Applied Social Psychology Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems 3rd Edition Gruman Test Bank Download

Applied Social Psychology Understanding and
Addressing Social and Practical Problems 3rd Edition

Gruman Schneider Coutts 1483369730 9781483369730
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Chapter 10: Applying Social Psychology to Organizations
Multiple Choice
1. ______ occurs when particular individuals exert influence on the goal achievement of others
in an organizational setting.
a. Work motivation
b. Social influence
c. Power
d. Leadership
Ans: D
Cognitive Domain: Comprehension
Answer Location: Introduction
Difficulty Level: Easy
2. Process theories of work motivation focus on

a. what motivates workers
b. how motivation occurs
c. why workers are motivated
d. why workers are de-motivated
Ans: B
3. Current research and theories of leadership focus on leadership as

a. the exercise of power for the advancement of one’s career
b. an individual characteristic
c. a complex social dynamic
d. the effective use of manipulation
Ans: C
Difficulty Level: Medium
4. ______ is the process of selecting and interpreting information about how we view ourselves
and others.
a. Selective perception
b. Social perception
c. Fundamental attribution
d. Conceptual filtering
Ans: B
Cognitive Domain: Knowledge
Answer Location: Making Sense of Others in the Work Environment
5. The shortcuts people use in order to be efficient in interpreting and making sense of their
social worlds can lead to ______.
a. lapses in memory
b. social biases
c. more effective information gathering
d. perceptual biases
Ans: D
Answer Location: Perceptual Biases
6. Because we cannot assimilate everything we see, any characteristic that makes a person,
object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will be perceived. This refers to the
concept of ______.
a. perceptual bias
b. the halo effect
c. selective perception
d. attribution bias
Ans: C
7. Which of the following phenomena is a perceptual bias that can affect organizational
behavior?
a. the halo effect
b. group polarization
c. risky shift
d. groupthink
Ans: A
8. When we draw a general impression of an individual on the basis of a single characteristic,
such as intelligence, we are demonstrating ______.
a. poor judgment
b. selective perception
c. attribution bias
d. the halo effect
Ans: D
9. Which of the following is NOT described in Kelley’s (1973) covariation model as a type of
information that people rely on in trying to explain reasons for behavior?
a. consistency
b. severity
c. distinctiveness
d. consensus
Ans: B
Answer Location: The Attribution Process
10. Suppose that you are the supervisor of an employee who performs well across a variety of
tasks. In other words, the employee’s success on a particular task is not unusual. Furthermore,
you notice that he or she is the only employee who performs this task well. Finally, you observe
that the employee performs this task well at different times. Given these observations, based on
Kelly’s (1973) covariation model, you are most likely to attribute the employee’s successful
performance to
a. internal factors, such as ability and effort
b. external factors, such as the ease of the task
c. the quality of your supervision
d. the quality of the employee’s coworkers
Ans: A
Cognitive Domain: Application
Answer Location: The Attribution Process
11. Which of the following is false? Research on factors that influence a supervisor’s causal
attributions concerning an employee’s work performance has found that
a. a supervisor is more likely to attribute an employee’s poor performance to internal factors than
to external factors
b. supervisors’ reactions to the poor performance of employees are directly related to their
attributions in that the more internal the attribution, the more likely they are to recommend
disciplinary action
c. if an employee’s high level of performance is attributed to effort rather than to ability, a
supervisor will give the employee a more positive performance appraisal
d. a supervisor is more likely to attribute an employee’s poor performance to external factors
than to internal factors
Ans: D
Answer Location: Biases in Attribution
Difficulty Level: Hard
12. When a supervisor evaluates the performance of an employee and shows a tendency to assign
too much credit to the employee for his or her successes and too much blame to the employee for
his or her failures, this is a demonstration of the ______.
a. fundamental attribution error
b. actor–observer difference
c. the halo effect
d. the similar-to-me effect
Ans: A
Answer Location: Biases in Attribution
13. According to the textbook, which of the following approaches is used in measuring job
satisfaction?
a. the balance approach
b. the person–fit approach
c. the global approach
d. the biopsychosocial approach
Ans: D
Answer Location: Job Satisfaction: Antecedents and Consequences
14. Which of the following is NOT one of the five core job characteristics described in Hackman
and Oldham’s (1976) job characteristics model?
a. job feedback
b. task identity
c. skill variety
d. growth need strength
Ans: D
Answer Location: Determinants of Job Satisfaction
15. As outlined in Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) job characteristics model, ______ refers to the
degree to which a person can see his or her work through from beginning to end.
a. task significance
b. task completion
c. task identity
d. task difficulty
Ans: C
16. The relationship between job characteristics that are challenging and job satisfaction should
be higher among employees with a high level of ______.
a. internal locus of control
b. growth need strength
c. extroversion
d. education
Ans: B
17. The ______ model of job satisfaction is based on the premise that people adapt their
attitudes, behavior, and beliefs to their social context and to the reality of their own past and
present behavior and situation.
a. social information processing
b. social comparison
c. job characteristics
d. social environment
Ans: A
18. Which of the following is NOT true with regard to the relationship between personal
dispositions and job satisfaction?
a. Positive affect disposition is significantly correlated with overall job satisfaction.
b. Studies with identical twins have shown that people may be born with characteristics that
predispose them to be satisfied or unsatisfied with their work.
c. Generalized self-efficacy has been linked with job satisfaction.
d. Positive affect disposition is not correlated with overall job satisfaction.
Ans: D
19. ______ models state that job satisfaction results from complex interactions between personal
dispositions and environmental (job) characteristics.
a. Job interaction
b. Personal disposition
c. Person–fit
d. Social information processing
Ans: C
20. Which of the following statements is NOT true with regard to employee withdrawal
behaviors?
a. A strong correlation has been found between absenteeism and job satisfaction.
b. Sick pay, lost productivity, and overstaffing to compensate for absentee workers annually cost
American organizations up to $46 billion.
c. People who are less satisfied with their jobs are more likely to quit.
d. People who are highly satisfied with their jobs are less likely to quit.
Ans: A
Answer Location: Consequences of Job Satisfaction
21. Which of the following statements regarding organizational citizenship behavior is true?
a. Organizational citizenship behavior cannot be distinguished from specified job requirements.
b. Organizational citizenship behavior involves performance behaviors such as conscientiously
performing one’s work.
c. The more employees are satisfied with their job, the less good citizenship contributions they
tend to make.
d. When employees perceive organizational processes and outcomes to be unfair, they are more
likely to engage in behaviors that go beyond their formal job requirements.
Ans: B
22. Which of the following is NOT true with regard to the relationship between job satisfaction
and job performance?
a. There is likely a bidirectional causal relationship between job satisfaction and performance.
b. Job satisfaction is more strongly related to job performance for less conscientious employees
than for conscientious employees.
c. The causal effects between job satisfaction and performance may be mediated by other
variables such as positive affect.
d. There is no correlation between job satisfaction and job performance.
Ans: D
23. With regard to the model of communication presented in Chapter 10, which of the following
is NOT true?
a. A message refers to the verbal and nonverbal information imparted from one party to another.
b. A message must be imparted through a channel.
c. The sender is the person who conveys the message.
d. After being transmitted, the message is encoded by a receiver.
Ans: D
Answer Location: A Model of Communication
24. In the ______ perspective of communication, the locus of communication is the channel.
a. interpretative symbolic
b. mechanistic
c. nonverbal behavior
d. psychological
Ans: B
Answer Location: Perspectives on Communication
25. In the ______ perspective of communication, the locus of communication is people’s

conceptual filters.
a. nonverbal behavior
b. interpretative symbolic
c. psychological
d. mechanistic
Ans: C
26. ______ consist of attitudes, cognitions, and perceptions that may distort information
exchange.
a. Interference mechanisms
b. Communication channels
c. Conceptual filters
d. Nonverbal behaviors
Ans: C
27. In their study of the communication styles of American and British managers working in the
United Kingdom, Dunkerley and Robinson (2002) found that
a. the managers from both countries believed the foreign managers’ communication style was
superior
b. the British managers’ style was more direct and task focused while the American managers’
style was more circuitous, cautious, and focused on maintaining the work relationship
c. the communication styles of managers from each country tended to become similar over time
d. both parties’ conceptual filters influenced the information they attended to and deemed
important
Ans: D
28. In the ______ perspective of communication, the locus of communication is the shared
meaning that develops between or among the parties involved.
a. mechanistic
b. psychological
c. interpretative symbolic
d. nonverbal
Ans: C
29. With regard to the interpretive symbolic perspective of communication, the development of a
“common sense” that people agree on because their collective experience makes it seem correct
is referred to as ______.
a. social constructionism
b. consensual validation
c. selective perception
d. social perception
Ans: B
30. The interpretative symbolic perspective has its roots in the theory of ______, which states
that reality is constructed by means of consensual validation achieved through social interaction.
a. social constructionism
b. social communication
c. symbolic interactionism
d. social interactionism
Ans: A
31. Research by Emrich, Brower, Feldman, and Garland (2001) has found that leaders who use
more image-based rhetoric are regarded as ______.
a. more charismatic
b. more powerful
c. less timid
d. more independent
Ans: A
Answer Location: Interpersonal Processes in Organizations: Perspectives on Communication
32. Which of the following is NOT a technique that leaders use to be persuasive?
a. rhetorical devices
b. amplify values
c. raising the volume of their voice
d. loss language
Ans: C
33. Which of the following statements regarding nonverbal communication is NOT true?
a. It refers to all the information conveyed by a sender, including the words themselves, that play
a role in the transmission of meaning.
b. The tone of a person’s voice is an aspect of nonverbal communication.
c. People’s nonverbal signals can sometimes carry more accurate information than the actual
words they use.
d. Nonverbal communication has been studied in organizational areas such as supervision and
the employment interview.
Ans: A
Answer Location: Nonverbal Aspects of Communication
34. Based on research on nonverbal communication in organizational settings, which of the

following statements is NOT true?
a. Nonverbal behaviors play a significant role in many areas of organizational functioning.
b. Salespeople who make more eye contact are perceived by customers to be more believable.
c. Interviewers rate job applicants as more suitable for employment when the applicants display
low levels of direct eye contact than when they display high levels of direct eye contact.
d. The verbal and nonverbal behaviors of job applicants interviewed by a “cold” interviewer are
rated more negatively by independent judges than the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of job
applicants interviewed by a “warm” interviewer.
Ans: C
35. With regard to research concerning the effects of nonverbal communication in organizational
settings, which of the following statements is NOT true?
a. Job interviews conducted by telephone result in the interviewer making less accurate
assessments of the applicant’s personality than do job interviews conducted face to face.
b. Within virtual organizations, the volume of information transmitted through electronic
communication tends to increase, thereby resulting in greater efficiency.
c. Message comprehension is lower in electronic communication relative to face-to-face
communication.
d. Employees who communicate exclusively using e-mail may have a more difficult time
achieving consensual validation.
Ans: B
36. The available research suggests that groups interacting through videoconferencing
a. have an easier time regulating their conversations compared with groups interacting face to
face
b. find regulating their conversations as easy as those interacting face to face
c. have more difficulty regulating their conversations compared with those interacting face to
face
d. perform better on tasks that require quick responses
Ans: C
37. Which of the following statements regarding group decision making in the workplace is true?
a. Teams are often responsible for making decisions that previously had been made by individual
managers.
b. Most important decisions in organizations are made by senior individuals.
c. The prevalence of semiautonomous and self-managed work teams has remained more or less
constant.
d. In the U.S., 30% of Fortune 500 companies have at least half of their employees working in
teams.
Ans: A
Answer Location: Group Decision Making
38. ______ refers to a process of flawed decision making that occurs as a result of strong
pressures among group members to reach agreement.
a. Concurrence seeking
b. Consensual validation
c. Cohesion
d. Groupthink
Ans: D
Answer Location: Groupthink
39. Which of the following has NOT been proposed as an antecedent condition for groupthink?
a. overconfidence among group members
b. isolation of the group from outsiders
c. lack of pressure to make an accurate decision
d. directive leadership
Ans: C
40. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the role of a leader in preventing the
occurrence of groupthink?
a. The leader should not play a critical role in initiating steps to prevent groupthink because these
steps need to be initiated by other group members in order to be effective.
b. The leader should ensure that group members do not fall into the role of “critical evaluator.”
c. The leader should remain impartial and not voice his or her opinions or expectations until all
other group members’ views have been heard.
d. The leader should voice his or her opinion first but only to a select few.
Ans: C
41. The phenomenon whereby groups tend to shift and make more extreme the initial position of
the majority of the members is referred to as ______.
a. risky shift
b. groupthink
c. normative influence
d. group polarization
Ans: D
Answer Location: Group Polarization
42. With regard to group polarization, which of the following statements is true?
a. If group members’ views, on average, are mildly supportive of a position, then, as a result of
group discussion, the group’s final decision will tend to be more opposed to the position.
b. Group polarization has been found to exacerbate the notion of “too much money to quit” when
determining whether or not to invest more money into a failing business project.
c. Group polarization has been found to occur mainly in decisions involving risk.
d. Group polarization is more likely to influence the decisions of work-related groups than the
decisions of non-work-related groups.
Ans: B
43. Which of the following statements is true regarding the relationship between normative
influence and group polarization?
a. The mere knowledge of the positions or opinions of other people, without exposure to
discussion, is not enough to produce polarization.
b. Polarization occurs depending on whether or not individuals believe that the positions or
opinions derive from members of an out-group.
c. When involved in a group discussion, a person’s views might become more extreme because
he or she feels pressure to conform in order to be accepted.
d. When involved in a group discussion, a person’s views might become more neutral because he
or she feels pressure to be accepted by all.
Ans: C
44. According to ______ theory, group polarization occurs when most of the arguments the
group members hear favor one position over another.
a. groupthink
b. informational influence
c. normative influence
d. persuasive arguments
Ans: D
45. Which of the following statements is true with regard to group decision-making biases?
a. Decisions made by groups seldom show the types of biases that are demonstrated by
individual decision makers.
b. Decisions made by groups seldom show the types of biases that are demonstrated by
individual decision makers when the demonstrability of a solution is low.
c. Group members tend to serve an error-checking function when the demonstrability of a
solution is high.
d. Group members tend to serve an error-checking function when the demonstrability of a
solution is low.
Ans: C
Answer Location: Decision Making Biases in Groups
46. In a study, conducted by Schulz-Hardt, Frey, Lüthgens, and Moscovici (2000), both
individuals and groups were given a case study involving a chemical company that had to make
the decision of whether or not to invest in a developing country. After making an initial decision,
all participants were given a chance to receive additional pieces of information that either
favored or opposed investment in the developing country. The results showed that
a. individuals but not groups demonstrated a clear preference for additional information that
supported the initial decision they had made
b. groups but not individuals demonstrated a clear preference for additional information that
c. both individuals and groups demonstrated a clear preference for additional information that
d. both individuals and groups demonstrated a clear preference for additional information that
opposed the initial decision they had made
Ans: C
47. Research on the relationship between the occurrence of the representativeness heuristic and
decision making has found that
a. individuals are more likely to exhibit the representativeness heuristic than are groups
b. individuals and groups are equally likely to exhibit the representativeness heuristic
c. groups are more likely to exhibit the representativeness heuristic than are individuals
d. neither groups nor individuals are likely to exhibit the representativeness heuristic
Ans: C
48. Research on the effectiveness of group decision making conducted face to face (FTF) or
through text-based computer-mediated communication (CMC) has found that
a. groups interacting FTF display greater bias in their decision making than do groups engaging
in CMC
b. with the use of CMC, there is a decrease in informational influence, as opposed to normative
influence
c. FTF groups perform better than CMC groups on idea generation
d. CMC groups show lower equality of participation than do FTF groups
Ans: A
Answer Location: Decision Making and Information Technology
49. Which alternative best characterizes the degree to which normative and informational
influence affect the decision processes of virtual groups?
a. Both normative and informational influence are less influential in the decision making of
virtual groups.
b. Normative influence increases and informational influence decreases when groups make
decisions in virtual environments.
c. Normative influence decreases and informational influence increases when groups make
decisions in virtual environments.
d. The degree to which the two forms of influence affect decision making in virtual groups is
likely affected by other variables, such as the degree of anonymity of participants and the
virtuality of the medium.
Ans: D
Answer Location: Decision Making and Information Technology
True or False
1. The process of assigning a cause to a behavior is called the attribution process.

Ans: T
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: The Attribution Process
2. The locus of communication refers to the point in the communication process that is the focus
of the particular perspective of communication.
Ans: T
3. Social constructionism posits that there is no reality apart from that which we create socially.
Ans: F
4. Nonverbal communication refers to all information (including the words themselves)

conveyed by a sender that plays a role in the transmission of meaning, including the words.
Ans: F
Answer Location: Interpersonal Processes in Organizations: Nonverbal Aspects of
Communication
5. Normative influence refers to changes in behavior or attitudes as a result of information

obtained from other people that provides evidence about the nature of the social situation.
Ans: F
Answer Location: Group Decision Making: Group Polarization
6. With selective perception, people learn to automatically filter out what they consider to be
unnecessary information.
Ans: T
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: Selective Perception
7. Schemas are mental structures that people use to organize their knowledge about the social
world around themes or subjects.
Ans: T
8. Perceptual biases refer to errors that distort the perception process and thus lead to faulty
judgments.
Ans: T
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: Biases in Attribution
9. A halo effect occurs when people perceive others who are like themselves more favorably than
they do others who are dissimilar.
Ans: T
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: Halo Effect
10. Selective perception is defined as the process of interpreting information about how we view
others and ourselves.
Ans: F
Short Answer
1. Define motivation, and differentiate between need theories of motivation and process theories
of motivation. (p. 255)
Ans: Motivation can be defined as the set of processes that account for the direction, level, and
persistence of a person’s effort toward attaining some goal. There are several theories of work
motivation, all of which are concerned with the reasons, other than ability, that some people
perform their jobs better than others. Need theories of motivation are concerned with what
motivates people—that is, the categories of needs that people are motivated to satisfy (e.g.,
safety needs and esteem needs), whereas process theories of work motivation focus on how
motivation occurs. One such process theory is equity theory, which postulates that employees are
motivated to achieve a condition of equity or fairness in their dealings with other people and with
their organizations.
Answer Location: Work Motivation
2. Explain what is meant by a halo effect, and explain its link to a similar-to-me effect.
Ans: A halo effect operates when one draws a general impression of an individual on the basis of
a single characteristic, such as intelligence, sociability, or appearance. The similar-to-me effect is
said to be a factor that may create a halo effect. The similar-to-me effect occurs when people
perceive others who are like themselves more favorably than they do others who are dissimilar.
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: Halo Effect
3. Describe the elements of Kelley’s (1973) attribution/covariation model, which explains how
people understand the causes of other people’s behavior.
Ans: Kelley’s theory of attribution/covariation model focused on how people decide whether the
cause of a behavior is external or internal. According to Kelley, when we observe the behavior or
performance of another person, we consider whether the individual is responsible for the
behavior (internal cause) or whether something outside the individual caused the behavior
(external cause). When we believe that behavior is internally caused, we view it as under the
personal control of the individual—the result of his or her personality, values, ability, and so
forth. Externally caused behavior is viewed as resulting from factors beyond the control of the
person; situational factors, such as the physical setting, task difficulty, and the presence and
behavior of other people. Engaging in a particular behavior or performing at a certain level,
people rely on three types of information: distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency.
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: The Attribution Process
4. Explain the bias referred to as the actor–observer difference.

Ans: The actor–observer difference refers to the bias whereby individuals judge the causes of
their own behavior differently than they would judge the causes of others’ behavior. It highlights
the fact that whereas we tend to see others’ behavior as being caused by (internal) dispositional
factors, we are more likely to see our own behavior as resulting from (external) situational
factors. Thus, the same behavior can trigger internal attributions in the observer of the action and
external attributions in the actor—that is, the person performing the action.
Answer Location: The Individual in an Organizational Context: Biases in Attribution Difficulty
Level: Easy
5. Define communication, and identify the components of the communication process.
Ans: Communication is defined as a process involving two or more people interacting with each
other and transmitting information. Communication involves various activities that work
together to convey a message. The various components of the communication process include a
message, a channel, the sender, the receiver, and encoding and decoding.
Answer Location: Interpersonal Processes in Organizations: Communication
6. As the text outlines, there are different approaches to understanding organizational

communication. Describe two in detail.
Ans: Mechanistic perspective—In this perspective, the locus of communication is the channel,
whereby communication is viewed primarily as a transmission process with a primary focus on
the mechanics of sending a message. Because effective transmission is considered central in this
perspective, research in this tradition might focus on factors like the communication skills of
managers, including their choice of medium, and on the overall effectiveness of their
transmission of information.
Psychological perspective—In this perspective, the locus of communication is people’s
conceptual filters—that is, the attitudes, cognitions, and perceptions that may distort information
exchange. The basic idea within this tradition is that there is too much information in the
environment for people to attend to all of it. As a result, people learn to automatically filter out
what they consider to be unnecessary information. This is a form of selective perception. A
potential problem with filtering information is that what is considered unimportant by one person
may be considered important, or even vital, by another person. As a consequence of incongruent
conceptual filters among communication partners, breakdowns in communication may occur.
The psychological perspective focuses on the way in which conceptual filters affect encoding by
the sender and decoding by the receiver.
Interpretive symbolic perspective—In this perspective, the locus of communication is the shared
meaning that develops between or among the parties involved in the act of communicating. The
focus of this perspective is on encoding and decoding; however, unlike the psychological
perspective, the focus is not on the biasing effect of filters; rather, we are concerned about the
development of categories of thought (i.e., the filters themselves) that allow communication to
occur.
Answer Location: Interpersonal Processes in Organizations: Communication
7. Explain what is meant by the term groupthink.

Ans: Groupthink refers to a process of flawed decision making that occurs as a result of strong
pressures among group members to reach agreement. That is, one or more of several antecedent
conditions induce concurrence-seeking tendencies that override effective decision making by
preventing a group from engaging in careful and thorough consideration of all relevant
information.
Answer Location: Group Decision Making: Groupthink
8. Explain what is meant by group polarization, and discuss its link to groupthink.
Ans: Group polarization refers to the process by which a group tends to polarize the initial
position of the majority of its members. That is, if group members’ views, on average, are mildly
supportive of a position, then, as a result of group discussion, the group’s final decision tends to
be more strongly supportive. Conversely, if, before entering the group discussion, individual
members, on average, moderately oppose an issue, the group’s decision tends to be more
strongly opposed. Polarization leads to groupthink. The polarization process may underlie a
group’s tendency to rush into a premature decision in the case of groupthink. Also, perhaps the
overconfidence hypothesized to be an antecedent of groupthink may result from the polarization
of confidence among individual group members.
9. Describe the persuasive argument theory.

Ans: According to this theory, polarization occurs when most of the arguments that group
members hear favor one position over another. In a group where most or all members favor a
particular position, most of the arguments raised during the group deliberation will reflect that
position. Because the preponderance of information supports the position, the members become
even more persuaded, and thus, polarization occurs.
10. Explain what is meant by heuristics, and describe two decision-making biases that result
from heuristics. (p. 281)
Ans: Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts used to make judgments and process information.
Heuristics allow people to make efficient decisions without taxing their mental resources.
Decision-making biases include hindsight bias, confirmation bias, and representativeness
heuristic.
The hindsight bias refers to people’s tendency to believe, in retrospect, that an event was more
predictable than it actually was. People believe that they are better at predicting outcomes than
they actually are, and once an outcome is known, they tend to believe that they would have
predicted it.
The confirmation bias refers to people’s tendency to seek out and pay attention to information
that supports their favored positions and to ignore disconfirming information.
Representativeness heuristic refers to a bias that often leads people to make categorical
judgments based on the extent to which an object, event, or individual is perceived to fit or
represent a particular category. This heuristic can produce a bias in which base-rate information
is insufficiently weighted.
Answer Location: Group Decision Making: Decision-Making Biases in Groups

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Applied Social Psychology Understanding and

Addressing Social and Practical Problems 3rd Edition

Chapter 10: Applying Social Psychology to Organizations

2. Process theories of work motivation focus on

3. Current research and theories of leadership focus on leadership as

25. In the ______ perspective of communication, the locus of communication is people’s

34. Based on research on nonverbal communication in organizational settings, which of the

1. The process of assigning a cause to a behavior is called the attribution process.

4. Nonverbal communication refers to all information (including the words themselves)

5. Normative influence refers to changes in behavior or attitudes as a result of information

4. Explain the bias referred to as the actor–observer difference.

6. As the text outlines, there are different approaches to understanding organizational

7. Explain what is meant by the term groupthink.

9. Describe the persuasive argument theory.

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