DISPERSAL

• Dispersal is a process whereby an organism is able to spread from its place

of origin to another locality.

• Simply, the movement of organisms away from their birthplace.

• Don’t confuse with dispersion, which refers to the position of individual

organisms with respect to others in the population.
 DISPERSAL

• The movement of individuals (eggs, young or adult) especially their

outward scattering

• Each species originated only once- principle of biogeography

• Particular place where species originate – center of origin

• Animals have to spread from the center of origin (where ancestors

multiplied, migrated) due to adverse climatic factors or others
 DISPERSAL

• The transport of animals to geographical areas not currently

inhabited by that species.

• If colonization is successful, dispersal will result in gene flow

and thus affect the genetic structure of a population.
 DISPERSAL
• Dispersal is an ecological process that plays an adaptive role in the life
history of the organism.

• In other words, the fitness of the organism is increased

• There’s always a trade-off. Dispersing individuals probably face reduced

interspecific competition, but there’s always the chance of finding a less
suitable environment.
 DISPERSAL
• Two mechanisms of dispersal
• 1.Passive dispersal
• If animals move from one place to other by dispersal agents or external factors
• Use energy from the environment.
• Two main types of agents
• Biotic agents
• Parasites and symbionts which are carried from one place to other by host
• Eggs and larvae of many aquatic animals like snail, fishes may become attached to food or
feathers of aquatic birds and hence easily be carried away to long distances
• Abiotic agents
• Strong wind responsible for transporting the cysts, eggs and larvae of small insects, snail,
spiders even small birds may be blown away long distances by severe storms or tornadoes or
animals float with water currents from one place to another.
 Passive dispersal

Some animals attach themselves to other moving animals like fishes,

turtles etc.
 DISPERSAL
2.Active dispersal

• If animals move from one pace to another by its own efforts or locomotory organs

• Disperse by using their own energy.

• Monarch butterflies migrate great distances, flying from southern Canada to the southern
U.S. and central Mexico.

• Some animals have the capacity to disperse great distances by flight e.g. migratory birds like
Crane
Active dispersal

Siberian Cranes migrate each year from Siberia to Asia or Africa.

 Active dispersal

Hippopotamus are very good swimmers. By crossing the sea they have
reached the island of Zanzibar near Africa.
Active dispersal

Migratory birds dispersal can be from one continent

to another.
 Factors of Dispersal
 Population pressure
 Scarcity of food supply
 Lack space
 Adverse climatic conditions
 Predation
 Sudden calamities such as earth quakes, floods, fires and typhons
 Change of habitat
 Opening up new areas
 MEANS OF DISPERSAL
• A dispersing animal uses either active locomotion or a carrier
1. Land Bridges
• Land connection b/w continents land masses.
• Geological evidences show their existence b/w continents
• Provide a suitable migratory route for large land mammals
Isthmus of Panama land bridge
• Land connection b/w North and South America- Served sometimes in Jurassic period
• The re-formation of the land bridge- in late Cretaceous period
• Once again a path for Free intermigration of forms between the continents
• But until Middle Miocene time- no movements
• Mastodons, horses, deer, wolves and cats migrated from N. America to S. America
• Ground-sloths and armadillos moved from S. America to N. America
Isthmus of panama land bridge
 2. Natural Rafts
• Raft- drifting material or floating objects

• Rafting- the dispersal of land animals across water on floating objects

• A chunk of soil, associated vegetation, trees & other debris entangled together with vines
& root systems of trees into a big mass have been observed in rivers or seas.

• Large blocks of ice have been seen floating in the ocean

• Terrestrial animals (insects, snails, squirrels, snakes) occasionally take passage

upon such materials either accidentally or with intent
• Many Arctic animals such as the reindeer- will go out upon the ice

• & Polar bear- venture out upon the shore ice for the seals or fish
Floating terrestrial animal on raft
Polar bear on chunk of ice
3. Drift wood
• Driftwood or heavy logs and leaves held together by a tangle of vines, creepers, and other
vegetation may carry the millipeds, amphibians, snakes etc

• Such rafts often have quite an assemblage of animal life

• Monkeys, tiger-cats, squirrels, and arboreal mammals in general, together with reptiles and
mollusks

4. Favoring Gales
• Strong winds (gales) transport the eggs, cysts, spores, insects, spiders from one place to other

• Severe storms (tornadoes) disperse shore birds and bats

• Migratory birds are known to take deliberate advantage of it

 Passive dispersal

Strong storms or unfavorable wind is responsible for the dispersal of sea-birds from
their normal habitat.
Sea-birds may drift with wood logs.
5. Oceanic currents
• Planktons are dependent only on water currents for dispersal
• The larvae of sessile animals (Bryozoans, echinoderms, mollucks) float and drift over
long distances by oceanic currents

6. Man
• Has been an effective agent of dispersal in the past
• Has introduced accidently or deliberately many animals in distant areas
 Deer and trout – introduced in New Zealand
 Mangoose – west Indies
 Rabbit – Australia
 Grey Squirrel – England
 BARRIERS TO DISPERSAL

• External factors that limits the dispersal or distribution of organisms

• Examples: oceans, river, mountain, desert, swamps, high temp.,

salinity, presence of predator or competitors etc
 BARRIERS TO DISPERSAL

Barriers are always relative

A barrier for one group of animals may be a mean of dispersal for other

• Water barrier for land animals but not for flyers and swimmers

• Land barrier for aquatic animals

• High mountain barrier for land animal but not for birds

• Salt water barrier for fresh water fishes not for marine fishes
 BARRIERS TO DISPERSAL

• Barriers have not remained constant as in geological past. Land masses and
seas have shifted their positions, providing either means of dispersal or
creating barriers. Thus, group of animals became isolated or died out or
evolved into new species.

• For example, there are no camels in North America but their fossils are found
in abundance there suggesting that these animals were widely distributed.
 BARRIERS TO DISPERSAL

Barriers are classified into three categories

• Physical or topographical barriers

• Climatic barriers

• Biological barriers
 a) Physical or Topographical Barriers

• The physical obstructions which the animals cannot cross like mountains, deserts etc.

• They can prevent gene flow, or the transfer of alleles, from one population to another e.g.
Great Wall of China

i) Mountains

• High extensive mountains ranges are effective topographical barriers which prevent animals
from crossing.

• Himalayan mountain range b/w southern side India (elephants, tigers, deers and peacock)
and northern side Eurasia (oxen, sheep, pigs and hyaenas)
Barriers b/w zoogeographical regions
Himalayan range is an effective barrier. Animals living in northern are
different from the animals living in southern part.
Great wall of China
 Physical or Topographical Barriers

ii) Water bodies

• Vast oceans or sea channels form notable barriers to distribution of amphibians, reptiles
and mammals.

Mozambique channels (40 km wide)

• Separate Madagascar from mainland Africa

• Fauna quite different and distinct

• Seawater’s salt poison for amphibians and freshwater fishes

• Not barriers for birds

Barriers in terrestrial environment.
Large river system
 Physical or Topographical Barriers

iii) Deserts

• Extensive dry and hot desert also effective barrier

• Most animals are unable to survive long periods without water coupled with high temp.
this being critical factor prevents animals from crossing

Sahara Desert

• Separate Sothern Ethopian (gorilla, zebra, giraffe and rhinos) Northern Palarctic region
(goats, pigs and oxens)

Kalhari desert: Separate the fauna of central Africa from Cape of Good Hope.
 b) Climatic Barriers
• Include all factors that control survival and dispersal of animals
• Different from place to place
i) Temperature
• Temp. extremes with lowest at poles and highest in tropics
• This variation in thermal values is an important barrier
• Low temperatures prevent cold blooded animals towards poles e.g amphibian and reptiles.
These are diverse and abundant in tropical countries
• Vegetations are different in different temperature ranges (indirect effect)
• Temperature is an effective barrier for stenothermal animals while eurythermal animals
can migrate relatively easily.
Sahara desert: largest desert of the world
A pond turtle (left) would be very ecologically isolated from the desert
tortoise (right).
 Climatic Barriers

• ii) Humidity

• Some animals live in humid condition others prefer dry habitat

• Many subterranean organisms (millipede and centipede) found in damp soil

and die in dry air

• Increase of moisture renders a regions unsuitable for certain dry forms e.g
swamps may act as barrier
 Climatic Barriers
iii) Light

• Light have effect on growth, locomotion, migrations, dispersal

• Has profound effect on aquatic habitat e.g.

• Copepods and zooplanketons exhibit circadian rhythms by showing diurnal changes in

vertical distribution

• Light penetration in water bodies also effect the distribution of plants and consequently the
animals

• Light controls the growth and variety of vegetation and in turn effect animals dispersal
 iv) Salinity
• It is important barrier in only those regions where large rivers enter the sea.

• Salinity does not appear to change much in marine environment and hence is not an
effective barrier.

• Animals that can tolerate change in salinity are called euryhaline animals e.g., Neries.

• Those animals which cannot tolerate change in salinity are called stenohaline animals e.g.,
Amphibians.
 c) Biological Barriers

i) Vegetation

• Have direct and indirect effect on animals distribution

• Most of the animals are adapted to peculiar habitat e.g. forest, grassland, desert etc.

• They remain confined to area with vegetation of their choice:

• Eurpean crested tits nest on coniferous trees

• Monkeys and other primates prefer live in forest (plenty of food and trees for shelter)

• Panda (monophagic) feed on bamboo shoots

• Koala beer on eucalyptus

 Biological Barriers

ii) Animals

• Various interactions among animals regulate their dispersal

• Presence of predators

• Presence of competitors that compete for food, space and nesting sites

• Presence of parasites
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