Art of Public Speaking 12th Edition

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CHAPTER 12
Using Language

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Explain why the effective use of language is vital to a public speaker.

162 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

2. Explain the differences between denotative and connotative meaning.

3. Explain the importance of using language accurately in public speeches.

4. Identify three methods public speakers can use to help ensure that their language will be clear
to listeners.

5. Explain how public speakers can use imagery and rhythm to help bring their ideas to life.

6. Explain why public speakers need to use inclusive language and identify four ways they can
do so.

Chapter Outline

I. Language is important.
A. Contrary to popular belief, language does not simply mirror reality.
B. Language helps create our sense of reality by giving meaning to events.
C. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft.

II. Words have two kinds of meaning—denotative and connotative.

A. Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and objective.
B. Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative, and subjective.
C. Choosing words skillfully for their denotative and connotative meanings is a crucial
part of the speaker’s art.

III. Public speakers need to use language accurately.

A. Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to
an accountant.
B. Speakers who have serious aspirations should develop a systematic plan for
improving their vocabulary.

IV. Public speakers need to use language clearly.

A. Because listeners cannot turn to a dictionary or reread a speaker’s words to discover
their meaning, a speaker’s meaning must be immediately comprehensible.
B. One way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to use familiar words.
C. A second way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to use concrete words.
 CHAPTER 12—USING LANGUAGE 163

D. A third way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to eliminate linguistic clutter.

V. Public speakers need to use language vividly.

A. Effective speakers use imagery to express their ideas vividly.
1. One way to generate imagery is to use concrete words.
2. A second way to generate imagery is through the use of simile.
3. A third way to generate imagery is through the use of metaphor.
B. Effective speakers use rhythm to enhance the vividness of their discourse.
1. Language has a rhythm created by the choice and arrangement of words.
2. There are four basic stylistic devices for enhancing the rhythm of a speech.
a. The first device is parallelism—the similar arrangement of a pair or series of
related words, phrases, or sentences.
b. The second device is repetition—repeating the same word or set of words at
the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.
c. The third device is alliteration—repeating the initial consonant sound in
close or adjoining words.
d. The fourth device is antithesis—juxtaposing contrasting ideas, usually in
parallel structure.

VI. Public speakers need to use language appropriately.

A. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the occasion.
B. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the audience.
C. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the topic.
D. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the speaker himself or herself.

VII. Public speakers are more effective when they use inclusive language.
A. Audiences today expect public speakers to use inclusive language that is respectful of
the different groups that make up American society.
B. There are four principles for inclusive language that have become so widespread that
no aspiring speaker can afford to ignore them.
1. The first principle is to avoid the generic “he.”
2. The second principle is to avoid the use of “man” when referring to both men and
women.
3. The third principle is to avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender.
4. The fourth principle is to use names that groups use to identify themselves.
C. If speakers have questions about inclusive language, they should consult one of the
many guidebooks or up-to-date information on the Internet on this subject.
164 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Exercises for Critical Thinking (from text page 237)

1. Arrange each of the sequences below in order, from the most abstract word to the most concrete
word.

a. housing complex, building, dining room, structure, apartment

(structure, building, housing complex, apartment, dining room)

b. Mona Lisa, art, painting, creative activity, portrait

(creative activity, art, painting, portrait, Mona Lisa)

c. automobile, vehicle, Ferrari, transportation, sports car

(transportation, vehicle, automobile, sports car, Ferrari)

2. Rewrite each of the following sentences using clear, familiar words.

a. My employment objective is to attain a position of maximum financial reward.

(I want a job that pays well.)

b. All professors at this school are expected to achieve high standards of excellence in their
instructional duties.
(All professors here are expected to be good teachers.)

c. In the eventuality of a fire, it is imperative that all persons evacuate the building without
undue delay.
(In case of fire, get out of the building as quickly as possible.)

3. Each of the statements below uses one or more of the following stylistic devices: metaphor,
simile, parallelism, repetition, alliteration, antithesis. Identify the device (or devices) used in
each statement.

a. “We are a people in a quandary about the present. We are a people in search of our future.
We are a people in search of a national community.” (Barbara Jordan)
(repetition and parallelism)

b. “The vice presidency is the sand trap of American politics. It’s near the prize, and designed
to be limiting.” (Howard Fineman)
(metaphor)

c. “People the world over have always been more impressed by the power of our example
than by the example of our power.” (Bill Clinton)
 CHAPTER 12—USING LANGUAGE 165

(antithesis)

d. “I speak so those without a voice can be heard. Those who have fought for their rights:
Their right to live in peace. Their right to be treated with dignity. Their right to equality of
opportunity.” (Malala Yousafzai)
(repetition and parallelism)

Using Public Speaking in Your Career (from text page 231)

Since graduating from college, you have developed a successful business that is located near the
campus. As part of its plan to involve more alumni and community members in college affairs, the
school has asked you to speak with new students during registration week for the fall term. In the
opening section of your speech, you want the audience to feel what you felt the first few days you
were on campus as a new student. The best strategy, you decide, is to present two or three similes
that complete the sentence “Beginning college is like. . . .” Write your similes.

Discussion: As with the other Using Public Speaking in Your Career scenarios throughout
the book, this one is designed to demonstrate how the skills of public speaking discussed in
the chapter apply to situations outside the classroom. An excellent way to use this scenario
is to divide the class into groups and give each group five minutes to come up with several
similes that complete the sentence, “Beginning college is like. . . .” Have one member from
each group present its similes to the class, and follow with a general discussion about similes
and other figures of speech.

Additional Exercises and Activities

1. Have students analyze Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream.” Text of the speech is widely avail-
able online, and several videos of it are available on YouTube.com. In analyzing the speech, stu-
dents should identify the methods King uses to make his language clear, vivid, and appropriate.
They should also look at King’s use of familiar words, concrete words, imagery, and rhythm.

Discussion: Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” is widely regarded as a masterpiece.

It was delivered August 28, 1963, to some 200,000 people who had come to Washington,
D.C., to participate in a peaceful demonstration to further the cause of equal rights for Afri-
can Americans. King spoke from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, in the “symbolic
shadow” of Abraham Lincoln, and the crowd filled the vast area between the Memorial and
the Washington Monument. In addition, millions of Americans watched the speech on tele-
vision or listened to it on the radio.

Like most ceremonial addresses, “I Have a Dream” is relatively short. Although it took
King only 16 minutes to deliver the speech, he prepared it more carefully than any other
speech in his career to that time. His purpose was to set forth as succinctly and as
166 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

eloquently as possible the guiding principles of the civil rights movement, and to reinforce
the commitment of his listeners to those principles.

King’s speech usually works quite well for study in the classroom. Because it is so
famous, students look forward to reading it; yet it is short enough for them to do a thorough
job of analysis. Also, the speech is so rich in its use of language that students can readily
identify the major techniques King uses to make his ideas clear and compelling. If you show
a video of the speech, take advantage of the opportunity to discuss how King’s masterful
delivery reinforces the impact of his words.

Here is a synopsis of the speech.

Specific Purpose: To reinforce the commitment of the audience to the principles of the
nonviolent civil rights movement.

Central Idea: By continued nonviolent protest, African Americans will achieve their full cit-
izenship rights.

Method of Organization: Topical

Introduction: The opening sentence constitutes the introduction of King’s speech. Such a
perfunctory introduction is unusual, but it was appropriate in King’s situation. The
audience had been waiting all afternoon to hear King speak. He did not need any
special devices to secure their attention or to build his credibility. The speech might
have been improved by an explicit preview statement, but the opening sentence
implies that King will focus on the meaning and importance of “the greatest demon-
stration for freedom in the history of our nation.”

Body: There are four main sections in the body of the speech. The first addresses the
nation at large. In this section King bemoans the “shameful condition” of American
blacks, who still face poverty, segregation, and discrimination 100 years after the
Emancipation Proclamation. He then reminds the nation of “the fierce urgency of
now” and warns that continued protest will “shake the foundations of our nation until
the bright day of justice emerges.”

In the second section of the body, King speaks primarily to his followers and
accomplishes four tasks. First, he urges black Americans to maintain their commit-
ment to nonviolent methods of protest. Second, he reaffirms the need for blacks and
whites to work together for freedom and equality. Third, he again stresses that Afri-
can Americans cannot be satisfied until their grievances are resolved. And fourth,
King acknowledges that many African Americans have suffered “trials and tribula-
tions” in their quest for freedom, but he urges them to keep the faith that their situa-
tion “can and will be changed.”

In the third section, King dramatizes his “dream” of all Americans living in free-
dom and brotherhood. This is the most famous section of the speech, but the ideas
 CHAPTER 12—USING LANGUAGE 167

were not new. King had said much the same thing, including repetition of the phrase
“I Have a Dream,” in a speech at Detroit two months earlier.

In the fourth section, King reaffirms his belief that “we will be free one day.” He
recites the first verse of “My Country ’Tis of Thee,” builds into the series of sentences
beginning with “Let freedom ring,” and then moves into the emotionally charged end
of the speech.

Conclusion: “I Have a Dream” is one of those speeches in which it is almost impossible to

identify a discrete conclusion. The speech builds steadily to the powerful closing
lines without a discernible shift from body to conclusion. The important question
when judging a speech is not “Does the speech have a conclusion?” but “Does the
speech conclude effectively?” In King’s case the answer to the latter question is un-
equivocally yes.

Language: The most important feature of King’s language is his use of familiar, concrete
words. From beginning to end, he relies on words and phrases that create sharp,
vivid images—“flames of withering injustice,” “manacles of segregation and chains
of discrimination,” “sunlit path of racial justice,” “whirlwinds of revolt,” “heightening
Alleghenies of Pennsylvania.” This kind of language helps King make tangible the
abstract principles of liberty and equality.

This is best seen in the “dream” section. Dreams are visual phenomena, and
King’s “dream” is strikingly visual. Instead of talking in vague terms about the ideals
of freedom and justice, he makes those ideals concrete. Listening to him, we can
almost see the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners sitting
down together on the red hills of Georgia. We can feel the sweltering heat of Missis-
sippi and the cool breezes of the oasis of freedom and justice it will become. We can
picture little black boys and black girls joining hands in Alabama with little white boys
and white girls. By making his “dream” so vivid, King communicates it much more
effectively than he could have through abstract language.

King’s speech is also notable for its heavy use of metaphor and simile. Most
obvious is the extended metaphor of the “promissory note” or “bad check,” but there
are also a number of brief metaphors and similes scattered throughout the speech.

It is important to note that most of the metaphors and similes occur in pairs and
are arranged to emphasize progress from a negative condition to a positive condi-
tion. For example: “It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their cap-
tivity”; “. . . to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path
of racial justice”; “. . . to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the
solid rock of brotherhood”; “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foun-
dations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges”; “. . . transform the jan-
gling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood.” These
metaphors strengthen King’s message that continued protest will change things for
the better.
168 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

King also relies heavily on repetition and parallelism to reinforce his ideas and
accent the cadence of his speech. There are eight major units of repetition and paral-
lelism: (1) The “One hundred years later . . .” series; (2) The “Now is the time . . .”
series; (3) The “We must . . .” and “We must not . . .” series; (4) The “We can never be
satisfied . . .” and “We cannot be satisfied . . .” series; (5) The “Go back to . . .” series;
(6) The “I have a dream . . .” series; (7) The “to . . . together” series; (8) The “Let free-
dom ring . . .” series.

Finally, one can observe the heavy religious tone of King’s speech. Not only are
there a number of explicit religious references, but many of King’s words and images
are biblical in origin. For example, “It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long
night of their captivity” brings forth images of the exodus of the Jews from ancient
Egypt. The phrase “until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a
mighty stream” echoes the words of the prophet Amos. Similarly, King’s statement
that “every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the
rough places will be made plane and the crooked places will be made straight, and
the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together” is repeated
almost verbatim from the Old Testament book of Isaiah.

2. Have students analyze “The Massachusetts 54th,” which appears on pages 463–466 of this
manual. Students should focus their analysis on how the speaker utilizes imagery, parallelism,
repetition, and other resources of language to enhance the impact of his ideas.

Discussion: “The Massachusetts 54th” is an excellent speech to study in conjunction with

Chapter 12—especially if you do not deal with it as part of the section on commemorative
speaking in Chapter 18. It is particularly valuable as a complement to Additional Activity/Ex-
ercise 1 in which students analyze Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream.”

Although most students are fascinated by the stylistic brilliance of King’s masterpiece,
they are often so overwhelmed by it that they cannot envision themselves emulating King’s
use of language in their own speeches. “The Massachusetts 54th,” however, is a classroom
speech, and it shows how students can use the same devices as King to elevate and en-
liven their discourse. For analysis of “The Massachusetts 54th,” see pages 465–466 of this
manual.

3. In each of the following sentences, select the most appropriate word to complete the statement:

a. insisted, persisted, urged, persevered

I ____________________ her to treat her roommates more kindly.

Though he tried to prove his innocence, the district attorney ____________________ in

believing him guilty.
 CHAPTER 12—USING LANGUAGE 169

Despite the difficulty of the job, she ____________________ until she completed it.

He ____________________ that gun control legislation will do little to reduce crimes of

violence.

b. guess, prediction, estimate, forecast

I just read the Wall Street Journal’s ____________________ for the economy next year.

Will you turn on the television and get the weather ____________________ for tomorrow?

It’s always a good idea to get a written ____________________ before taking your car in
for repairs.

Chien doesn’t have the foggiest idea how many jelly beans are in the jar. He’s just mak-
ing a ____________________.

c. snap, tap, clap, slap

I knew someone was following me through the woods when I heard a twig
____________________ behind me.

The insistent ____________________ of the flag against the pole increased the drama of
the military funeral.

Sheila walked with so much spring in her step you could hear her feet
____________________ on the sidewalk.

All at once we heard a tremendous ____________________ of thunder.

Discussion: This is an enjoyable exercise that increases students’ awareness of the im-
portance of careful, accurate word choice. The correct answers follow.

a. insisted, persisted, urged, persevered

I urged her to treat her roommates more kindly.

Though he tried to prove his innocence, the district attorney persisted in be-
lieving him guilty.

Despite the difficulty of the job, she persevered until she completed it.

He insisted that gun control legislation will do little to reduce crimes of vio-
lence.
170 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

b. guess, prediction, estimate, forecast

I just read the Wall Street Journal’s prediction for the economy next year.

Will you turn on the television and get the weather forecast for tomorrow?

It’s always a good idea to get a written estimate before taking your car in for
repairs.

Chien doesn’t have the foggiest idea how many jelly beans are in the jar. He’s just
making a guess .

c. snap, tap, clap, slap

I knew someone was following me through the woods when I heard a twig snap
behind me.

The insistent slap of the flag against the pole increased the drama of the mil-
itary funeral.

Sheila walked with so much spring in her step you could hear her feet tap
on the sidewalk.

All at once we heard a tremendous clap of thunder.

4. The following paragraph is filled with verbal clutter. Following the model on pages 226–227 of
the textbook, edit the paragraph so as to eliminate the unnecessary words. You should be able to
find 25 to 30 such words. If you don’t find that many, go back to the paragraph and edit it again.

Imagine the thought of burning up a priceless painting by Rembrandt just in order to

stay warm for ten minutes. Sounds really crazy, doesn’t it? But that is comparable to

just what is happening right now in the Amazon rain forest of Brazil. The president of

Brazil authorized a 14,000-mile network of highways to open up the vast area of the

rain forest to settlement. Unfortunately, the project has been nothing but a disaster from

the very beginning. Working in the hot, torrid, steamy jungle caused many fatal deaths

among the workers. Soon a whole lot of foreign businesses began to get themselves

involved in the project. Today there is a very real danger that the rain forest will be

irrevocably destroyed completely and altogether.

 CHAPTER 12—USING LANGUAGE 171

Discussion: This exercise is especially helpful if you have students prepare a manuscript
speech. It works well as an in-class exercise, since it can be completed fairly quickly. To give
students additional practice in clearing the underbrush out of their prose, this exercise can
be supplemented with Additional Exercise/Activity 5 below. Here is what the paragraph looks
like when it has been edited to eliminate the clutter.

Imagine the thought of burning up a priceless painting by Rembrandt just in order to

stay warm for ten minutes. Sounds really crazy, doesn’t it? But that is comparable to
just what is happening right now in the Amazon rain forest of Brazil. The president of
Brazil authorized a 14,000-mile network of highways to open up the vast area of the
rain forest to settlement. Unfortunately, the project has been nothing but a disaster
from the very beginning. Working in the hot, torrid, steamy jungle caused many fatal
deaths among the workers. Soon a whole lot of foreign businesses began to get them-
selves involved in the project. Today there is a very real danger that the rain forest will
be irrevocably destroyed completely and altogether.
5. The following paragraph is filled with verbal clutter. Following the model on pages 226–227 of
the textbook, edit the paragraph so as to eliminate the unnecessary words. You should be able to
find 30 to 35 such words. If you don’t find that many, go back to the paragraph and edit it again.

Rock music is such a big and important part of our lives today that it is extremely

difficult to imagine a time when people lived without it. But there was once such a

time. The early 1950s were a time of bubble gum and soda pop—a pure and simple

age. Then a new kind of music started coming on the scene like a huge tidal wave on

a calm and quiet beach. A whole lot of young performers were appearing who were

revolutionizing the shape of American popular music. Bill Haley, Chuck Berry, Elvis

Presley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis—the list is a long one that goes

on and on. But one rock and roll performer stands out above the rest as the most original

and innovative of them all. His name? Buddy Holly.

172 CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Discussion: Like the previous Additional Exercise/Activity, this works well as an in-class
activity and is especially helpful if you have students prepare a manuscript speech. Here is
what the paragraph looks like when it has been edited to eliminate the clutter.

Rock music is such a big and important part of our lives today that it is extremely diffi-
cult to imagine a time when people lived without it. But there was once such a time.
The early 1950s were a time of bubble gum and soda pop—a pure and simple age.
Then a new kind of music started coming on the scene like a huge tidal wave on a
calm and quiet beach. A whole lot of young performers were appearing who were rev-
olutionizing the shape of American popular music. Bill Haley, Chuck Berry, Elvis Pres-
ley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis—the list is a long one that goes on
and on. But one rock and roll performer stands out above the rest as the most original
and innovative of them all. His name? Buddy Holly.

6. Have students compose one page of prose in which they use all the resources of language dis-
cussed in the textbook—imagery, simile, metaphor, antithesis, alliteration, etc.—to describe a
scene or to capture an emotion. Possible topics include:

the beach at sunset my happiest moment

walking in the forest my most fearful experience

a rainy night my favorite person

life in the city my most embarrassing moment

a boisterous party my worst experience

any special location my favorite childhood memory

Discussion: Encourage students to be as “literary” or “poetic” as they wish in this exercise.

Some will go overboard and become excessively maudlin or melodramatic, but some will
create surprisingly effective and moving prose. If you have students present orally what
they have written, this exercise can also provide an additional brief speaking opportunity in
class.