereas they filter 135-150 litres of fluid every
day. The bladder can expand to hold upto about 0.5 litres of urine. The desire to urinate begins when the
bladder is half full.

Urethra
From the urinary bladder, urine is carried through a duct called the urethra and finally discharged from the
body. A human being passes about 1.5 to 2.5 litres of urine every day.
Urine is normally light yellow in colour. It contains 95% water, 2.5% waste products (minerals salts and
compounds of sodium and potassium) and 2.5% urea. The urine composition in a normal healthy person
remains fairly constant, but may change during sickness.
Note: An examination of urine tells the physician whether various organs in the body are functioning normally
or not. That is why doctors usually advice a urine test to diagnose diseases.
Kidney Malfunction
The kidney functions as an excretory as well as an osmoregulatory organ. The amount of water in the blood
is controlled by osmoregulation. Generally, glucose or sugar is not present in the urine. If sugar comes from
the blood in the filtrate along with the urine, it indicates that the person may be suffering from diabetes.
Diabetes interferes with the conversion of the unused sugar in the body into glucose and its further breakdown.
Kidney Failure / Renal Failure
Our body needs 2-3 litres of water every day to flush out urea and to keep the urea concentration at a low
level in the body.
The presence of blood in urine is an indication of damaged kidneys. Sometimes, an infection in the kidney or
restricted blood flow or an injury can cause severe damage to the kidney and it may stop working. Under
such circumstances urea and other waste products accumulate in the blood. Osmoregulatory function of
kidney is also affected. If not treated immediately, this can ultimately lead to death.
DO YOU KNOW?
The usual treatment for kidney failure is either dialysis or kidney transplant.
Dialysis
The process of cleaning the blood of a person (with kidney failure) by separating the waste
substances, using a dialysis machine is called dialysis.
To perform dialysis, the blood from a artery in the patients arm is passed through the dialysis machine. The
machine contain a tank with dialysing solution and long cellulose tubes are coiled and dipped in the tank. The
dialysing solution contains water, glucose and salts in concentration similar to that of normally observed
in blood.
When the patient’s blood has higher concentration of glucose, salts and wastes, passes through the dialysing
solution, the wastes present in it pass through the semi-permeable cellulose tubes into the dialysing solution.
The clean blood is again pumped back into the vein of the patients arm. The dialysis continues till all the blood
in the body has been cleaned. This treatment has to be done regularly. Dialysis is very expensive and painful
process. But if the condition of the patient worsens, the doctors generally recommend a kidney transplant.

Note: If kidney fails to work or becomes functionless, an artificial kidney can be installed. The artificial
kidney is used to filter the blood of a person whose kidneys are damaged. This process is called haemodialysis.
It involves a good deal of discomfort and a risk of the formation of blood clots.
Kidney Transplant
It is the best long term solution for patients with kidney failure. The damaged kidney is replaced by a surgical
procedure with a matching kidney donated by a healthy person. But until a suitable match is available, the
patient has to undergo dialysis periodically. Nowadays, the facilities of dialysis and even kidney transplantation
are available in good hospital all over the country.
DO YOU KNOW?
The first kidney transplant in India was performed in 1.12.1971 at Christian Medical College,
Vellore, Tamil Nadu on Shanmughan.


LEVEL - I
1. The function of the blood is to transport :
(a) The digested food from the small intestine to the other parts of the body
(b) Digested food from the parts of the body to the large intestine
(c) Digested food from small intestine to the large intestine
(d) None of these
2. Blood carries ____________ from lungs to the cells of the body :

(a) Argon (b) Oxygen
(c) Carbon dioxide (d) Nitrogen
3. The fluid part of the blood is called :

(a) Plasma (b) RBC
(c) WBC (d) Blood Platelets
4. ____________ helps in the sufficient supply of oxygen to all the cells of the body :
(a) Haemoglobin (b) Melanin
(c) WBC (d) Platelets
5. The cells in the blood which fight against the germs entering the body are :
(a) RBC (b) WBC
(c) Platelets (d) Haemoglobin
6. A resting person usually has a pulse rate between :

(a) 72 and 80 beats per minute (b) 82 and 90 beats per minute
(c) 62 and 70 beats per minute (d) 52 and 60 beats per minute
7. The process of removal of waste materials from the body is called :

(a) Digestion (b) Excretion
(c) Respiration (d) Inhalation
8. White patches formed in areas like underarms are due to :
(a) Salts present in the sweat (b) Sugar present in the sweat
(c) Acids present in the sweat (d) Bases present in the sweat
9. Process in which food substance are moved to rest parts of the plants by phloem is known as
(a) transpiration (b) translocation
(c) respiration (d) both (a) and (b)

10. Give one word for the following:

(i) The movement of gas from higher concentration region to lower concentration region through
semi-permeable membrane_________.
(ii) The system that consists of blood, blood vessels and heart is _________.
(iii) The process of cleaning the blood of a person by using a dialysis machine is _________
(iv) The basic structural and functional unit of kidney is _________.
LEVEL - II
1. Name the pigment which gives red colour to the blood in mammals.
(a) Globulin (b) Haemoglobin (c) Plasma (d) Platelets
2. Vascular tissue that transport water and nutrients in plants are called _______.
(a) veins (b) phloem (c) xylem (d) root hairs
3. Water reaches great height in the trees because of suction pull caused by _______.
(a) expiration (b) inspiration (c) perspiration (d) transpiration
4. Process / processes that does not require energy for movement of particles is/are:
(a) diffisuion only (b) osmosis only
(c) diffusion and osmosis (d) active transport
5. Excretion in plants takes place through which of the following option?

(a) Stomata (b) Root hairs (c) Xylem (d) None of these
6. Choose the correct option:

(a) Kidney  Urethra  Ureter  Urinary bladder
(b) Kidney  Ureter  Urinary bladder  Urethra
(c) Urinary bladder  Kidney  Ureter  Urethra
(d) Kidney  Urinary bladder  Ureter  Urethra
7. The cells in the blood which fight against the germ entering the body are:
(a) RBC (b) WBC (c) haemoglobin (d) platelets
8. The formation of clot when bleeding is stopped from a wound in a human body is due to:
(a) RBC (b) WBC (c) platelets (d) haemoglobin
9. _______ is an elastic, sac-like structure where urine is stored.

(a) Kidney (b) Urethra (c) Urinary bladder (d) Ureter

10. Match the following:

(i) Stomata (a) Absorption of water from soil
(ii) Xylem (b) Transpiration
(iii) Root hairs (c) Transport of food
(iv) Phloem (d) Transport of water
(a) (i) – (b), (ii) – (d), (iii) – (a), (iv) – (c) (b) (i) – (a), (ii) – (b), (iii) – (c), (iv) – (d)
(c) (i) – (d), (ii) – (c), (iii) – (b), (iv) – (a) (d) (i) – (c), (ii) – (b), (iii) – (c), (iv) – (a)


LEVEL - I
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b)
Fill in the blanks:
10. (i) difusion, (ii) circulatory system, (iii) dialysis, (d) nephron
LEVEL - II
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)


A characteristic feature of all living organisms is that they give birth to young ones of their own kind. What
would happen if new generations of species were not produced from their parents? The earth would turn out
to be barren place with no life. Since the life span of an organisms is limited, they have devised ways and
means to multiply their number. The ability of all living organisms to produce new individuals of their
own kind is called reproduction. However, reproduction is not essential for an organisms’s survival, but it
ensures that the organisms leaves behind more individuals of its own kind, so that the species does not perish
from earth.
There are different types of plants growing around us in park, school, garden and in our neighbourhood.
Many of these plants bear flowers and fruits. Such plant body consists of two main parts:
i) Vegetative Part: These are concerned with nutrition and growth. They comprise of the roots, stems
and leaves.
ii) Reproductive Part: This is essentially concerned with reproduction of the plant. It comprises of the
flower. A plant may have both male and female parts borne on the same flower or they may be borne by
different flowers.

Class VII: Reproduction in Plants Biology
MODES OF REPRODUCTION
The three most common methods of reproduction among living organisms are:
1. Asexual reproduction.
2. Vegetative Propagation.
3. Sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction involves the production of a new organism by a single parent. It occurs when there
is plenty of food available and conditions are suitable for growth. Asexual reproduction is common in unicellular
organisms but is also observed in multicellular plants and animals. There are many forms of asexual reproduction.
a) Fission b) Fragmentation c) Budding
d) Sporulation e) Regeneration
a) Fission: Fission means division of cell into two parts. During fission, two daughter cells of equal size are
formed from one parent. This is the simplest and most common method of reproduction seen in unicellular
organisms such as Amoeba, Paramoecium, Euglena and bacteria. It can be of 2 types :
i) Binary fission: In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves to produce two
daughter cells. Binary fission takes place when food is abundant. In Amoeba (Fig. 1) a unicellular
organisms that lives in ponds and puddles, first the nucleus divides into two equal nuclei and then the
cytoplasm divides. This results in two daughter Amoeba which grow to attain full size and split again.
Fig. 1 Amoeba
The binary fission may be longitudinal or transverse. Paramoecium (Fig. 2) shows transverse binary
fission. The parent cell or individual no longer exists after binary fission is complete.
ii) Multiple fission: During unfavourable conditions like lack of water, excessive heat or high temperature,
a thick protective wall develops around the Plasmodium cell, called the cyst (Fig. 3). The Plasmodium

splits many times within the cyst to form many small daughter cells. This is called multiple fission.
When the cyst finally breaks, several daughter cells are released at once.
b) Budding: Budding is another method of asexual reproduction in which a small bulb like outgrowth
appears on the body of the organism called the bud. It grows and may break away from the parent to
form a miniature organism. Yeast, corals, sponges and Hydra reproduce by budding (Fig. 4).
In yeast, a unicellular organisms, a little cytoplasm accumulates at one end of the cell. The nucleus of the
parent cell divides into two and one is sent into the bud. Bud formation occurs very rapidly in yeast cells,
to form a chain of yeast cells under favourable conditions. All these chains of buds don’t detach from the
parent individual. So a sort of colony is formed.
In Hydra, a multicellular organisms a bud appears on the body wall which grows into a full Hydra in a
day or two, develops tentacles and mouth and detaches from the parent body.
In corals and sponges, buds don’t separate out but remain attached to the parent organism. They grow to
full size and reproduce again and again, producing a colony.
c) Spore Formation: During unfavorable conditions

many fungi (mushrooms), ferns, mosses and bacteria
such as yeast, rhizopus and mucor, reproduce through
spore formation. A spore is a tiny spherical unicellular
body protected by a hard and thick wall (Fig. 5). Spores
are microscopic structures. These spores help in
overcoming conditions unfavourable for reproduction,
in which the plants can survive eg. lack of food and
external temperature conditions by forming spores. The
resistant spores of various organisms, e.g. the bread
mould (fungi) float in the air and settle on uncovered
bread or any other suitable food. It germinates and
grows under favourble conditions like nutritions,
temperature, moisture, etc. to produce hyphae.

Hyphae penetrate the bread, as can be seen as white thread like structure on the bread during rainy
season. Some hyphae are erect and possess the swelling at their tips, called sporangium. The spores are
produced by multiple fission inside the sporangium.
The white powder like substance that grows on leather goods and shoes during the rainy season are also
fungi whose spores germinate to produce new colonies on leather given favourable conditions of temperature
and moisture.
In case of mosses and ferns, spores are produced inside the special structure called capsules.
d) Fragmentation
There are several filamentous organisms like

Spirogyra and flatworm (Planaria) that increases their
population by fragmenting their filaments. The
organisms breaks up into two or more fragments after
maturation, and each fragment starts growing into a
new individual (Fig. 6).
e) Regeneration: The ability of certain plants and animals

to re-develop, a lost limb or body part, is called
‘regeneration’, e.g. Amoeba and Paramoecium can
regenerate lost parts. In fact, if an Amoeba is cut or
crushed into many small pieces, with a portion of
nucleus in every piece, each piece can develop into a
full Amoeba. Regeneration is more common in plants
than in animals.
If a Hydra (Fig. 7A), earthworm or Planaria is cut

into pieces, each piece can develop into small Hydra,
earthworm or Planaria. A starfish (Fig. 7B) if caught
by the enemy, loses its arms and escapes. Later on, it
can develop or regenerate that arm. Similarly, a wall
lizard can regenerate its lost tail. A grasshopper can
grow a new leg in place of broken one. The power of
regeneration is restricted only up to healing of wounds
etc., in man. Humans are not able to regenerate a lost
part naturally.
Vegetative Propagation
Like spores, higher plants can also survive unfavourable conditions. Under such conditions, the aerial parts of
a plant usually die but the underground parts like root or stem remain dormant or inactive. When conditions
are favourable again, these dormant parts grow again to produce a new plant. Similar is the case with sweet

potato, potato etc., which do not produce any seeds. Thus, when new plants are produced from parts of the
parent plant such as the root, stem or leaves, without the help of any reproductive organs, it is known as
vegetative reproduction. Different methods are used in horticulture for fruit yielding and ornamental plant,
like, cutting (stem), e.g. layering in sugar cane and grafting in mango, roses, etc.:
a) Vegetative Propagation by stem: Some plants send out a side branch from the main plant, and a root
grows down into the soil. The stem grows in length and creeps along the ground (runners) and forms
roots at intervals, thus forming new plants (Fig.8). When the new plant has grown enough, the link
between the old and the new plant withers away, e.g. some species of grass and strawberry.
Some plants reproduce vegetatively beneath the soil, e.g., onion, potato, ginger, etc., Modified underground
stems also store food. Underground stems are capable of producing several new plants from their buds
and thus help the plant to multiply. Tuber, bulb, corm, rhizome are the different modifications of an
underground stem. (Fig. 8):
i) Tuber: Seeds of potato are not viable. The tubers have ‘eyes’ present on the them. The ‘eye’ is
made up of a bud and scale leaves. When sown, each eye is capable of developing the root, stem and
leaves.
ii) Bulb: Bulbs are actually swollen large underground buds covered with scale leaves. It is a shoot
modification that has a very short stem and apical and axillary buds. It stores food for the growth of
new leaves and flowers. For example, onion, lily, tulip, garlic etc.
iii) Rhizome: It is horizontally growing underground stem, swollen with stored food. A rhizome bears
distinct nodes, internodes, scaly leaves and adventitious roots. It has buds on its surface from which
grow new plants. Ginger and turmeric are examples (Fig.9).

iv) Corm: It is vertically growing underground stem, swollen with stored food. Some plants like Crocus,
Gladiolus, etc., consist of a short swollen solid fleshy underground stem (Fig. 10). Daughter corms
develop from the sides of the parent corm, which later break off to form new plants.
b) Vegetative Propagation by Root: Some plants like Dahlia and sweet potato have roots that help in
vegetative propagation (Fig.11). If roots tubes of seet potato is cut into pieces and sown in well prepared
soil, a new plant can be produced.
c) Vegetative Propagation by Leaves: In Bryophyllum and Begonia, new plants are produced from
leaves, which have buds on the notches in their margins (Fig.12). These buds after falling on the ground
or coming in contact with the soil, grow into new plant. Thus a new plant with proper root and shoot
system can grow from a bud.
d) Vegetative propagation using artificial methods: Vegetative propagation is a simple, fast and less
expensive method of plant propagations. It is, therefore, commonly used in horticulture and agriculture.

The techniques used are stem cutting, layering, grafting and tissues culture:
i) Cutting: In this method, cutting of a healthy young branch of a plant having leaf buds is planted in the
moist soil. Cutting develops roots and grows into a new plant. This method is to propagate plants like
chameli, Bougainvillea, rose and sugarcane (Fig.13).
ii) Layering: In this process a young branch is bent towards the ground and covered with moist soil
forming a layer. After some time, roots develop from the covered part. The branch is then cut off
from the parent plant and allowed to grow into a new plant. This method is commonly used by
gardeners to develop plants like jasmine, vines rose and Bougainvillea (Fig.14).
iii) Grafting: This is a common method used in horticulture to develop new varieties of ornamental
plants and fruit trees:
 In this method a bud or cutting with buds of

one plant, called the scion, is kept over the cut
stem of another plant, called the stock.
 The scion and the stock are then firmly tied
together.
 The care is to be taken that stock has an
extensive root system under the soil.
 After sometimes, the tissue, of the stock and
scion join together to form one plant. The stock
supplies the essential nutrients to the scion
(Fig. 15).

This is the technique of combining the features of two plants. For example a high yielding variety
may be grafted to a disease resistant variety to have characteristics of both the plants. Many new
varieties of mangoes available in the market are developed by this method.
Advantages of Vegetative Propagation
1. It is a sure and quick method of multiplying a plant.
2. Plants grown this way require less time to mature and bear fruits than those grown from the seeds.
3. It helps in rapid spread of the plant over an area.
4. The new plants produced by this method are exactly like the parent plant.
5. Through grafting, plants with desirable qualities of two varieties can be combined.
6. Plants developed by vegetative propagation usually need less attention than plants grown from seeds.
7. The survival rate of plants is almost 100% in vegetative propagation while it is hardly 1% through the
formation of seeds.
Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation
1. It leads to overcrowding.
2. There is no mechanism of dispersal.
3. The plants may show degeneration due to the absence of sexual stimulus.
4. Plants so propagated are not so efficiently protected as the seeds are. They decay easily.
5. Due to lack of genetic variation, the adaptability of plants to the environment is limited. Plants gradually
lose vigour and become prone to diseases.
Sexual Reproduction
Most flowering plants are hermaphrodites i.e., both male and female gametes or sex cells are present in
the same flower. Thus flower are the reproductive organ in plants. Flowers of plants like china rose, Calotropis
and banyan contain both male and female gamete. Plants use various methods to ensure fertilization and
sexual reproduction. For example, moss grows in damp places because it needs water for the sperms to
swim to the eggs to fertilize them.
a) Flower: It is the reproductive organ of a plant. A flower is attached to the plant by stalk. There are many
kinds of flowers but the main function of the flower is sexual reproduction and to produce seed which, on
getting favourable conditions, produce new plants. Certain common features are present in all flowers. A
flower that contain both male and female parts is known as complete flower. Thus, a complete flower
contains sepals, petals, androecium or stamen and gynoecium or carpel or pistil. The androecium
or stamen produces the male gametes while the gynoecium or pistil produces the female gamete
(Fig. 17).

Some flowers like corm and papaya contain either male or female reproductive organs and can produce
only one type of gamete are called incomplete flowers.
There are four main parts of the flower
1. Sepals 2. Petals 3. Stamen 4. Pistil
Sepals: The sepals are green in colour and protect the flower in bud condition.
Petals: The petals are large and variously coloured to attract insect for pollination.
Stamen: It is the male reproductive part and consists of two parts the long narrow salts like filaments and
the upper, broader knob like anther. The anther lobes consist of pollen sacs that contain, millions of pollen
grains, which are yellow in colour. The male gametes are produced inside the pollen grains.
Pistil: It is the female reproductive part and consist of a swollen stigma at the top, a slender tube like
style and a swollen ovary at the bottom. Inside the ovary, the ovules contain a little bag called the embryo
sac. The unripe seeds or eggs are present inside this sac.
b) Pollination: When the anther is mature, it splits open and sheds the pollen grains. They are dispersed by
various agencies such as wind and water, so that they can be transferred to the stigma of another flower
of the same species or of the same flower. The pollen grains have to be deposited on to the stigma to
fertilize the egg in the ovary. Thus, the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma is called pollination.
Pollination takes place through wind, water and insects.
Pollination : It is the transference of pollen grain from the anthers to the stigmas. Pollination is of two
types:
 Self pollination and Cross pollination

POLLINATION
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
or
Autogamy Geitonogamy Allogamy or
(same flowers) (different flowers Xenogamy (flowers of different
plants of the same species)
of the same plant)
Homogamy Cleistogamy
Agents for Cross Pollination
 Anemophily : Pollination is carried out by wind in those plants where the flowers are inconspicuous
and not showy, nor do they emit any scent or produce nectar for attracting insects. Stigmas are long and
often feathery. Anemophily is common in cereals, grasses, palms, etc.
 Hydrophily : Pollination is carried out by water. It is observed in aquatic plants, e.g., Hydrilla, Elodea,
Vallisneria.
 Zoophily : Pollination is carried out by animals. Various types of zoophily are as follows :
 Entomophily : Flowers are characteristically large and brightly coloured to attract insects. Pollen
grains are sticky with rough surfaces. E.g., Salvia, Ficus, Orchids, Aroids, etc., are pollinated by
insects. Common insect pollinators are bees, wasps, moths, butterflies, etc.
 Ornithophily : It involves pollination by birds, e.g., bottle brush, coral tree, red silk cotton tree.
The flowers are rich in nectar.
 Chiropterophily : It involves pollination by bats. Flowers are large-sized and produce

abundance of nectar, e.g., Kigelia pinnata (sausage tree), Anthocephalus cadamba.
 Malacophily : It is pollination by snails e.g., aroids
 Myrmecophily : It involves pollination by ants. e.g., members of mimoceae family.
Advantages of self-pollination:
1. Flowers need not be large or conspicuous.
2. Scent and nectar are generally not produced by flowers to attract insect.
3. Small quantity of pollen is sufficient.
4. Parental characters are preserved from generation to generation.
5. It is a definite method of seed formation.

Disadvantage of self-pollination:
1. Weak characteristics of the species are passed from one generation to the other.
2. The plant doesn’t improve genetically.
3. Continued self-pollination may decrease vigour of the future generations of the species.
Advantages of cross-pollination:
1. New and better adapted varities are produced continuously.

2. More vigorous offsprings are produced.
Disadvantages of cross-pollination:
1. The process takes a lot out of the plant as the flowers have to be large, showy with bright petals and
nectar to attract insects for ensuring pollination. This costs the plant a heavy amount of food and energy
to produce.
2. Large quantity of pollens are produced and wastage is substantial.
3. Pollination dependents on pollinating agents or medium like water, air, insects, bats, birds animals, etc.
4. Pollination is an uncertainty; it is not definite.
Table 1: Differences between self-pollination and cross-pollination

Self-pollination Cross-pollination
1. It is the migration of pollen grains from It is the migration of pollen grains from
anther to the stigma of the same flower or anther to the stigma of another flower of
different flower of the same plant. another plant.
2. Cross-pollination always occurs through
Self-pollination always occurs through
an external agent e.g., air, wind, insects,
touch or wind.
etc.
3. Both anthers and stigmas mature at the The anthers and stigmas mature at
same time. different times.
4. It can occur in closed flowers. It occurs only when the flowers are open.
5. Race is almost constant i.e., homozygous. The race is changing i.e., heterozygous.
6. It gives rise to offspring having
It gives rise to pure lines.
variations.
7. It does not preserve the parental
It preserves the parental characters.
characters.
8. Yield of plant falls off with time. Yield of plant does not fall off with time.
9. Origin of new species is not possible. It produces new race and varieties.
10. For example – jasmine, palm, coconut,
For example – pea, wheat, rice, etc.
maize, Zostera, etc.

Table 2: Differences between wind pollinated and insect pollinated flower.
Insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower

1. Flowers are large or may be in Flowers are small.
clusters.
2. Flowers are showy and attractive, with Flowers are not brightly coloured.
brightly coloured petals.
3. Flowers emit scent for inviting insects. Flowers do not emit scent.
4. They produce nectar, which is food They do not produce nectar.
for several insects.
5. Their pollens are sticky or spiny. Pollens are neither sticky nor spiny.
6. Pollens are produced in small Large quantity of pollen is produced,
quantity. since wastage is substantial.
7. Their stamens are usually small and Stamens are long and protruding to
within the flower petals. release pollens in air.
8. Stigma is short and sticky. Stigma is long and exposed to the air.
9. For example – jasmine, Rafflesia, For example – coconut palm, date palm,
Bougainvillea, etc. maize, Cannabis, etc.
FERTILIZATION
 Fertilization : The fusion of male and female

gametes is known as fertilization. A pollen grain
falls on the stigma of the carpel, it grows a pollen
tube downwards into the style. This pollen tube
(which contains two male gametes) reaches the
ovary where ovules are present. The male
gametes coming through the pollen tube can enter
into the embryo sac of ovule through a tiny
opening called micropyle.
Fruit
The fruit is a ripend ovary. They may or may not contain seeds. At times, the fruit develops even without
fertilization. This is called parthenocarpy. Fruits are two types:
True fruits: True fruit is the fruit that is formed from the fertilized ovary. e.g., Mango, Peach, Lemon,
Watermelon and Kiwifruit.
False fruits (Accessory fruit): It is the fruit that is formed the floral parts other than ovary. e.g., Cashewnut,
Apple, Pear, Cucumber and Pineapple.


LEVEL - I
1. The process by which plants give rise to new plants without seeds is called :
(a) Sexual (b) Asexual reproduction
(c) Vegetative Propagation (d) Budding
2. Reproduction through the vegetative parts of a plant is known as :
(a) Sexual Reproduction (b) Vegetative Propagation
(c) Asexual reproduction (d) Pollination
3. Male reproductive part of a plant is :
(a) Pores (b) Stamen (c) Pistil (d) Fusion
4. The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called :
(a) Unisexual flowers (b) Asexual flowers (c) Sexual flowers (d) None of these
5. The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called :
(a) Spore (b) Zygote (c) Embryo (d) Pistil
6. The female reproductive part of a plant is :
(a) Pistil (b) Bud (c) Stamen (d) Spore
7. The process of fusion of the male and female gametes is called :
(a) Fertilisation (b) Reproduction (c) Pollination (d) Seed formation
8. Mature ovary forms the :
(a) Seed (b) Pistil (c) Stamen (d) Fruit
9. Fill in the blank:
(i) Production of new individuals from the vegetative part of parent is called _________ _________.
(ii) Asexual reproduction in spirogyra is an emample of _________.
(iii) Fungi reproduce by _________ formation.
(iv) The fusion of male and female gamete is termed as _________.
10. State which of the following statement is true or false.
(i) A flower that contain both male and female part is incomplete flower.
(ii) The fruit is ripened ovary.
(iii) Pistil is the female reproductive part of plant.
(iv) The production of new individuals from their parents is known as respiration.
(v) In sexual reproduction, only one parent is involved.
LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following produces spores:
(a) Rose (b) Potato (c) Bread mould (d) Ginger
2. Bryophyllum can reproduce by its :
(a) Stem (b) Roots (c) Leaves (d) Flower
3. Seeds are mainly carried by two means and those are:
(a) insects and birds (b) wind and birds
(c) insects and wind (d) grazing animals and insects.

4. Hydra reproduces by:

(a) spores (b) fusion of gametes (c) budding (d) all of these
5. Which of the following plant gives rise to new plant by roots?
(a) Sweet potato (b) Ginger (c) Rose (d) Orchids
6. Which one of the following is not a method of vegetative propagation?
(a) Cutting (b) Grafting (c) Fragmentation (d) All of these
7. The small bulb like projection coming out of yeast is known as ______.
(a) fragmentation (b) spore (c) bud (d) seed
8. What is true about pollen of a flowering plant?
(a) It holds the embryo (b) It is brightly coloured to attract insects
(c) It is produced by the pistil (d) All of these
9. Which one of the following option correctly defines pollination?
(a) Shedding of pollen from anthers (b) Similar to fertilization of animals
(c) Transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma (d) Transfer of pollen from anthers to ovule
10. The information in the given box: describes the process of fertilisation, but not in correct sequence.
Identify the correct sequence that takes place during the process of fertilization.
(a) WXYZ (b) XZWY (c) YWZX (d) WZXY

LEVEL - I
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d)
Fill in the blanks:
9. (i) vegetative propagation, (ii) fragmentation, (iii) spore, (iv) fertilization
10. (i) False, (ii) True, (iii) True, (iv) False, (v) False
LEVEL - II
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (b)

INTRODUCTION
About one-third of the world’s land surface is covered by forests. It is an eco-system (plants and animals)
which is dominated by trees. Forest provide the most useful renewable resources. They prevent soil erosion,
replenish oxygen in the air and maintain the fertility of the soil.
A forest is a biotic community spread over a large tract of uncultivated land and is predominantly composed
of trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers. Forests occupy a special place in the life of people. They are invaluable
wealth of a nation and a renewable natural resource.
In the last hundred years, utilization of forest products has gone up manyfold to meet the growing demands
for wood and timber. Excessive felling of forest trees because of setting up of industries, building of roads,
cities and for cultivation is very common. Deforestation poses serious threat to our economy, quality of life
and environment. However, the State of Forest Report (SFR-2009) gives an encouraging picture. Our forest
and tree cover stands at 23.84% which is an increase of 4.75% over ten years.
Forests provides home for different animals, birds, reptiles, insects, worms and microbes. Some live on the
floor, others on tree twigs. Some walk on the ground, some burrow and others fly.
FOREST TYPES IN INDIA

The distribution of natural forests in India is governed principally by rainfall. Rainfall varies from 12 cm to
125 cm annually in different parts of the country resulting in a wide variety of vegetation - from xerophytic
scrub forest in the arid zones of Rajasthan to evergreen rainforests in the tropics as in the Western Ghats,
Assam, North Bengal, Andamans and Conifers in the temperate regions. In between the extremes, there are
many intermediate types of forests.

Class VII: Forests: Our Lifeline Biology
Due to different climatic conditions different forests show variation in the type of trees and animals inhabiting
the forests.
In North-East India, Sal is most common tree, while in South West the common tree is Teak. In the arid zone,
species such as Cacti and Acacias are dominant. The Himalayan mountains have Coniferous as well as trees
with broad leaves. Between the foothills of the Himalayas and the plains of river Ganga lie the great Terai
forest in which Sal is a common species. The dense forest consists of distinct horizontal layers. These are:
Canopy
The canopy is the uppermost levels of a forest formed by the crowns

of trees and shrubs. The crown of a tree is the branched part of the
stem and leaves above the main trunk. Tree crowns are of different
shapes and sizes. The canopy layer is formed by the largest trees.
This layer is very crowded and blocks out most of the sunlight. It
also acts as wind breaker. The canopy is the most dense layer and
home to unique flora and fauna.
Understorey
The understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor.
This layer is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards.
The leaves are much larger at this level. A wide range of insects are also found. Only about 5% of the
sunlight shining on the forest reaches the understorey. Forest understorey also have higher humidity than the
exposed areas.

Forest Floor
The forest floor layer receives only 2 per cent of sunlight. The forest floor has almost no vegetation because
of the low sunlight penetration. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Many forms of fungi
grow here which help in decaying of dead animals and plants thus converting them into dark coloured organic
matter. This forms the humus.
Types of plants in the forest
A forest has annual, biennial and perinnial plants:
 The plant with a life span of one year are called annuals. They are herbs. Their stem is soft.
 The plants with a life span of two years are called biennials.
 The plants that survive for several years are called pernnials. These include shrubs and trees.
Forest Animals and their Habitats
Forests provide habitat for a large variety of wild animals. Boars, bisons, jackals, elephants live in deeper
areas of the forest, where forest is thicker and undisturbed. They live on the ground:
 Snakes either wriggle on the ground or burrow in the soil.
 The forest floor is occupied by spiders, beetles and grubs.
 Monkeys, bats and various type of birds occupy tree and tree twigs.
Interdependence of Plants and Animals in Forest
Animals, human beings and plants show fundamental dependence on each others. The relationship is mainly
for food, oxygen, energy and shelter or protection.
Animals Obtain food from Plants
Green plants are autotrophs. Using the process of photosynthesis, green plants capture solar energy from
sunlight in energy - storing chemical compounds that make their food. Almost all the energy needed by living
beings on the earth comes ultimately from the sun through green plants (known as producers).
Animals and nongreen plants obtain nutrients from the green plants. They are called consumers. It means all
animals depend on plants for food and energy.
Animals Obtain Oxygen from Plants
Plants release oxygen during photosynthesis as a by product. This oxygen is utilised by animals during respiration
for releasing energy.
Animals get shade and protection from sun and rain
During hot summer days, wild animals sit and relax under the trees and during rainy season they hide
themselves under the trees.

Human beings depend on plants in many ways
 Human beings get food, natural fibres like cotton and jute from plants.
 They get a variety of wood products like fire wood, plywood, pulp for paper, etc.
 Many plants provide different types of medicines and spices.
 Human beings also get non-wood products from plants, like lac, dyes, cane, bamboo, grasses, fodder, bidi
leaves, gums, resin, rubber, etc.
Plants Purify Air
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and use it in photosynthesis. They release oxygen into the atmosphere
during daytime. Also by holding soil particles together they decrease the dust contamination of air. These
particles form Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) in the atmosphere. These activities of plants help
purify air.
Plants depend on animals for carbon dioxide
Plants need carbon dioxide for manufacturing food by photosynthesis. Animals release carbon dixoide into
the atmosphere through respiration. Human activities like burning of wood, coal, petrol, gas, etc., also release
carbon dioxide into air.
Plants depend on animals for pollination and seed dispersal
Bees, wasps, butterflies and moths visit flowers for collecting nectar and in this act they help in the transfer
of pollen from one flower to another. For attracting these insects, plants have colourful and scented flowers.
Some animals feed on fruits and deposit seeds at different places. Seeds of some plants cling to the body of
animals and are carried away to new places. This helps in the dispersal of seeds.
Animals provide nutrients to plants
The bodies of dead and decaying animals and the dropping of animals are acted upon by microbes. They
reduce them to inorganic compounds. These compounds get percolated into the soil and provide nutrients to
the plants. This is called recycling of nutrients. Therefore, plants depend on animals for inorganic nutrients.
Living organisms cannot survive alone. They have to interact with each other and with their environment.
Successful survival of a biological community depends upon interaction of its members and a balance between
their activities.
Why should we preserve our forest?
Forests are an important natural resource. They are essential for the preservation of environment and survival
of all the animals including man:
1. Forests purify air and provide clean and fresh air for breathing to all living beings.
2. Forests regulate climate by reducing temperature and help in rainfall.

3. Trees bind the soil and control soil erosion.

4. Forests control and prevent flood by holding water and not allowing its free flow.
5. Trees make the soil fertile by recycling the nutrients.
6. Forests help in reducing pollution.
7. Forests provide animals with a place to live (shelter).
8. Forests provide us food, wood, rubber, gum, resin, non-edible oils, honey, beewax, lac, bamboo, fuel etc.
9. Some forests have been developed into recreational parks where people enjoy camping and trekking.
Some forests have been made wildlife reserves where animals and plants are protected.
10. Some ancient tribes live in forests. The forests provide them everything they need like food, shelter,
water and medicines. Products obtained from forests are a source of steady income for tribals.
What will happen if forests disappear?

1. Disappearance of forests will severely disturb the ecosystem and the ecological balance in nature.
2. Wildlife may also not be able to survive in the absence of forests.
3. There will be a shortage and scarcity of forest products.
4. Since forests play a major role in keeping the environment cool and regulating the rainfall, their absence
will lead to reduced rainfall and increased temperature.
5. It will be very difficult to recharge the existing water resources without forests.
6. Unpredictable changes will take place in weather and climate patterns across the world.
7. Soil erosion will increase. This will adversely affect soil fertility and productivity.
8. Global warming will lead to flooding of low lying areas, as ice caps and glaciers melt. This is already
happening. Two islands in the Andamans have vanished under-water.
9. Disappearance of forests will cause drastic increase in air pollution which will ultimately threaten the
very existence of life on the earth.
Forests are the green lungs

Forests are the lungs of the earth. Just like human lungs do, it turns carbon dioxide into clean oxygen. Every
living creature in this world needs oxygen. Without trees and forests, our earth would be running out of
oxygen. Forest absorbs carbon dioxide from atmosphere by doing photosynthesis, a simple chemical reaction
that produces energy in the presence of light by chlorophyll. The main substance for this reaction is carbon
dioxide and water. A by-product of photosynthesis is, of course, oxygen. Over 40 percent of the world’s
oxygen is produced from the forests. Another major function of the forest, directly connected to its function
as the Earth’s lungs is to keep the planet cool. It helps stop global warming, also known as greenhouse effect.
As we already understand, trees are an important part of the carbon cycle, a process that keeps the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide under control. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps heat, like a blanket
and causes the earth temperature to rise.
Destroying the forest is the same as destroying our own life-support system. A single tree in the park can only
produce little amount of oxygen, while a forest which contains thousands or even millions of trees can
produce millions times more. Earth’s population is keeping an growing, and our technology is rapidly increasing.

This situation leads to the rise of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. However, over the past half
century, the Earth’s forests have been reduced greatly. The destruction of about 14.6 million hectares of
forest in the last dozen years makes the earth getting hotter. The average global temperature over the past 50
years has increased at fastest rate in recorded history. And the trend is accelerating, the 10 hottest years on
record have all occurred since 1990. If this situation continues, scientists believe that the average global
temperatures could be 3 to 9 degrees higher by the end of the century. We can take another point of view to
understand the cause of forest destruction. Consider the earth as a living organism, and the forest as its lungs.
If the lungs have been destroyed, all cells inside the organism wouldn’t be able to get clean oxygen and
eventually die. In this case, we all living creatures on earth - are the cells.
Food Chain and Food Web

The nature, the organisms, are in constant interaction with the non living part of the physical environment.
The organisms include the green plants which are the producers and animals which form the consumer
category.
The non-living part of the environment includes factors like light, temperature, soil and water. Such factors
are important to all living organisms for their survival. Thus interdependence of living organisms with the non-
living part of the environment is important for a system to sustain. Such a system is referred to
a ecosystem.
Forests form a part of the ecosystem. These are self sustaining

and self regulatory units of nature. The interactions among organisms
in the forest ecosystem is depicted in the form of food chain. Food
chain involves transfer of energy through the process of eating and
being eaten. All green plants trap solar energy and convert into
chemical energy which is stored as carbohydrate. The plants further
transfer their energy to animals after being eaten. The animals may
in turn be eaten by other animals and in this way energy is
transferred at all levels. The transfer of energy through a series of
organisms each feeding on the proceeding organisms is called food
chain. Many such food chains are found in forests that are interlinked
to form food web.
When plants and animals die, they form the food for the saprotrophs referred to as decomposers. These
play an important role in forests. They feed upon dead animals and plant tissues and convert them into a dark
coloured substance called humus. Thus, the nutrients of dead plants and animals are released into the soil.
These minerals are absorbed by the trees and plants inhabiting the forest for their growth and development.

Forest Products
Forest products play an important part in the socio-economic development of a country. Important forest
products are timber, small timber, fuelwood, bamboo and many non-wood forest products like Tendu Patta,
Harra, Sal seed etc. Teak (Tectona grandis) Sal (Shorea robusta), Bija (Peterocaropus marsupium),
Khair (Acacia catechu), Tinsa (Ougeinia ogeinensis), Salai (Boswellia serrata), Saja (Terminalia) are
the main tree species which are harvested annually from the forest. Timber and bamboo harvesting is carried
out in a selective manner.
Other products obtained from forests
Non wood products provided by forests include food-such as berries, mushrooms, edible plants - fodder and
medicinal plants. These products perform a crucial role in meeting the subsistence needs of large part of the
world’s population living in or near forests and providing them with income - generating opportunities. Non-
wood forest products are collected for local household use or trade, though some find export markets.
Asia has traditionally used non-wood forest products and

often includes them in official national accounts and
international trade statistics which is not generally the case
in other regions. Asia accounts for the largest removals of
non-wood forest products. With a share of 74%, China
reports by far the world’s largest removals of forest plant
products for food, consisting mainly of oil seeds, nuts and
bamboo shoots. Other countries with significant removal
volumes for food are India, Republic of Korea and Pakistan
in Asia, Czech Republic, Finland, Italy, and Sweden in
Europe and Brazil in South America. China also accounts
for 72% of removals in the category of exudates, such as
tannin extract and raw lacquer. India accounts for half of
reported removals of plant raw materials for medicinal and aromatic uses. India also has a 42% share of total
removals of other plant products, such as tendu leaves, medicinal herbs and lac, followed by Brazil and
Mexico.
Forest Conservation and Management
With the increase in human population, there is ever-rising demand for converting forests into residential and
agricultural areas. As a result, habitats of several species of animals and plants are being destroyed. Therefore,
we need to reorient our activities so as to ensure the least possible damage to our forests. Following measures
are to be followed to conserve our forests:
1. Large scale felling or cutting of the forest trees must be stopped.
2. When trees are cut more trees should be planted in their place.
3. Overgrazing by cattle and animals should be stopped.

4. To develop new forests more saplings should be planted every year during the rainy season.
5. Forests must be protected from insects, pests and infections by treating them with insecticides and
pesticides.
6. Forest fires must be checked. People should avoid smoking or cooking in the forest area.
7. Various activities leading to soil erosion must be avoided.
By conserving air, land and water The pollution of air, land and water should be controlled so that trees
and vegetation could survive.
Conservation and management of forest resources aim at:
 Increasing forest cover to 33% of the total land area.
 Increasing the productivity of forests.
 Providing fuel wood, fodder and other forest products to the rural and tribal people.
 Avoiding over exploitation or misuse of forest resources.
Indian Government introduced social forestry in 1970. Under this scheme wastelands are used to grow
trees.
Chipko Movement was started in 1974 by Amita Devi to reduce tree felling. This movement initially started
in Garhwal region. The villagers came forward and hugged the trees to prevent the contractors from felling
them.


LEVEL - I
1. The item that is not a product of forest :
(a) Sealing Wax (b) Honey (c) Wooden statue (d) Salt
2. The branchy part of a tree above the stem is known as :
(a) Canopy (b) Herb (c) Crown (d) Shrub
3. A forest consists of :
(a) Numerous insects, spiders (b) Floor covered with dead and decaying leaves
(c) Animals and plants (d) All of the these
4. Find the missing word from the following equation :
Grass  Insects  Frog  ___________  Eagle
(a) Peacock (b) Koel (c) Snake (d) Crow
5. Micro-organisms act upon the dead plants to produce :
(a) Sand (b) Humus (c) Mushrooms (d) Wood
6. Which of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Forests protect the soil from erosion
(b) Plants and animals in a forest are not dependent on one another
(c) Forests influence the climate and water cycle
(d) Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate
7. Forests :
(a) provide us with oxygen
(b) they protect soil and provide habitat to a large number of animals
(c) are source of medicinal plants
(d) all of the above
8. Mushroom and other micro-organisms eat :
(a) Brinjal (b) Humus (c) Rice (d) Wax
9. Forests are called :
(a) Green lungs (b) Red kidney (c) Black skin (d) Brown heart
10. Floods can be controlled by :
(a) Forests (b) Constructing temporary shelters
(c) Constructing pits (d) By allowing the water to flow into the sea
LEVEL - II
1. Which of the following is not true about forests?
(a) Dead and decaying matter enrich the soil of the forest.
(b) Interconnected network of food chain forms a food web.
(c) Animals excreta pollute forest soil.
(d) Forest are called the green lungs.
2. The covering of large trees that serve as a roof to shelter an area or other plants in forest is called_____.
(a) canopy (b) crown (c) carnival (d) none of these

3. Which of the following forms the lowest layer in a forest?

(a) Tall trees (b) Canopy (c) Herbs (d) None of these
4. Plants convert CO2 into O2 during the process of:
(a) Translocation (b) Transpiration (c) Photosynthesis (d) Respiration
5. Trees of which type of forest do not shed leaves at a particular time of year?
(a) Evergreen (b) Deciduous (c) Conifer (d) Grasslands
6. Forests are on the verge of disappearing because of:
(a) Overgrazing of animals (b) Urbanisation
(c) Indiscriminate felling of trees (d) All of the above
7. Which of the following has the strongest stem?
(a) A tree (b) A creeper (c) A climber (d) A bush
8. The figure given shows the relationship between plants and animals, which maintain the balance of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air.
Which of the following processes represents X and Y in the given figure?

X Y
(a) Respiration Transpiration
(b) Transpiration Photosynthesis
(c) Respiration Photosynthesis
(d) Photosynthesis Respiration
9. Which of the following organisms convert dead plants and animals into minerals?
(a) Scavengers (b) Consumers
(c) Decomposers (d) Parasites
10. Which of the following are decomposers?
(a) Bacteria and fungi (c) Dead leaves
(b) Bryophytes (d) Dead animals
LEVEL - I
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
LEVEL - II
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)

Class VII: Additional Topics Biology
9
Water is the most common liquid on earth. It is needed by all living things to survive. We use water for
drinking, cleaning, bathing, washing clothes, etc. Even the plants cannot survive without water.
Clean water that is fit for drinking is called potable
water. Even though three-fourths of the earth’s surface
is covered with water, it is not equally distributed in all
the areas. In many places, people have to walk for
several kilometers to fetch clean water.
Tap water mainly comes from a river or a lake or
underground wells. Is the water from these sources
pure? NO! It may contain dissolved substances like
gases from the air, nitrates and sulphates from the soil,
bacteria, harmful germs, sand, grit, soil particles, etc.
Before the water reaches our taps, it is made fit for
drinking by killing the harmful germs and by removing
solid matter. This is done by water works.
Everyday we use a lot of tap water in our homes for

various activities. Most of the water we use in our
homes is used for cleaning, washing, cooking and
carrying away waste materials. Only a little water is
used for drinking.
Do you know how the tap water gets dirty. We all are
responsible for it. We mix all sort of things with tap
water – shampoo, soap, toothpaste, detergents, wastes
from food, human waste, etc. This water containing
wastes is called sewage. Sewage includes garbage,
human wastes and water that has been used for
cleaning, washing and bathing.
Sewage contains many dissolved and suspended impurities which we call as contaminants. The contaminants
can be summed up as follows:
 Organic impurities: These include human waste, animal waste, food waste, soaps, detergents,
pesticides, etc.
 Inorganic impurities: These include nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, metals, etc.
 Nutrients: Like nitrogen and phosphorous.
 Bacteria and other microorganisms: These may cause diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery, etc.
Sewage is also generated from factories, offices, hospitals, institutions, etc. Since sewage contains lots of
germs and impurities, it is unfit for usage and is drained into the rivers or lakes. But, before reaching the river
or the lake, the sewage has to be treated. This is done in Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) or Waste Water
Treatment Plants (WWTP).

Class VII: Waste water story Biology
WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Waste water treatment refers to the process of removing
contaminants from waste water. It includes physical,
chemical and biological processes to remove physical,
chemical and biological contaminants. The waste water
generated from our homes or factories is taken into the
ground by a set of pipes. It then flows to a waste water
treatment plant.
Let us now understand the process of waste water
treatment.
Screening
The first step is to pass the waste water through bar screens to remove large objects like rags, wood pieces,
sticks, stones, cans, polythene bags, etc. It is necessary to remove these objects as they may damage the
equipments used in waste water treatment plants.
Grit tanks
Water is allowed to go into a grit and sand removal tank. Here, the speed of incoming waste water is
controlled carefully. This allows the grit, sand, stones and other heavy objects to settle at the bottom.

Sedimentation tanks
Water is now allowed to pass into large tanks called
sedimentation tanks (also called clarifiers). These tanks
are large enough so that solids like faeces (sludge) sink
slowly to the bottom and materials like grease and oil float
at the surface and are skimmed off. The sludge collected
at the bottom of the sedimentation tank is continuously
removed by scrapers. The sludge collected is sent to
separate tanks called digesters, where it is broken down
(decomposed) by anaerobic bacteria (bacteria which do
not require oxygen for their survival). Biogas is released
during this process.
The water now obtained is called clarified water and looks cleaner.
Sewage Treatment
Treatment of sewage includes, removal of solid wastes from the sewage and making the liquid part, i.e.,
water less harmful and fit for human consumption. The solid part of the sewage can later be used as a
fertilizer for crops.
On entering the treatment plant, large solid materials in the sewage are first removed by passing the water
through vertical bars or grids. From here, the water then passes through the grinder. Here, plant wastes and
other organic materials are reduced in size to enable efficient treatment and removal.
Next, the water is made to pass through grit chambers or setting tanks where impurities like silt, sand and
gravel are removed. After this, the waste water is sent to sedimentation tanks, where organic wastes settle
down and are separated for disposal.
The organic matter is digested and converted into methane, carbon dioxide and humus-like material. This is
called sludge. The digested sludge is air dried on sand beds. It can be used as a fertilizer.
Compressed air is passed through the water and chlorinated to kill micro-organisms. Sometimes, before
chlorination, water is treated biologically to further reduce the organic matter left in it. This treated water is
finally released into water bodies.

Better housekeeping practices to minimise or eliminate release of pollutants

into water
Our everyday household activities are the major cause of contamination of water. We must be very careful
while disposing off the water. Here are some methods that you can adopt to reduce water contamination.
Substances that pollute water are called pollutants.
At Home:
 Hazardous household products should be disposed off properly: Many household chemicals like
paints, motor oil, cleaning liquids, insecticides etc., should not be allowed to go down the drain as these
are very toxic. These are harmful to both humans and microbes that help in the purification of water.
 Used oil and fats should not be thrown in the drain: Used oil and fats should not be poured into the
sink. If allowed to go down the drain, they may choke the pipes.
 Dispose off non-biodegradable products safely: We should never flush non-biodegradable products
like plastic bags or diapers down the toilet. This can damage the sewage treatment process.
In your lawns and gardens:
 Use manure or compost: Use of manure and compost should be encouraged. This reduces the need
for chemical fertilizers. Fertilizers may reach the water bodies, thereby causing harm to aquatic life.
Manure also helps in retaining the soil fertility.
 Do not over water your lawns: If you over water your lawns and gardens, the fertilizers get dissolved
in the water and reach into the ground, thus causing water contamination.
 Maintain the water storage tanks: Tanks should be cleaned regularly to prevent water contamination.
Public Places:
 Do not throw plastic bags or any other material in river, lakes or any other water body. You should make
an effort to dispose any rubbish or litter without harming the water bodies.
 Dispose off waste properly after fairs, weddings and processions: This is important as large amount
of waste is generated during these activities. If not disposed properly, these wastes may get accumulated
and lead to water contamination and spread of waterborne diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, etc.
For Your Community:
 You can educate your family, neighbours and friends about the ways that can reduce water contamination.
 You can help a local NGO (Non Government Organisation) or conservation group to clean up rivers and
streets.
 You can also actively take part in clean acts in your school and locality.
 If you live very near to seas, rivers or lakes you have a special responsibility in the fight against water
contamination. People who live near water bodies can directly contaminate them as compared to those
who live further way.
ALTERNATIVE ARRANGEMENT FOR SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Treating the waste material as a resource to be exploited instead of simply disposing it off is not very new.
Film-based photo labs used to recover silver from used chemicals after they were exhausted. There are
many different methods for extracting valuable products, or the materials may be recycled, or even used to
generate electricity.
The practice of treating waste materials as a resource is becoming common in metropolitan areas where
space for new landfills is running out. Besides, there is growing concern that simply disposing of waste
materials is unjustifiable in the long term, as most raw materials are finite in supply. In many areas, material
for recycling is collected separately from general waste, with dedicated bins and collection vehicles.

Recycling
Recycling means recovering for further use a material that would otherwise be wasted. Organised municipal
collection efforts support the reuse of everyday waste materials such as so that the raw materials from these
items can be used again. The most common consumer items recycled include aluminium, beverage cans,
steel, food and aerosol cans, plastic and glass bottles, cardboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and
cardboard. Of late, electronic waste sent to Asia is discouraged, since such materials contain high levels of
toxic elements such as cadmium, lithium and selenium. Even the recovery of the gold and copper can cause
environmental problems.
Landfill
Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common
practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining voids or
borrow pits, but the discovery that it can pollute groundwater and surface water has made it unpopular.
Besides, landfills are known to generate methane and carbon dioxide, which create odour problems, kill
surface vegetation, and are greenhouse gases. Hence, few people want a landfill in their vicinity, making solid
waste disposal costlier.
Incineration
Incineration is a waste disposal method that involves the burning of waste at high temperatures. Such waste
treatment plants convert waste into heat, gases, and / or residual solid ash. A waste-to-energy plant (WtE)
is the new term for an incinerator that burns wastes to produce steam and /or electricity. Incineration is
popular in countries such as Japan, Sweden and Denmark.
Composting and Anaerobic Digestion
Organic waste materials such as plant material and food leftovers, are increasingly being recycled. These
materials are fed into a composting and/or digestion system to control the biological process that break down
the organic matter. The resulting organic material (called mulch) is then used as a fertilizer for agricultural or
gardening purposes. There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies, varying
in complexity from simple window composting of shredded plant material, to automated enclosed-vessel
digestion of mixed domestic waste.
Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where solid waste gets converted into
solid, liquid and gas products. These can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. Gas is
burnt to produce electricity and steam. Gasification is another way of producing renewable energy and heat.
Over utiliization of resources produces lot of wastes besides creating a major environmental hazard. Depending
upon their nature, wastes are classified as solids, liquids and gases.
Role of Eucalyptus tree in cleaning of sewage pond
Eucalyptus trees are planted along the sewage ponds in which water is releasd after water treatement
processes. Eucalyptus trees absorb wastewater from the pond and release pure water vapour into the
atmosphere.
SANITATION OF PUBLIC PLACES
Growing community involvement in health, sanitation and proper waste disposal can improve our sanitation.
Adopting sanitation practices should become a way of our life. The quality of living that is expressed in clean
homes and clean neighbourhood is what is called good sanitation. In fact, sanitation of the whole community
would depend on personal habits of individuals like you and me. This would help to maintain an environment
that is healthy and protected. Much of our ill health can be traced to factors of environment such as water
pollution and improper waste disposal So, as individuals and proactive citizens of the country, our contribution
in enhancing the quality of life, should be to focus on do’s and do not, some of which are listed below.

Do’s Don’ts
i) Maintain proper disposal of human i) Never defecate on open grounds.
excreta and other domestic wastes.
ii) Impart basic knowledge to people to ii) Don’t run down government policies
make them aware of aspects of on sanitation and health programmes.
keeping good health.
iii) Maintain a healthy environment by iii) Never throw household products like
keeping your house and cooking oil, paint and grease into the
neighbourhood clean. drain.
iv) Use dustbins to throw litter or waste. iv) Do not dispose off wastes at public
If you cannot find dustbins, carry the places like parks, hospitals, bus depots
waste home and throw it in the and railway stations.
dustbin of your house.
v) Use mineral water or water from v) Drinking water, from taps at public
filters installed at public places for places should be avoided.
drinking purpose only.
vi) Complain to the municipality or the vi) Don’t overlook any open manholes in
Gram Panchayat if you find open your locality or ignore choked drains.
drains in your neighbourhood.
Sanitation and Diseases

Sanitation and diseases are related to each other as lack of sanitation can cause diseases. In our country, a
large number of people even today do not have sewage facilities and thus defecate in open fields, railway
tracks, etc. The untreated human excreta thus pollute soil and water sources including the underground
water. When this contaminated water is used for drinking, it can cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid,
hepatitis, dysentery, etc. which may even lead to death. Therefore, lack of sanitation resulting in drinking of
contaminated water can cause health problems.
Biogas (Gobar Gas)

Biogas is a methane rich fuel gas
produced by anaerobic
breakdown or digestion of
biomass with the help of
methanogenic bacteria. Biogas is
made up of methane (50-70%),
carbon dioxide (30-40%) with
traces of nitrogen, hydrogen
sulphide and hydrogen. 50% of
the combustible energy present in
the organic waste can be changed
into methane gas. The energy
released from biogas depends upon the proportion of methane present in it. The calorific value of biogas is
23-28 MJ/m3.
Biogas or gobar gas generation has been taken up in India on a large scale. Already, there are over a million
individual and several thousand community biogas plants operating in the country.

The technology was developed by the collaboration of Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
and Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI).
Advantages
Using organic wastes for biogas generation has several advantages over their direct use of fuel or fertiliser:
1. It provides both energy and manure.
2. Biogas is a storable form of energy which can be used more efficiently and economically.
3. Biogas has wider applications than the direct burning of organic wastes.
4. The energy value of biogas is lower than that of organic matter but due to more efficient handling, the net
energy output is roughly equal to the output in direct burning of organic wastes.
5. It minimises the chances of spread of faecal pathogens. Sanitation and health are, therefore, improved.
This is not possible in other cases.
6. The fertilizer value of the manure produced in biogas plants is similar to that of manure formed directly
from organic wastes.
7. Spread of plant pathogens with the help of crop residue is checked.
8. Biogas use does not add to pollution.
LEVEL - I
1. Out of the following, select those that would help to reduce water pollution. (i) use of sewers for
removal of urban waste (ii) use of unleaded petrol in cars (iii) spraying of pesticides on plants (iv)
We should not excreate in open.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (iii) and (iv) (c) (i) and (iv) (d) All of these
2. Sewage refers to waste water that is released by

(a) homes (b) industries (c) offices (d) All of the above
3. Select those which are organic substances present in waste water.

(a) pesticides (b) herbicides
(c) fruit and vegetable waste (d) All of the above
4. In a wastewater treatment plant, after passing the wastewater through a grit and sand removal
tank, the water is allowed to settle in a large tank. The solids that settle at the bottom of large tank
and called
(a) sewage (b) sullage (c) sludge (d) Slurry
5. When wastewater is passed through bar screens in WWTP, it removes

(a) plastic packets (b) sand (c) grit (d) All of the above
6. Which of the following are removed by use of A skimmer in WWTP?

(a) Oils (b) Greases (c) Both of these (d) None of these

7. We should not throw cooking oil and paint down the drain because
(a) they break the pipe (b) they harden and clog the pipe
(c) they flow through the drain freely (d) None of these
8. Aeration of water during waste water treatment removes

(a) Bacteria (b) Germs (c) Human Waste (d) Sand
9. Dried _____ is used as manure

(a) sludge (b) slurry (c) sewage (d) sand
10. Water borne disease is

(a) Anthrax (b) Typhoid (c) Malaria (d) All of the above
LEVEL - II
1. The manholes in a sewage system are located at every ___m.

(a) 40-50 (b) 50-60 (c) 60-70 (d) 10-20
2. Match Column-I with column II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
columns.
3. Read the following two statements carefully and choose the correct options. (i) Ozone is used to
disinfect water (ii) Chlorine is used to disinfect water
(a) Statement (i) is correct while statement (ii) is incorrect.
(b) Statement (ii) is correct while statement (i) is incorrect.
(c) Both statements are correct.
(d) Both statements are incorrect.
4. After passing that through bar screens the wastewater goes to a grit and sand removed tank. Here
the speed of incoming wastewater is decreased
(a) to keep the system under control
(b) to allow sand, grit and pebbles to settle down.
(c) to allow foul smell to disappear
(d) All the above are correct

5. Breeding place for mosquito flies which cause diseases are

(a) Oil (b) Open drain (c) Close tank (d) None of these
6. Match column I with column II and select the correct answers using the code given below the
columns.
7. Assertion A: Soft toys, used tea leaves, paints and oils should not be thrown in the drain.
Reason R: These wastes choke the drain and do not allow free flow of oxygen thus hampering the
degradation process.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
8. Which of the following is or are products of wastewater treatment?

(a) Biogas (b) Sludge
(c) Both biogas and sludge (d) Aerator
9. Arpit appeared in class test, but he confused to know the correct statement. Would you help him to
know that?
(a) Open drain system is a breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes and organisms which spread
diseases.
(b) Wastewater is produced in houses, industries, agricultural fields and other human activities
which is known as sewage.
(c) When underground sewage system and refuse disposal system not possible, the low-cost on-
site sanitation system may be adopted.
(d) All the above.
10. The burning of solid waste is not recommended because

(a) It is very costly (b) It requires a lot of space
(c) It requires modern technologies (d) It causes several environmental issues


LEVEL - I
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b)
LEVEL - II
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d)


Additional Topics
Micro-organisms
Micro-Organisms or Microbes
There are many living organisms around us, present in soil, water and air. Some of them are so small that we
cannot see them with our naked eyes. They are called micro-organisms. To see them we require a special
device called microscope. The science which deals with the study of micro-organisms is known as microbiology
(micro means small; bios means life).
Occurrence of Microbes
Micro-organisms are present everywhere in air, soil, water, foodstuffs, sewage, waste as well as inside
animal bodies. It is almost impossible to think of any place without them. They are present at great depth in
the oceans, in streams, in the snow of polar regions, in hot springs and even in sulphur spring. Soil may contain
as many as 50 millions types of bacteria excluding other microbes. The maximum number of microbes are
found in natural substrate, rich in organic food, having a suitable temperature and moisture for their growth
and multiplication.
The air we breathe, the water we drink and the food we eat, also have microbes. Several microbes remain on
the surface of our body, in our intestines, nose, mouth and other natural openings. The most microbes found
in our body are harmless. Some of them are even beneficial.
Micro-organisms and Us
Micro-organisms play an important role in our lives. Some of them are beneficial in many ways whereas
some others are harmful and cause diseases.
Major Group of Micro-organisms

There are five major groups of microorganisms. These are: Bacteria, Fungi, Algae, Protozoa and Viruses.
Commercial Use of Micro-organisms

Micro-organisms are used for the large scale production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid (vinegar). Yeast is
used for commercial production of alcohol and wine. For this purpose yeast is grown in natural sugars
present in grains like barley, wheat, rice and crushed fruit juices, etc.
Medicinal Use of Micro-organisms

Whenever we fall ill the doctor may give us some antibiotic tablets, capsules or injections such as of penicillin.
The source of these medicines is micro-organisms. These medicines kill or stop the growth of the disease -
causing micro-organisms. Such medicines are called antibiotics. These days number of antibiotics are being
produced from bacteria and fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly
known antibiotics which are made from fungi and bacteria. The antibiotics are manufactured by growing
specific microorganisms and are used to cure a variety of diseases. Antibiotics are even mixed with the feed
of livestock and poultry of check microbial infection in animals. They are also used to control many plant
diseases.
AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44 111
Vaccine
When a disease - carrying microbe enters our body, the body produces antibodies to fight the invader. The
body also remembers how to fight the microbe if it enters again. So, if dead or weakened microbes are
introduced in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them by producing suitable antibodies. The antibodies
remain in the body and we are protected from the disease causing microbes. This is have a vaccine works.
Several diseases, including cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by vaccination.
Increasing Soil Fertility
Some bacteria and blue green algae are able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen
and increase its fertility. These microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.
Commensals
Some micro-organisms live inside our body. They help in certain functions of our body systems. For example
some bacteria in our gastrointestinal tract help in digestion. These type of organisms which reside in our body
and are beneficial as well are called commensals.
Harmfull Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are harmful in many ways. Some of the micro-organisms cause disease in human beings,
plants and animals. Such disease causing microorganisms are called pathogens. Some micro-organisms spoil
food, clothing and leather.
Disease Causing Micro-organisms in Human
Pathogens enter our body through the air we breathe, the water we drink or the food we eat. They can also
get transmitted by direct contact with an infected person or carried through an animal. Microbial diseases
that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or physical contact are
called communicable diseases. Example of such diseases include cholera, common cold chicken pox and
tuberculosis.
There are some insects and animals which act as carriers of disease causing microbes. Housefly is one such
carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their bodies. When these flies sit
on uncovered food they may transfer the pathogens. Another example of a carriers the female Anophilies
mosquito, which carries the parasite of malaria. Female Aedes mosquito acts as a carrier of dengue virus.
Some Common Human Diseases caused by Micro-organisms
Causative Mode of
Human Disease Preventive measures (General)
Micro-organisms Transmission
Tuberculosis Bacteria Air
Keep the patient in complete isolation. Keep
Measles Virus Air the personal belongings of the patient away
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact from those of the others. Vaccination to be
given at suitable age.
Polio Virus Air/Water
Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene and good
sanitary habits. Consume properly cooked
Typhoid Bacteria Water food and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.
Hepatitis B Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water. Vaccination
Use mosquito net and repellents. Spray
insecticides and control breeding of
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
mosquitoes by not allowing water to collect
in the surroundings.
Disease causing micro-organisms in Animals

Several microorganisms not only cause diseases in humans and plants, but also in other animals. For example
anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a bacterium. Foot and mouth disease of cattle is
caused by a virus.
Disease causing micro-organisms in Plants
Several microorganisms cause disease in plants like wheat, rice, potato, sugarcane, orange, apple and others.
The diseases reduce the yield of crops. They can be controlled by the use to certain chemicals which kill the
microbes.
Food Poisoning
Food poisoning could be due to the consumption of food spoil by some microorganisms. Micro-organisms that
grow on our food someties produce toxic substances. These make the food poisonous causing serious illness
and even death. So, it is very important that we preserve food to prevents it from being spoil.
Food Preservation
Microorganisms spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell and has a bad taste and changed colour.
Common methods to preserve food in our Homes
Chemical Method: Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth of
microorganisms. Therefore, they are called preservatives. We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphate are common preservatives.
These are also used in the Jams and Squashes.
Preservation by Common Salt: Common salt has been used to preserve meat and fish for ages. Meat and
fish are covered with dry salt to check the growth of bacteria. Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw
mangoes, tamarind etc.
Preservation by Sugar: Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture
content which inhabits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar: Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because bacteria
cannot live in such an environment. Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.
Heat and Cold Treatments: Low temperature inhibits the growth of microbes. Pasteurized milk can be
consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes. The milk is heated to about 700°C for
15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored. By doing so, it prevents the growth of microbes. This
process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
Storage and Packing: Dry fruits and even vegetables are sold in sealed air tight packets to prevent the
attack of mirobes.
Nitrogen fixation: Rhizobium is involved in the fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants. Sometimes nitrogen
get fixed through the action of lightning. But the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains constant.
EXERCISES
Answer the following in very briefly:

1. Define micro-organisms.
2. Name two nitrogen fixing bacteria.

3. What do you mean by pathogens?

4. Name certain diseases which can be prevented by vaccination.
5. Name two common preservations.
Answer the following in brief:

1. Write short notes on disease causing micro-organisms in animals.
2. What do you mean by food poisoning ?
3. List five methods of food preservation.
4. List some common human diseases caused by micro-organisms.
5. Write short notes on disease causing micro-organisms in humans.

Cell - Structure and Function
Living organisms take and digest food, respire and excrete waste products. They reproduce their own kind.
These functions are carried out by different organs of the organisms. The body parts both in animals and
plants are called organs. They perform different functions. For example, leaves help in synthesis of food,
roots in anchoring the plants. Mouth in animals helps in taking food other organs help in its digestion lungs help
in respiration.
In spite of great variation in structure of various organs, all organisms have basic similarities among them. In
fact, each one of them is made up of cells.
Cell - The Unit of Life
Cells in the living organisms are complex structures unlike bricks in a building. Cells like bricks of a building,
are basic structural units of living organisms. (Fig.1). Buildings usually differ from one another, organisms
also differ from one another. Both have basic units. Cells are there in living organisms since the origin of life.
Majority of the cells are too small to be visible to the unaided eye. However, some cells like hen’s egg are
visible to eye, without any aid. The word ‘cell’ was coined in seventeenth century by Robert Hooke while
observing a slice of cork (plant cells) under the microscope. His microscope, in fact, was primitive. Earlier,
lenses were used directly as an aid to see the smaller things / objects. Later on, these lenses were put in a
device called microscope to magnify the objects. With passage of time, microscopes, in the last four centuries
have been improved by increasing their magnifying ability. Nowadays, a microscope can enable to observe
the objects as small as one thousandth of a millimetre (10–6m). This has helped the scientists to study the
minute detail of cells. Sometimes, the materials to be observed with microscopes are stained with dyes to
identify the different components of a cell.
Variety of shape and size in the cells
Cells found in the living organisms show variety in number, shape and size. An individual organisms can either
have one cell where all the functions are carried out by a single cells or have many cells which together
perform various functions. Single celled organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium and bacteria are called unicellular
organisms. On the other hand, organisms which have large number of cells are termed as multicellular
organisms. A multicellular organisms in fact, has millions of cells.

Cells in the multicellular plants and animals have variety of shapes. Cells are generally round or spherical in
shape. However, there is a lot of variation in shape of cells. These can be cuboidal or columnar. Some of
animal cells are long and branched as in nerve cell.
Fig.2 Various types of cells showing different shapes

Most of the cells are very small in size and not visible to unaided eye. Even long cells running into few
centimetres can be seen only with microscope. Smallest cell of size 0.1 micro (m) i.e. ten thousandth part of
a milimetre has been observed in bacteria – Mycoplasma, Muscle cells in animals and fibres in plants like
jute, hemp are few centimtres long. In the egg, central yellow part called yolk is surrounded by white albumen.
Yellow yolk represents single cell. Ostrich egg with 170 mm diameter represents largest cell observable with
unaided eye. Table 1 provides information about different sizes of cells.
Table 1: Average Size of Different Cells in the Living Organisms
Sl. No. Type of cell Size

–6
1. Living red blood cell 9 m (9 × 10 m)
2. Nerve cell More than a metre long
3. Green algae Chara 10 cm
4. Ostrich egg 170 cm in diameter
Structure of the Cell

The microscopic structure of a typical plant cell and that of an animal cell is shown in Fig. 3 and 4. Each cell
has a definite structure or further smaller parts. These parts are called cell organelles. Some of these organelles
are common to all cells.
1. Cell Wall: This is the outermost part of a plant cell. It is non-living and is made up of cellulose. It is
protective in function and mainly determines the shape of the cells. It is absent in animal cells.
2. Cell Membrane: This is also called the plasma membrane. In an animal cell, it is the outermost layer
whereas in a plant cell it is protected by the cell wall. It is a living structure and controls the entry and
exist of some substances in and out of the cell. It also protects the internal components of the cell.
3. Protoplasm: The material comprising the living contents of a cell i.e. all the substances in a cell except
large vacuoles and material recently ingested or to be excreted.
4. Cytoplasm: It is a transparent, jelly - like living substance which fills the interior of an animal and a plant
cell. It contains a number of minute living structures known as the cell organelles and many non-living
substances known as cell inclusions.

5. Cell Organelles: These are active, living, permanent extremely small structures present in the cytoplasm
and are concerned with cell function. The various cell organelles present in a typical cell are:
i) Endoplasmic reticulum: A system of membranes within the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells. It
forms a link between the cell and nuclear membranes and is the site of protein synthesis. It helps in
the transport of substances within the cell.
ii) Plastids: Plastids are exclusively present in plant cells in large numbers, and are absence in animal
cells. These are of three types, namely:
a) Chloroplasts: These are green coloured plastids, containing the green pigment chlorophyll. They
are present in the leaves and stems of most of the plants. They are regarded as the kitchen of the
cell.
b) Leucoplasts: They are colourless plastids. They are mostly present in the roots and underground
modified stems.
c) Chromoplasts: They are coloured plastids. These are present in abundance mainly in flowers,
petals and fruits.
iii) Mitochondria: These are rod or oval shaped structures, bounded by two membranes and concerned
with the release of energy from food during respiration. Hence they are often referred to as the
power house of the cell.
iv) Ribosomes: These are granules attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or found freely in the cytoplasm.
They help in the synthesis of proteins.
v) Golgi bodies: These are small hollow plate - like or cup shaped bodies found in animal cells. They
synthesis, store and secrete substances the golgi apparatus in plants is known as dictyosome.
vi) Centrosome: It is a star like structure found mostly in animal cells. It consists of centrioles. It helps
in cell division.
vii) Lysosome: They are present in animal cells only. They contain enzymes of cellular digestion. If they
burst, the cell may get damaged or destroyed. Hence, they are called the suicidal bags of the cell.
viii) Vacuoles: These are fluid filled spaces containing minerals dissolved in water. The solution that fills
the vacuoles of plant cells is called cell sap.
Vacuoles are usually large and many in plant cells but small and few in animal cells.
6. Cell Inclusions: The non-living constituents of a cell are known as cell inclusions. These include water,
minerals, salts, sugar, proteins etc.
7. Nucleus: Nucleus is the most important part of a cell. It is usually spherical or oval in shape. It controls
all the vital functions of the cell. It is made up of the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
chromosomes.

The nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus

and separates it from the cytoplasm. It is
permeable and controls the passage of
materials through and from the nucleus. The
nucleoplasm or nuclear sap makes up the body
of the nucleus. It is denser than the cytoplasm.
The nucleolus is a spherical body in the nucleus.
It is composed of the nucleooprotein RNA
(Ribonucleic acid). It is responsible for protein
synthesis.
Nucleus also contains chromosomes, the
thread like structures and composed of
nucleoprotein DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
The hereditary units of chromosomes are the
genes. They are responsible for the
transmission of characters from the parents to the offspring. It is an account of these genes that a child
resembles its parents. The summary of cellular structures and their functions is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of Cellular Structures and their Functions
Sl. Type of cell in

Name of the Structure Function
No. which it is present
1. Cytoplasm Animal and Plant Metabolic functions of the cell.
2. Nucleus Animal and Plant Regulates metabolic activities and transmits

hereditary characters through generations.
3. Cell membrane Animal and Plant Regulates movement of substances in and

out of the cell.
4. Cell wall Plant Gives shape and rigidity to the cell.
5. Mitochondria Animal and Plant Cell respiration and release of energy.
6. Plastids Plant Storage of starch, site of some pigments,

helps in photosynthesis.
7. Golgi bodies Animal and Plant Formation of hormones, secretion, storage

of proteins.
8. Centrosome Animal Cell division.
9. Lysosomes Generally in Animal Destroy damaged cells and unwanted cell

products.
10. Vacuoles Animal and Plant Store excess material.
11. Endoplasmic reticulum Animal and Plant Contains enzymes, helps in protein
synthesis.
12. Ribosomes Animal and Plant Site of protein synthesis.

Table 3: Differences between a Plant Cell and an Animal Cell
Sl.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
No.
1. They have a rigid, non-living cell wall There is no cell wall.
that lies outside the cell membrane and is
made up of cellulose.
2. A plant cell contains plastids. Plastids are absent.
3. Centrosome is absent. Centrosome is present near the nucleus.
4. A plant has dictyosomes. Animal cell has golgi bodies.
5. Lysosomes are absent. Lysosomes are present.
6. Contains large and central vacuoles Contains small and few vacuoles.
Cell Division
One of the most important characteristics of the living cell is its power to grow and divide. When a cell
reaches the limit of the size peculiar to its species, it divides into two parts. These parts grow to their full size
and then divide again. The new cells are always formed by the division of pre-existing cells.
The process by which a cell multiplies in number is called cell division. Cell division is of two types, namely
mitosis and meiosis.
Various levels of Organization

There are certain organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium, which are made up of only one cell. Such organisms
are called unicellular organisms. These organisms show cellular level of organization.
Organisms which consists of two or more cells are called multicellular organisms, e.g. man. In these organisms,
a group of similar cells performs a particular function. Such group of cells are called tissue. When cells are
organized to form tissues, it is called a tissue level of organization. It is higher than the cellular level.

In higher organisms, group of tissues further organise to form organs and this is called an organ level of
organization. Several organs form a system which is responsible for performing specific functions. This is
called an organ system level of organization. So, the various levels of organization in a living body are:
EXERCISES
Answer the following in very briefly:

1. Define the term cell.
2. What is the function of endoplasmic reticulum?
3. Name the three types of plastids.
4. Name the largest and smallest cell.
5. Which organelle is known as power house of the cell?
Answer the following in brief:

1. What is the function of centrosome?
2. What is nucleus and what is its function?
3. What are chromosomes? Where are they present in the cell?
4. What is the functions of a cell membrane?
5. Draw diagram of plant and animal cell and label it.
Answer the following in detail:

1. What are cell organelles? Name any five cell organelles.
2. List four differences between plant cell and animal cell.
3. What are the functions of three different kinds of plastids?


OLYMPIAD SEGMENT
1. Match the statements of Column-I and Column-II and tick-mark() the correct matching, given
as one of the four alternatives A, B, C and D.
Column I Column II
(a) Juices secreted from this gland play (i) stomach
important role in the digestion of fats
(b) Juices secreted from this directly enter the small intestine (ii) small intestine
(c) Its inner linings secrete mucous and hydrochloric acid (iii) liver
(d) In it, the digestion of all components of food is completed (iv) large intestine
(e) Its function is to absorb water and some (v) pancreas
salts from the undigested food material
(A) (a) - v (b) - iii, (c) - ii, (d) - i, (e) - iv (B) (a) - iii (b) - v, (c) - ii, (d) - i, (e) - iv
(C) (a) - v (b) - iii, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iv (D) (a) - iii (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iv
2. The process of conversion of absorbed food into substances, required by the body for growth and
repairs, is called
(A) digestion (B) absorption (C) nutrition (D) assimilation
3. Which one of the following statements is correct ?
(A) Chlorophyll, sunlight and carbon dioxide are sufficient and necessary to carry out the
process of photosynthesis
(B) Animals are parasites for plants because they depend on plants for food
(C) Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into a usable form and release it into
the soil
(D) Some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients. This is called parasitic
relationship
4. State if the following statements are true or false :
(i) Cows and buffaloes are also called ruminants
(ii) Ingestion, assimilation and egestion are parts of the complex process of digestion

Class VII: Olympiad Segment Biology
(iii) Lichens push out one or more finger-like projections, called pseudopodia or false feet, for
movement and capture of food
(iv) Dr. William Beaumont is credited for discovering the working of stomach
(v) The pancreas is the largest cream-coloured gland located just below thestomach
(vi) Stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal
(A) true, true, true, true, false, true (B) true, true, false, true, false, true
(C) true, true, false, true, true, true (D) false, true, true, false, false, true
5. This aquatic animal feeds on animals covered by hard shells of calcium carbonate. After opening
their shell, this animal pops out its stomach through its mouth to eat the soft animal inside the shell.
Its stomach then goes back into its body and the food is slowly digested. This aquatic animal is
(A) octopus (B) sea horse (C) crab (D) starfish
6. The teeth used by humans for tearing and piercing hard eatables are
(A) incisors (B) canine (C) molars (D) premolars
7. Find the wrong statement from the following :

(A) All changes in the weather at a place are caused by the sun
(B) The average weather pattern of a place, taken over a long time, is called its climate
(C) Due to plenty and large variety of food in rainforests, there is no competition among
animals for foods and shelters
(D) In search of more hospitable climates, some migratory birds travel as much as 15,000 km to
escape the extreme climates of their region
8. To protect it from extreme cold of the region, this animal has two thick layers of fur. It also has
a layer of fat under the skin. In fact, it is so well-insulated that it has to move slowly and rest
often to avoid getting over heated. The name of this animal is
(A) yak (B) penguin (C) reindeer (D) polar bear
9. Match the statements of Column-I and Column-II and tick-mark() the correct matching, given
as one of the four alternatives A, B, C and D.
Column I Column II
(a) Loamy and clayey soil which can retain water (i) rice/paddy
(b) Loamy soil which can drain water easily (ii) cotton
(c) Soil rich in clay and organic matter which can retain water (iii) gram
(d) Loamy and sand-loamy soil which can drain water easily (iv) wheat
and can hold plenty of air
(e) Clayey soil which is rich in humus and very fertile (v) pulses and other lentils
(A) (a) - iv (b) - ii, (c) - iii, (d) - v, (e) - i (B) (a) - iii (b) - ii, (c) - iv, (d) - v, (e) - i
(C) (a) - iv (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iii (D) (a) - iii (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iv

10. Which one of the following statements is not correct about soil ?
(A) Earthworms convert organic materials of the uppermost soil into nutrients for plants and
make soil more absorbent and better aerated
(B) Soil is essential for plants, contains minerals, water, air and organic matter
(C) The rotting dead matter in the soil is called compost
(D) Wind, rainfall, temperature, etc. affect the soil profile and bring changes in the soil structure
11. The process of breakdown of food in organisms with the release of energy is called respiration.
In the following crossword, the words connected with the process of respiration in animals and
plants, are given.
L E A S Y D G G B M
U S A K J I L I R U
N S P I R A C L EA S
G T I N O P O L A T
R O O T S H S S T R
O M O T H R E D H A
A A I N H A L E I C
D T O X Y G E N N H
W A T E R M U G G E
E X H A L I N G S A
How many connected words are given in the crossword ?
(A) 13 (B) 12 (C) 11 (D) 10
12. Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with appropriate words :
When we exercise, the cramps may occur when muscle cells respire ....................... . The
............. breakdown of ................. produces lactic acid. The ....................... of lactic acid causes
muscle cramps. Hot water bath or ............. improves ..................... of blood, which increases
the supply of oxygen in muscle cells. The increase in supply of oxygen results in the ............
breakdown of lactic acid into ........... ............... and water.
(A) aerobically, sudden, glucose, accumulation, rest, circulation, complete, carbon dioxide
(B) anaerobically, partial, glucose, accumulation, massage, circulation, complete, carbon dioxide
(C) anaerobically, sudden, glucose, absorption, massage, regulation, complete, carbon dioxide
(D) aerobically, partial, glucose, accumulation, massage, circulation, further, carbon dioxide

13. Blood has four main constituents given under. Which one of the following is not correctly
related ?
(A) Red blood cells (RBC) : Contain red pigment called haemoglobin.
These transport oxygen from lungs to all the
cells in the body
(B) White blood cells (WBC) : These fight against harmful germs (bacteria,
viruses, etc.) that enter our body
(C) Platelets : These make us immune to the pain during cuts when blood
starts flowing and then automatically starts clotting
(D) Plasma : It is a clear yellow-tinted liquid which carries RBCs,
WBCs and the platelets
14. Which one of the following statements is not correct ?
(A) Animals like sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system
(B) Circulation of blood was discovered by William Harvey, an English physician
(C) Valves present in the veins allow blood to flow only towards the heart
(D) Both arteries and veins have equally thick elastic walls
15. This plant has buds in the margins of its leaves. If a leaf of this plant falls on a moist soil, each
bud can give rise to a new plant. The name of this plant is
(A) Spirogyra (B) Bryophyllum (C) drumstick (D) fern
(A) In asexual reproduction, new plants are obtained without the production of seeds and spores
(B) The vegetative buds can also give rise to new plants
(C) The male gamets are found inside the ovule and the female gamets are found inside the
pollen grains
(D) Fertilised egg is called zygote which develops into an embryo
(A) Nearly 71% of earth’s surface is covered with water
(B) Out of the total water on the earth, less than 0.02% is freshwater which can be used for
drinking purpose
(C) To educate the people about the importance and proper use of water, ‘World Water Day’ is
observed on March 20, every year
(D) Increased population, industrial growth, demand for constructing new houses, agricultural
production, etc. are the factors which are creating scarcity of water

18. Read the following paragraph and fill in the blanks with appropriate words :
The plants in the forests ............. oxygen through the process of ................... The plants help
to .............. oxygen for animal ................... . They also maintain the .............. of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the ................... . That is why the forests are called green ............... .
(A) supply, photosynthesis, produce, respiration, balance, forests, lungs
(B) release, chlorophyll, provide, breathing, balance, atmosphere, lungs
(C) supply, photosynthesis, provide, breathing, proportion, atmosphere, lungs
(D) release, photosynthesis, provide, respiration, balance, atmosphere, lungs
(A) Microorganisms which convert the dead plants and animals to humus are known as
decomposers
(B) Many food chains can be found in the forests
(C) If the forests disappear, then the temperature of the earth would increase
(D) For want of rains, the dense forests are found only near sea shores
20. Read the following paragraph carefully and fill in the blanks with appropriate words :
During ............................ chlorophyll, in the presence of ................. , uses carbon dioxide and
............ to synthesise ........................ and releases ................ . The carbohydrates ultimately get
converted into ............. . The ........... is also a carbohydrate.
(A) photosynthesis, water vapours, sunlight, carbohydrates, oxygen, starch, starch
(B) photosynthesis, sunlight, water, starch, oxygen, glucose, glucose
(C) photosynthesis, sunlight, water, carbohydrates, oxygen, starch, starch
(D) photosynthesis, sun rays, water vapours, carbohydrates, oxygen, food, starch
21. Mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients in the solution form, from dead and
decaying matter, is called
(A) symbiotic nutrition (B) saprotrophic nutrition
(C) saprophytic nutrition (D) heterotrophic nutrition
22. Which one of the following statements is incorrect ?

(A) Leguminous plants do not need nitrogen fertilisers
(B) Cytoplasm is jelly-like substance
(C) Insectivorous plants have both autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition
(D) Fats are nitrogenous substances

23. Mucus, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices are secreted by

(A) liver, largest gland in the body (B) inner lining of stomach
(C) pancreas, cream coloured gland (D) small intestine
24. Match the statements of Column-I and Column-II and find the correct matching, given as one
of the four alternatives A, B, C and D.
Column I Column II
(a) It is the widest part of the alimentary canal (i) small intestine
(b) Bile juices are stored in it (ii) liver
(c) It is the largest gland in the body (iii) stomach
(d) In receives secretions from liver and pancreas (iv) pancreas
(e) It is cream-coloured gland located below the stomach (v) gall bladder
(A) (a) - iii (b) - i, (c) - iv, (d) - v, (e) - ii (B) (a) - iii (b) - v, (c) - ii, (d) - i, (e) - iv
(C) (a) - ii (b) - v, (c) - iii, (d) - i, (e) - iv (D) (a) - ii (b) - i, (c) - iv, (d) - v, (e) - iii
25. Find the incorrect statement from the following.
(A) The bile plays an important role in the digestion of proteins
(B) Saliva breaks down starch into sugar
(C) The mucous protects the inner lining of the stomach
(D) The villi in the small intestine increase the surface area for the absorption of the digested
food
26. Bacterium Anthrax is the cause of which one of the following diseases ?
(A) Ringworm (B) Tuberculosis (TB)
(C) Sorter’s disease, a fatal blood disease (D) Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
(A) ‘Maximum and Minimum’ thermometer is used for finding variation of temperature at a
place for the previous day
(B) The range of laboratory thermometer is usually from –10°C to 110°C
(C) The range of clinical thermometer is from 36°C to 43°C
(D) Digital thermometers do not use mercury
28. From the following, find true and false statements.

(i) Climate of a place is the average weather pattern taken over a long time
(ii) Polar bears can run very fast to catch their prey
(iii) All changes in the weather are caused by the sun

(iv) In tropical rainforests, there is intense competition among animals, for food
(v) Maximum variety of plants are found in polar region
(vi) Tusks of elephants are modified teeth
(A) true, false, true, true, false, true (B) true, false, true, false, false, true
(C) true, true, true, true, false, true (D) true, true, true, false, true, true
29. Find the wrong statement from the following.
(A) The process of seeping of water into the ground is called infiltration
(B) The amount of water recommended by the United Nation for drinking, cooking and
maintaining proper hygiene is a minimum of 100 litres per person per day
(C) The level below which the ground is saturated with water is called water-table
(D) Water is available in all the three states of matter
30. Name the instrument used for measuring speed of wind.
(A) Speedometer (B) Anemometer (C) Odometer (D) Barometer
31. Clayey and loamy soils are good at retaining water. Such soils are suitable for growing
(A) paddy (B) lentils (masoor) and other pulses
(C) cereals like wheat and gram (D) cotton
(A) Yeast, being a living organism, cannot survive in the absence of air
(B) The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps
(C) One breath means one inhalation plus one exhalation
(D) The food has stored energy, which is released during respiration
(A) White blood cells (WBC) protect our body against infectious diseases and germs that enter
our body
(B) Red blood cells (RBC) contain haemoglobin which binds with oxygen and transports it to all
the cells of the body
(C) Plasma is a fluid part of the blood, used for transporting waste or unused material from the
body
(D) Platelets are used to stop bleeding by clotting and plugging blood vessels
(A) The arteries have thicker elastic walls than the veins
(B) Kidneys are part of digestive system of the body
(C) The veins have valves which allow the blood to flow only towards the heart
(D) Carbon dioxide is removed as waste from the body through the lungs, during exhalation

Column I Column II
(a) The part of the stamen that contains pollen (i) ovule
grains which produce male gamets
(b) The enlarged basal portion of pistil where (ii) pistil
ovules are produced
(c) Female gamet or egg is formed in it (iii) anther
(d) The ovule producing part of flower which (iv) stigma
consists of stigma, style and ovary
(e) The pollen producing part of the flower (v) ovary
(A) (a) - ii (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - iii, (e) - iv (B) (a) - iii (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - ii, (e) - iv
(C) (a) - iii (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iv (D) (a) - ii (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - iii, (e) - iv
36. Which of the following statements are true or false ?
(i) Yeast, a single-celled organism, reproduces by budding
(ii) Spirogyra of vegetative variety reproduces by fragmentation
(iii) Mustard, rose and lily have unisexual flowers
(iv) Spores can withstand unfavourable conditions such as high temperature and low humidity
(v) Plants produced by vegetative propagation are identical to parent plant
(A) true, true, false, true, true (B) true, true, true, true, true
(C) false, true, false, true, true (D) true, false, true, true, true
(A) Many food chains can be found in a forest
(B) An organism that feeds on or derives nourishment from decaying organic matter, is called
saprotroph
(C) Decaying matter is not always warm
(D) If one food chain is disturbed, it affects the other food chain also
38. Which of the following is/are not uses of forests ?
(A) Forests can increase the fertility of soil
(B) Forests can control floods and soil erosion
(C) Forests can check spread of deserts
(D) Forests can check thunderstorm and lightning

39. By-products of wastewater treatment are
(A) manure and biogas (B) potable water and biogas
(C) garden water and manure (D) biogas and sludge
40. Which one of the following is not a part of water cycle ?
(A) Transpiration (B) Water management
(C) Precipitation (D) Condensation

(A) Chlorophyll, sunlight, water and carbon dioxide are sufficient and necessary to carry out the
process of photosynthesis
(B) Insectivorous plants get all the required nutrients from the soil in which they grow
(C) Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into a usable form and release it into
the soil
(D) Some organisms live together and share shelter and nutrients. This is called symbiotic
relationship
42. Which one of the following is not a vegetative part of a plant ?

(A) Root (B) Stem (C) Leaf (D) Flower
The liver is a .................. brown gland situated in the ................ part of the .............. on the
right side. It is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile ........... that is stored in a ...........
called the gall bladder. The bile plays an important role in the digestion of ........... .
(A) reddish, lower, abdomen, secretion, pouch, fat
(B) blackish, upper, stomach, secretion, sac, proteins
(C) reddish, upper, abdomen, juice, sac, fat
(D) blackish, upper, stomach, juice, sac, fat
44. The flowers which contain either only the pistil or only the stamens are called unisexual flowers.
Which one of the following does not produce unisexual flowers ?
(A) Papaya (B) Corn (C) Mustard (D) Cucumber
(i) Proteins are nitrogenous substances
(ii) The presence of starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis by the leaves
(iii) Photosynthesis may take place in plants having leaves of colours purple, red, yellow or
brown, even through these may not have chlorophyll like green leaves
(iv) Plants can synthesise (form) components of food like carbohydrates, proteins and even fats

(v) Fungi and some soil bacteria are saprotrophs

(vi) The bacterium Rhizobium can convert atmospheric nitrogen into soluble form for plants.
This bacterium can also make its own food
(A) true, true, false, true, true, true (B) true, true, false, true, true, false
(C) true, true, true, true, false, true (D) true, true, true, false, true, false
Column I Column II
(a) Alga and fungus (i) autotrophs
(b) Fungus and some soil bacteria (ii) heterotrophs
(c) Algae and plants (iii) atmospheric nitrogen
(d) Roots of grams, peas and other (iv) symbiosis
legumes
(e) Rhizobium (v) Rhizobium
(f) Animals and birds (vi) saprotrophs
(A) (a) - vi (b) - iv, (c) - i, (d) - v, (e) - iii, (f) - ii
(B) (a) - vi (b) - iv, (c) - i, (d) - iii, (e) - v, (f) - ii
(C) (a) - iv (b) - vi, (c) - i, (d) - v, (e) - iii, (f) - ii
(D) (a) - iv (b) - vi, (c) - i, (d) - iii, (e) - v, (f) - ii
47. The polar regions have extreme cold climate. The regions are covered with snow and it is very
cold for most part of year. In winters, the temperature can go as low as –37°C. Polar bears, living
in this region, are well-insulated for protection from the extreme cold. They are so well-insulated
that they have to move slowly and rest often to avoid getting over-heated. This well-insulation is
provided to the polar bear through
(A) a thin layer of fur and a thick layer of fat below its skin
(B) two thick layer of fur and a layer of fat between these
(C) two thick layers of fur and a layer of fat below its skin
(D) two thick layers of fur and two layers of fat below its skin
48. How many of the following are the ‘weather elements’ which affect the condition of atmosphere
at a place ?
temperature, latitude, humidity, wind speed, cloud cover, visibility,

tree coverage, air pressure, longitude, sunrise, wind direction,
sunshine, desert, precipitation, river bed
(A) 10 (B) 9 (C) 8 (D) 7

49. The process of formation of soil by the breaking down of rocks by the action of wind, water and
climate is called
(A) withering (B) weathering (C) disintegrating (D) excoriating
(A) Living organisms such as bacteria, plant roots and earthworms are also important parts of
the soil
(B) Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The size of the silt particles is between those of sand
and clay
(C) Clayey and loamy soils, having good capacity to retain water, are ideal for growing paddy
(D) Percolation of water is highest in the sand soil and least in the clayey soil
The food has ............. energy, which it releases during .................. . So, all organisms ............
to get energy from food. The air (containing oxygen) we breathe in is .................... ultimately
to each cell of different parts of the body. In the cell, oxygen in the air helps in the ....................
of food. The process of ................... of food in the cell, with the release of energy, is called
.............. respiration.
(A) sufficient, respiration, respire, transported, digestion, digestion, cellular
(B) stored, respiration, breathe, transferred, digestion, digestion, cellular
(C) sufficient, digestion, respire, transported, breakdown, breakdown, cellular
(D) stored, respiration, respire, transported, breakdown, breakdown, cellular
52. For exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, plants have
(A) tracheae (B) stomata (C) vesicles (D) spiracles
53. During breathing, the inhaled air has nearly 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide, whereas
during exhalation, the air contains nearly
(A) 10.5% oxygen and 2.4% carbon dioxide (B) 12.4% oxygen and 3.5% carbon dioxide
(C) 16.4% oxygen and 4.4% carbon dioxide (D) 18.4% oxygen and 5.4 % carbon dioxide
(i) The arteries have thicker elastic walls than the veins
(ii) Human heart has four chambers; the upper two chambers are called ventricles and the
lower two chambers are called atria
(iii) The veins have valves which allow the blood to flow only towards the heart

(iv) Animals such as Hydra and sponges do not need any circulatory system
(v) Kidneys, veins, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra form the excretory system
(vi) The food that is synthesised by the leaves is transported to all the parts of the plant by the
vascular tissue, called phloem
(A) true, true, true, true, false, true (B) true, false, true, true, false, true
(C) true, false, true, true, true, true (D) true, true, true, true, false, false
55. Which one of the following is not correct about muscle cramps ?
(A) The cramps occur when muscle cells respire anaerobically due to lack of supply of oxygen
(B) The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps
(C) The relief from muscle cramps can be obtained by running or heavy exercise
(D) The relief from muscle cramps can be also be obtained by hot water bath or proper massage
56. The process of fusion of male and female gamets to form a zygote is called
(A) germination (B) pollination (C) impregnation (D) fertilization
57. ‘Liquid and solid waste material (such as human urine and feces) that is carried away from homes
and other buildings in a system of pipes’ is called
(A) sludge (B) sewage (C) drainage (D) sewerage
58. Which one of the following statements is not correct about forests ?
(A) Forests influence climate, water cycle and air quality
(B) Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate
(C) Forests are the lifeline for the forest-dwelling communities
(D) The various components of the forest are independent of one another
59. A technique of watering plants, by making use of narrow tubings which deliver water directly at
the base of the plant, is called
(A) sprinkle irrigation (B) drip irrigation (C) trickle irrigation (D) drop irrigation
The process of ................... of water into the ground is called ................... . The groundwater
thus gets ................... by this process. At places the ....................... is stored between layers
of hard rock below the water table. This is known as .................. .
(A) seeping, percolation, recharged, subsoil-water, aquifer
(B) percolating, infiltration, refilled, groundwater, sinkhole
(C) seeping, infiltration, recharged, groundwater, aquifer
(D) percolating, percolation, refilled, subsoil-water, aquifer

The small intestine is highly coiled and is about ......... long. It receives secretion from liver (a
............... brown and .............. gland in the body) in the form of ......... juices which play an
important role in the digestion of ......... . It also receives pancreatic juice from pancreas (a large
........... coloured gland), which acts on carbohydrates and .............. and changes them into
............. forms.
(A) 7.5 m, reddish, largest, bile, proteins, cream, fats, simpler
(B) 7.5 m, cream, largest, bile, fats, reddish, proteins, simpler
(C) 7.5 m, reddish, largest, bile, fats, cream, proteins, simpler
(D) 7.2 m, cream, largest, bile, proteins, reddish, fats, simpler
62. Digestion is the process in the alimentary canal by which food is broken physically and chemically
and is finally converted into a substance suitable for absorption and assimilation in the body. We
get energy through digestion of food. In the following crossword some words connected with the
process of digestion or digestion system have been given.
T O E P A N C R E A S
O N S A L I V A N T O
N I N T E S T I N E S
G A L L B L A D D E R
U R I M U C O U S T B
E T V S T O M A C H I
O S E O P H A G U S L
B O R E C T U M D U E
Count all the required words.
(A) 15 (B) 14 (C) 13 (D) 12
63. Food making process in plants is through leaves where all the raw materials reach. Match the
statements of Column-I and Column-II and find the correct matching, given as one of the four
alternatives A, B, C and D.
Column I Column II
(a) Carbon dioxide (i) starch
(b) Carbohydrates (ii) roots of plants
(c) Sunlight (iii) sunlight
(d) Photosynthesis (iv) photosynthesis
(e) Water and minerals (v) chlorophyll
(f) Algae (vi) stomata
(A) (a) - iii (b) - i, (c) - iv, (d) - vi, (e) - ii, (f) - v
(B) (a) - vi (b) - i, (c) - iv, (d) - iii, (e) - ii, (f) - v

(C) (a) - iii (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - vi, (e) - ii, (f) - iv
(D) (a) - vi (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - iii, (e) - ii, (f) - iv
(A) The nucleus is surrounded by a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm
(B) It may be possible that insectivorous plants do not get all the required nutrients from the soil
in which they grow
(C) Usually plants require a lot of water to make proteins
(D) Earthworms, some bacteria and fungi are saprotrophs
65. The tropical regions have a hot climate because of their location around the equator. These regions
get plenty of rainfall. Tropical rainforests are found in this region. Because of continuous warmth
and rain, this region supports wide variety of plants and animals. The names of some of the
animals abundant in the rainforests are given in the following crossword.
A S Q U I R R E L M
E L E P H A N T T O
W O L F F R O G I N
I T L S N A K E G K
C H I M P A N Z E E
K S Z B A T S L R Y
S J A G U A R I A S
G O R I L L A O P E
O L D E E R S N E T
Count the number of all the animals in the crossword.

(A) 16 (B) 15 (C) 14 (D) 13
66. Which of the following two animals of the tropical rainforests are not given in the crossword of
the above question ?
(A) Leopard and gorilla (B) Ape and chimpanzee
(C) Crocodile and sloth (D) Leopard and crocodile

(A) All changes in the weather are caused by the sun
(B) The tusks of the elephant are its modified teeth

(C) In tropical rainforests, there is a wide variety of plants in abundance. So every animal can
get food easily without any struggle
(D) Animal are adapted to survive in the conditions of the climate in which they live
68. Read the following paragraph carefully and fill in the blanks with appropriated words :
..................................... are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat and gram. For paddy,
................................................... and having good capacity to retain water are ideal. For lentils
and other pulses ............................. which drain water easily are required. For cotton
..................................... which drain water easily and can hold plenty of air, are more suitable.
(A) soils rich in clay and organic matter, clayey and loamy soils, loamy soils, sandy-loam or loam
(B) clayey and loamy soils, soils rich in clay and organic matter, loamy soils, sandy-loam or
loam
(C) clayey and loamy soils, soils rich in clay and organic matter, sandy-loam or loam, loamy soils
(D) Soils rich in clay and organic matter, clayey and loamy soils, sandy-loam or loam, loamy
soils
69. (i) Grass-hoppers/insects eat grass.
(ii) Birds eat grain and insects/grass-hoppers.
(iii) Frogs eat insects/grass-hoppers.
(iv) Snakes eat frogs.
(v) Eagles/Hawks eat snakes, frogs and birds.
Grass / Grain / Plants
D E
C B
In the above food web/chain, D and E, respectively, represent
(A) grass-hoppers/insects and frogs (B) grass-hoppers/insects and birds
(C) frogs and birds (D) grass-hoppers/insects and snakes
(A) Percolation rate of water is least in loamy soil
(B) Humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to the growing plants
(C) Mixture of rock particles and humus is called soil
(D) Plant roots firmly blend with the soil


(A) Lungs are a part of breathing as well as blood circulation
(B) The arteries have thick elastic walls
(C) Veins have valves which allow blood to flow only towards the heart
(D) The two upper chambers of heart are called ventricles
72. Moss and ferns reproduce by
(A) fragmentation (B) spore formation
(C) budding (D) none of the above methods
(A) The fruit of a plant is its ripened ovary
(B) The seeds of drumstick and maple are dispersed by water
(C) Unisexual flowers contain either only pistil or only stamens
(D) Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gamets
74. Which of the following is/are not part of breathing ?
(A) Lungs (B) Ribs (C) Pharynx (D) Trachea
75. Forest is a
(A) complete living entity (B) dynamic living entity
(C) dynamic living structure (D) lively vibrant entity
76. In water treatment tanks, ‘the solid like faeces which settle at the bottom and are removed with
a scraper’ are called
(A) slurry (B) slush (C) sludge (D) sediment
77. The branch part of the tree above stem is called
(A) canopy of the tree (B) umbrella of the tree(C) crown of the tree (D) peak of the tree
Grass is eaten by ................., which in turn, are eaten by frogs. The frogs are consumed by
................. which are eaten by eagles. This is said to form a food .......... . Many food chains
can be found in the .............. . All food chains are ............... . If any one food chain is
....................., it ............... the other food chains also.
(A) grasshoppers, snakes, chain, jungle, linked, broken, affects
(B) insects, snakes, chain, forest, linked, disturbed, affects
(C) insects, snakes, web, forest, independent, disturbed, modifies
(D) insects, snakes, chain, jungle, linked, disturbed, modifies

79. Plants reproduce their offsprings sexually or asexually. In sexual reproduction, new plants are
obtained
(A) from roots (B) from buds (C) from stems (D) from seeds
80. The cell which results after the fusion of the gamets is called
(A) ovum (B) zygote (C) protozoa (D) embryo
Like other ...................., plants also ................ for ................ . In the leaves of plants there are
tiny ..............., called stomata, for ................ of oxygen and carbon dioxide. In the cells, oxygen
is used to .................... glucose into carbon dioxide and water.
(A) organisms, respire, growth, holes, exchange, disintegrate
(B) organisms, breathe, growth, pores, exchange, breakdown
(C) creatures, respire, survival, pores, exchange, breakdown
(D) organisms, respire, survival, pores, exchange, breakdown
(A) Breaking down of rocks, by the action of wind, water and climate, is called weathering
(B) The best topsoil for growing plants is clay
(C) Crops, like wheat, are grown in fine clayey soils, because these are rich in humus and are
very fertile
(D) Soil is affected by wind, rainfall, temperature, light and humidity
(A) Rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists to measure rainfall at a particular place
(B) The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is called the climate of
the place
(C) Polar bears have streamlined bodies and webbed feet, making them good swimmers
(D) Rainforests have sufficient and surplus food to satisfy the needs of all the animals living
there, without any competition
(A) Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not posses any circulatory system
(B) The vascular tissues, called xylems, are responsible for transporting food, synthesised by
leaves, from leaves to all the other parts of the plant
(C) The two upper chambers of heart are called atria and the two lower chambers are called
ventricles
(D) The kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra form the excretory system of the body

85. Forest are lifeline for many organisms, including humans, because these serve as green lungs and
water purifying systems in nature. In addition, forest are natural habitats of wild animals. In the
following crossword, some very common wild animals are given.
The number of wild animals in the above crossword is
(A) 12 (B) 11 (C) 9 (D) 8
86. Which of the following two wild animals are not given in the above crossword?
(A) Jaguar and wolf (B) Gorilla and giraffe (C) Jackal and bear (D) Jaguar and gorilla
(i) The veins in our body have valves which allow the blood to flow only towards the heart
(ii) Transpiration generates a force which pulls up water, absorbed by the roots from the soil, to
reach the stem and leaves
(iii) Birds, insects and lizard excrete uric acid in liquid form
(iv) Waste substances excreted by fish are directly dissolved in water
(v) Salts and urea in our body are removed along with urine
(vi) Arteries as well as veins have equally thick elastic walls
(A) true, true, false, true, false, false
(B) true, true, true, true, false, fasle
(C) true, true, false, true, fasle, true
(D) true, true, false, true, true, false

Column I Column II
(a) This binds oxygen and then carries it to (i) white blood cells
all the cells of the body
(b) Fluid that transports nutrients and oxygen (ii) platelets
to all the cells of the body
(c) Fluid portion of the blood in which (iii) blood
components of blood are suspended
(d) This component of blood fights against (iv) red blood cells
the germs that may enter our body
(e) This component of blood contains red (v) haemoglobin
pigment and is responsible to transport
nutrients throughout the body
(f) This component of blood prevents (vi) plasma
amount of blood from leaking out, by
forming clots
(A) (a) - vi (b) - iv, (c) - v, (d) - i, (e) - iii, (f) - ii
(B) (a) - v (b) - iv, (c) - vi, (d) - i, (e) - iii, (f) - ii
(C) (a) - vi (b) - iii, (c) - v, (d) - i, (e) - iv, (f) - ii
(D) (a) - v (b) - iii, (c) - vi, (d) - i, (e) - iv, (f) - ii
The bodies of living organisms are made of ............. units, called cells, which can be ........... only
under the microscope. The cell is ................. by a thin boundary, called the cell ................... .
.............. cells have a .................. , centrally located spherical structure, called the nucleus which
is .................... by a jelly-like substance called ..................... .
(A) tiny, seen, wrapped, membrane, All, distinct, surrounded, cytoplasm
(B) tiny, seen, enclosed, membrane, Most, distinct, surrounded, cytoplasm
(C) small, seen, enclosed, wall, Most, distinct, surrounded, protoplasm
(D) tiny, seen, enclosed, membrane, All, definite, enclosed, cytoplasm

(A) In many leaves, the large amount of red, brown and other pigments mask the green colour.
So, photosynthesis takes place in these leaves also
(B) Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into usable form and then releases it
into the soil
(C) All plants, including insectivorous plants, are called autotrophs
(D) In symbiotic relationship, some organisms live together and share shelterand nutrients
91. The stomach is a thick walled bag and its shape is like a flattened U. Which one of the following
statements is not correct about stomach ?
(A) The stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal which receives food from
oesophagus
(B) The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices
(C) The mucous protects the lining of the stomach; the acid kills many bacteria that enter along
with the food and makes the medium in the stomach acidic
(D) The digestive juices break down the fats and minerals into simpler substances
The liver is a ................. brown gland situated in the ............ part of the abdomen on the right
side. It is the ............... gland in the body. It ............... bile juice that is stored in a .........., called
gall bladder. The bile plays an important role in the .............. of .............. .
(A) reddish, upper, largest, produces, pouch, digestion, proteins
(B) blackish, upper, strongest, secretes, sac, digestion, fats
(C) reddish, upper, largest, secretes, sac, digestion, fats
(D) reddish, lower, largest, produces, pouch, digestion, proteins

(A) The length of the small intestine is about five times the length of the large intestine
(B) The grass is rich in cellulose, a type of carbohydrate, and can be digested by many
animals, including humans
(C) In the small intestine, the carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars such as glucose, fats
into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids
(D) The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars
94. Cows and buffaloes quickly swallow the grass and store it in a separate part of the stomach,
where it is partially digested and is called cud. But, later the cud returns to the mouth in small
lumps and the animals chew it. The action of chewing the cud is called
(A) munching (B) mastication (C) rumination (D) mashing

(i) Yeasts are single-celled organisms that respire anaerobically and during this process yield
alcohol
(ii) The food has stored energy which is released during respiration
(iii) The cramps occur when muscle cells respire anaerobically and the partial breakdown of
glucose produces alcohol
(iv) During drowsiness, body receives insufficient supply of oxygen
(v) Gills in fish are projection of their skin and are well supplied with blood vessels
(vi) Reptiles, birds and some insects have lungs for respiration
(A) false, true, false, true, true, false (B) true, true, true, true, true, false
(C) true, true, false, true, true, false (D) true, true, true, false, true, false
96. If the amount of large particles and the amount of fine particles are about equal in the soil, then
the soil is called
(A) clayey soil (B) loamy soil (C) sandy soil (D) fertile soil
97. Water from toilets, kitchens, sinks, laundries, etc. is called wastewater. This dirty water is cleaned
by removing pollutants and can be used for plants and agriculture. In the following crossword, some
words connected with wastewater and its cleaning process are given.
The number of words, connected with wastewater and its cleaning, given in the above crossword
is
(A) 16 (B) 15 (C) 14 (D) 13
98. Which of the following two words, connected with wastewater and its cleaning, are not given in
the above crossword ?
(A) Sludge and filter (B) Biogas and toilets
(C) Sludge and sewage (D) Sewage and sewerage

Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble
food molecules so that these can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In humans,
this process of digestion is completed through alimentary canal (digestive tract). In the
crossword given below, names of some parts of body, involved in the digestion system,
are given.
G R E E N S C H E W I N G S O
O A R E C T U M U C H L O O E
O T E L L O A B C D E T L L S
D P A L I M O T H E R O D D O
S A L I V A R Y G L A N D S P
A N B N E C H E M O N G U U H
M C C N R H W X Y Z U U S N A
P R E P R O D U C T S E T S G
L E B U C C A L C A V I T Y U
L A R G E I N T E S T I N E S
E S M A L L I N T E S T I N E
Based on the information given in the above crossword, answer the following four questions.
99. How many names of parts of body connected with digesgtive system are written in the above
crossword ?
(A) 12 (B) 11 (C) 10 (D) 9
100. Which of the following two names of parts of body connected with the digestive system are not
given in the above crossword ?
(A) Tongue and teeth (B) Salivary glands and buccal cavity
(C) Teeth and buccal cavity (D) Mouth and teeth
101. How many names of parts of body connected with digestive system, given in the crossword, do
not belong to the alimentary canal (digestive tract) ?
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2
(A) Stomach is the widest part and the small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal
(B) The liver is a reddish brown gland, the second largest gland of the body,which secretes bile
juices
(C) The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars
(D) The first set of teeth are termed as ‘milk teeth’

The inner walls of the small intestine have ................. of finger-like ................, called villi. Each
villus has a ...................... of thin and small blood vessels close to its surface. The surface of
the villi .................. the digested materials of the small intestine and ..................... it via the blood
vessels to different ............... of the body to build complex substance like proteins ....................
by the body.
(A) millions, outgrowths, connection, extracts, transports, organs, required

(B) thousands, offshoots, network, extracts, transfers, parts required
(C) thousands, outgrowths, network, absorbs, transports, organs, required
(D) thousands, offshoots, connection, absorbs, transfers, parts, needed

(A) Plants can synthesise proteins and fats also
(B) Like other plants, the pitcher plants also get sufficient nutrients from the soil in which these
grow
(C) Nucleus in the cell is surrounded by a jelly-like substance, called cytoplasm
(D) Carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis in plants get converted into starch
105. How many things are required by the plants for photosynthesis (to synthesise required
nutrients) ?
(A) 6 (B) 5 (C) 4 (D) 3
(A) In anaerobes (like yeast), glucose breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide. For this
reason, yeast is used to make wine and beer
(B) The process of breakdown of food in the cells, with the release of energy, is called cellular
respiration
(C) Lungs, ribs, pharynx, liver and nasal passage are all parts of breathing system in humans
(D) Roots of plants take up air from the air spaces present between the soil particle
107. All living organisms need to respire to get energy needed for their survival. Match the statements
of Column-I and Column-II and find the correct matching, given as one of the four alternatives
A, B, C and D.
Column I Column II
(a) This respiratory organ is supplied with blood vessels (i) tracheae
and helps aquatic animals like fish to breathe
(b) Through this structure in leaves, plants exchange (ii) skin
gases and respire for their survival

(c) The air tubes, found only in insects, are used for (iii) gills
gas exchanges in which oxygen-rich air rushes
through spiracles and reaches every cell of their body
(d) Amphibians like frogs (with slippery skin), (iv) lungs
earthworms, sea urchins use this part of organ
for respiration to a greater or lesser degree
(e) Animals like lions, humans, snakes and birds use (v) stomata
this part of their body for respiration
(A) (a) - iii, (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - ii, (e) - iv (B) (a) - iii, (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - ii, (e) - iv
(C) (a) - ii, (b) - v, (c) - i, (d) - iii, (e) - iv (D) (a) - ii, (b) - i, (c) - v, (d) - iii, (e) - iv
Veins are the ............... which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all .............. of the body back
to the heart. The veins have ........ walls. There are ............ present in veins which ............. blood
to .............. only towards the heart. Pulmonary ........ carry oxygen-rich blood from lungs to the
heart.
(A) tubes, parts, thick, valves, allow, flow, veins
(B) vessels, parts, thin, valves, allow, flow, veins
(C) vessels, cells, thin, devices, allow, flow, arteries
(D) vessels, parts, thin, valves, permit, move, veins
(i) Hemoglobin is red pigment which bonds with oxygen and transports it to all the cells of the
body
(ii) Platelets are tiny blood cells that help our body to form clots to stop bleeding
(iii) Arteries with thin elastic walls carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all the parts of the
body
(iv) The modern history of hypertension begins with the understanding of the cardiovascular
system based on the work of physician William Harvey who discovered the circulation of
blood
(v) The process of removal of wastes produced in the cells of the living organisms is called
ejection
(vi) Aquatic organisms like hydra and sponge do have circulatory fluid like blood
(A) true, true, true, false, false, true (B) true, true, true, true, false, true
(C) true, true, false, true, false, true (D) true, true, fasle, true, true, true

110. The colours of some birds or animals blend with the surrounding and protect them from predators.
This blending of colours is called
(A) disguisement (B) camouflage (C) gimmickry (D) concealment

Column I Column II
(a) It contains an embryo, enclosed in a (i) roots, stems, leaves
protective covering
(b) In sexual reproduction, it is the fused form of female gamet(ovum) (ii) flower
and male gamet (sperm)
(c) After fertilization and after the fall of other (iii) zygote
parts, it is the ripened ovary
(d) These are termed as vegetative parts of the plants (iv) fruit
(e) This is the reproductive part of the plant (v) seed
(A) (a) - iii, (b) - v, (c) - iv, (d) - i, (e) - ii (B) (a) - v, (b) - iii, (c) - iv, (d) - i, (e) - ii
(C) (a) - v, (b) - iii, (c) - iv, (d) - ii, (e) - i (D) (a) - iii, (b) - v, (c) - ii, (d) - i, (e) - iv
112. Which one of the following statement is not correct ?
(A) Spore is asexual reproductive body, covered by a hard protective coat to
withstand unfavourable conditons like low humidity and high temperature
(B) In asexual reproduction, new plants are obtained without the production of seeds and spores
(C) Seeds of Xanthium and Urena, with hooks, are hairy and light. These are carried away by
winds and water
(D) In nature, same kind of plants grow at different places. This happens because seeds are
dispersed to different places
113. The microorganisms which convert the dead plants and animals to humus are called
(A) scavengers (B) disintegrators (C) decomposers (D) decayers
Plants .............. oxygen ................. the process of photosynthesis and ...................... carbon
dioxide of the atmosphere. Thus, plants ................... oxygen for animal respiration and their
..................... . Plants also ................... the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. For this reason, ................ are called green lungs
(A) release, through, consume, provide, existence, consume, plantations
(B) liberate, through, consume, supply, survival, maintain, forests
(C) release, following absorb, provide, survival, maintain, forests
(D) release, through, consume, provide, survival, maintain, forests

115. Forests are habitat for many animals and plants. A variety of animals and birds, weak and
predators, have their homes in forests. Count the number of carnivorous, herbivorous and
omnivorous animals and birds, found in forests and given in the following list :
Elephants, Wolves, Bears, Eagles, Giraffes, Rabbits, Jackals,
Lions, Ostriches, Squirrels, Owls, Zebras, Leopards, Rhinoceroses,
Hawks, Mice, Deers, Hyenas, Hippopotomuses, Chimpanzees, Spiders
No. of Carnivores No. of Herbivores No. of Omnivores
(A) 8 7 6
(B) 9 7 5
(C) 7 8 6
(D) 8 8 5
116. The instrument that measures the speed of wind and its direction is called
(A) odometer (B) speedometer (C) seismometer (D) anemometer
Each cell in our body contains an acid, .................................. acid or DNA. It ............. every
................ of the body such as our looks, ................ of our eyes, our height, etc. Proteins that
build part of our cells are also made of amino acids. The fat in our body .................. fatty acids.
(A) deoxyribonuclear, governs, feature, colour, contains
(B) deoxyribonucleic, controls, feature, colour, contains
(C) deoxyribonuclear, controls, characteristic, colour, possesses
(D) deoxyribonucleic, controls, feature, shade, possesses
(A) Ozone is very important for planet earth
(B) Ozone protects earth from harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun, by absorbing these
harmful radiations. Thus, ozone acts as natural shield against these harmful radiations
(C) While absorbing ultraviolet radiations. ozone breaks down to oxygen
(D) So conversion of ozone to oxygen by ultraviolet radiations is a physical change
119. This bird has a long colourful and over-sized beak, which helps it to reach the fruits on the
branches which are otherwise too weak to support its weight. In this way, it is able to get food
which is otherwise not easily reachable. This bird is found in South America’s tropical forests.
This bird is
(A) Flamingo (B) Toco Toucan (C) Sickle bird (D) Humming bird
120. All changes in weather, at any place on the surface of the earth, are caused by
(A) the winds and temperatures (B) rotation of earth around sun
(C) the sun (D) the sun and the moon

OLYMPIAD ANSWERS
1 D 2 D 3 C 4 B 5 D
6 B 7 C 8 D 9 D 10 C
11 A 12 B 13 C 14 D 15 B
16 C 17 C 18 D 19 D 20 C
21 B 22 D 23 B 24 B 25 A
26 C 27 C 28 A 29 B 30 B
31 C 32 A 33 C 34 B 35 C
36 A 37 C 38 D 39 D 40 B
41 B 42 D 43 C 44 C 45 B
46 C 47 C 48 B 49 B 50 C
51 D 52 B 53 C 54 B 55 C
56 D 57 B 58 D 59 B 60 C
61 C 62 D 63 D 64 C 65 A
66 D 67 C 68 B 69 B 70 A
71 D 72 B 73 B 74 B 75 B
76 C 77 C 78 B 79 D 80 B
81 D 82 B 83 D 84 B 85 B
86 D 87 A 88 D 89 B 90 C
91 D 92 C 93 B 94 C 95 C
96 B 97 B 98 C 99 B 100 D
101 C 102 B 103 C 104 B 105 C
106 C 107 A 108 B 109 C 110 B
111 B 112 C 113 C 114 D 115 B
116 D 117 B 118 D 119 B 120 C


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Delhi Centres: • E-23, Defence Colony, New Delhi - 110024. Ph.: 011-24336143/44, 24331000-02.

Chapter 1. Nutrition in Plants ....................................................... 01 – 12

Chapter 2. Nutrition in Animals .................................................... 13 – 28

Chapter 3 Weather, Climate and Adaptations of Animals ............. 29 – 40

Chapter 4 Soil ............................................................................ 41 – 50

Chapter 5 Respiration in Plants and Animals .............................. 51 – 60

Chapter 6 Transportation in Animals and Plants .......................... 61 – 76

Chapter 7 Reproduction in Plants ............................................... 77 – 90

Chapter 8 Forests: Our Lifeline ................................................. 91 – 100

Chapter 9 Waste water story .................................................. 101 – 110

Additional Topics ........................................................... 111 – 120

Olympiad Segment .......................................................... 121 – 147

Autotrophic Heterotrophic Interdependence

Parasitic Plants Saprophytic plants

1. Autotrophic Nutrition (Auto = self + trophos = nourishment)

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 1

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition (heteros = other + trophos = nourishment)

Detailed Structure of Chloroplast

1. Chloroplasts are the cell organelles found Lamellae

7. The matrix has enzyme for the dark reaction of photosynthesis.

AUTOTROPHIC MODE OF NUTRITION

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 2

Requirement for Photosynthesis:

 Chlorophyll: The chlorophyll is present in the chloroplasts.

Green leaves and stems of young plants contain green coloured

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 3

There are two main stages in the entire process of photosynthesis.

The first stage is light dependent (light reaction).

Other light independent stage (dark reaction).

During these two stages following events occur:

(i) Chlorophyll molecule absorb light energy from sunlight.

(iii) Finally, carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrates (end product of photosynthesis).

Activity: Test of Starch

 Take a leaf from a green plant.

 Boil it in 90% alcohol for few minutes in a water bath.

 Now wash the decolourised leaf in water.

 Put few drops of iodine on the decolorised leaf.

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 4

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Functioning (Opening and Closing) of Stomata

Stomata open into small air cavities inside the leaves.

At night when, there is no light and, no photosynthesis

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 5

Synthesis of Nutrients other than Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates and fats are synthesised from simple carbohydrates.

How nutrients are replenished in the soil?

Methods of Replenishing Nutrients in the Soil

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 6

Heterotrophic Modes of Nutrition in Plants

Based on the method of obtaining food, heterotrophic plants may be

 Parasitic plants  Saprophytic plants  Insectivorous plants  Symbiotic plants

Non-green plants that obtain their food from some other

The plant that provides food is called the host plant.

Phloem: Food conducting tissue of plants.

Total parasitic plants completely depend on the host plant

Partial parasitic plants have green leaves and can synthesis

The plant that bears the largest flower in the world is a

AMITY I NSTITUTE FOR COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS : Ph. : 24336143/44, 25573111/12/13/14 7