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Understanding the Influence of the Technology Acceptance Model for Online

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 TCC 2011 Proceedings

Understanding the Influence of the Technology Acceptance Model for Online

Adult Education
Barbara Lauridsen, MBA

Capella University, PhD Learner, Information Technology Education

Core Adjunct Faculty, National University, School of Engineering and Technology

Abstract

How institutions make decisions to accept or reject technology innovation has

been explored by academics with the assistance of the Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM). Scenarios involving successful delivery of online learning from
degree granting universities guide this literature review. It examines decision
processes influenced by TAM methods combined with dominant research
perspectives such as Self-efficacy Theory and Universal Technology Adoption
and Use Theory. This paper analyzes which variables determine perceptions of
usefulness, attitude and preferences and become frequent factors to influence
typical TAM results. It identifies patterns about reliable predictors of outcomes
(behaviors, aligning IT and preferences) for educational investments in learning
environments, content delivery and teacher preferences. Adoption of technology
is a complex, inherently social process guided by perceptions or misperception of
value and ease of use. Thus, facilitating a decision to adopt devices, software or
processes must address emotional, cognitive, and contextual concerns of all
stakeholders. This paper focuses on theories appropriate to decisions made to
increase use of virtual community environments for effective online learning,
virtual communications, putting into perspective the contribution made by TAM
when used in combination with other models.

Keywords and Acronyms: Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT), Web Enhanced Instruction (WEI), Virtual Communities (VCs),
Universal Technology Adoption and Use Theory (UTAUT).

Background of the Problem and Nature of the Study

This paper adds value to the literature about using Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a
framework for making decisions. It applies to learning to perform research studies that have
criteria that is objective and quantifiable and as answers to surveys. Thus, TAM processes are
about collecting opinions of human participates in the study. The first part of this paper is a
survey of contributing sources. The second part analyzes the scholarly publications from the
perspective by the author. A shortfall in literature for applying TAM to the industry’s decisions
about technology investments is discussed by integrating an analysis about how decisions are
made in academic and business arenas. To control the scope of this paper, only TAM project
relevant to virtual communities (VCs) are included as they apply to learning and to higher
education institutions especially for mobile learning technologies.

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The original TAM diagram was published in a pioneering article by Davis, Bagozzi & Warshaw
(1989), titled “User Acceptance of Computer Technology: Comparison of Two Theoretical
Models”. This original work has guided many student projects and has been frequently cited by
researchers, authors, scholars, PhD students but rarely by business practitioners.

Figure 1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989)

Figure 1 introduces the vocabulary of the method that has persisted for 20 years with slight
variations of terms used for specific studies.

 Perceived Usefulness of Technology (PU)

 Perceived Ease of Use of Technology (PEOU)

 Attitude toward Using Technology (ATUT)

 Intention to Use Technology (IU)

Review of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

This section provides a review of literature from available sources on the topic of Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) selecting those that are most relevant to its application to institutions
of higher learning. This lays out the strengths of using the TAM as a viable way to provide
education about frameworks, to guide learners in quantitative, qualitative and mixed empirical
research and also in using of case study scenarios that are either based on real or fictional but
realistic scenarios set up as a teaching aid. Three coherent themes are highlighted by the
keywords shown in bold italics:
1. Application of TAM to behaviors described as attitudes that focus on usage of
technology or of methodologies for virtual communities of learners.
2. Using TAM to make changes that lead to aligning IT organizations with a business
agenda.
3. Applying TAM for comparing preferences for technology (hardware devices or
software).

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The patterns seen in the literature are typical academic studies with data gathered from a
homogeneous demographic of college students and which state a level of confidence that results
can be generalized in a meaningful way to similar age groups of Internet users outside of campus
(Hsiu-Fen, 2008; Min, Yan & Yuecheng, 2004; Huang, Lin, & Chuang, 2007; Baker-Eveleth,
Eveleth, O’Neill, & Stone, 2006). Authors with small scale projects are often cited by authors
reporting similar research.

Attitudes - Behaviors, Virtual Communities, M-Learning

Self-efficacy is defined as “the specific beliefs that an individual holds about his or her ability to
complete a course of action (Straub, 2008). Self-efficacy is often discussed in conjunction with
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). It is also defined as “the belief that one has the capability to
perform a particular behavior, [and] is an important concept in SCT” (Min, Yan & Yuecheng,
2004, p. 336) and offers a Computer Self-Efficacy framework for IT Alignment. The pattern in
the TAM literature about Virtual Communities (VCs) is that studies feed upon each other and
appear set up variables that lead to accepting most of the hypotheses and rejecting at least one
statement for the exercise (Min, Yan & Yuecheng, 2004; Huang et al., 2007; Baker-Eveleth et
al., 2006; Dong-Hee & Won-Young, 2008). From Taiwan, Hsiu-Fen’s (2008) empirical study
offers a context of rapid growth of VCs. The study an integrated model, comparing “three
models in terms of overall model fit, explanatory power, and path significance” (p. 138). The
study briefly reveals findings from a study (not showing data tables) about member loyalty. The
simple graphic model shows outcome using path significance as a data analysis method to
measure VC loyalty. See Figures 2 and 3 “TAM framework for VCs”and “Resulting statistics for
TAM” as typical illustrations of a construct model overlaid with summary statistics from the
opinion surveys. The author’s self evident conclusion is that to “sustain a successful VC, tool
providers need to focus on designing both useful and easy-to-use Web sites (2008, p. 143). The
use of a hybrid approach fits the education industry for justifying investment in online computer
mediated communication environments and tools. VCs are notorious for being dependent on
Web-based communications for learning.

Figure 2 Theoretical Framework Virtual Communities (Hsiu-Fen, 2008, Figure 1, p. 139)

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Figure 3 Results of TAM Path Significance (Hsiu-Fen, 2008, Figure 2, p. 141)

VCs are fond of Mobile Learning (M-Learning). An empirical study by Min, Yan & Yuecheng
(2004) set a context of contemporary education and SCT and offers a new framework which has
substantial influence on the teachers’ technology acceptance and which has a strong direct effect
on intention to use. All hypotheses were supported by a convenience population of survey data
collected, displayed using the typical codes variable of the TAM constructs. Implications were
discussed using an additional determinant from the SCT. Even with a coded list of measurement
items for each variable, the “enhanced model” was analyzed to test its predictive power towards
acceptance of a web based learning system called Interactive Learning Network, a community-
oriented learning management system” (2004, p. 368). Likewise, Huang, Lin, & Chuang (2007)
used the TAM approach to draw a conclusion that predicting user acceptance of M-learning, two
external constructs are needed in data analysis. The variables perceived enjoyment and perceived
mobility value are imperative to lead to a conclusion that the predictive power of the model.

Further, regarding functionality of VCs and the preferences of participants for tools, Baker-
Eveleth, Eveleth, O’Neill, & Stone (2006) collaborated on an empirical research on perceived
ease of use for secure software that enables laptop exams for e-Learners. The authors seek
additional explanation for factors that influenced the results for a population 107 students in two
business classes. For the intent of the study, this sample is probably representative. As an
academic exercise, it reported that faculty pointed out benefits of software over paper-based
examinations “as well as the current diffusion of the software, and the ease of using the software
itself” (p. 219). To analyze the data the Standardized Path Coefficients method was used. The
authors considered a finding to be “interesting” when it showed a weak influence for a factor that
technical support had on student attitudes and behavioral intentions (p. 419). Nevertheless their
paper defended deployment into the education industry assessments of performance by students
carrying laptops on campus or using them from home to connect to online courses. Other forms
of mobile learning are of interest to the same benefactors of the mobility of laptops. Figure 3
resulting in a measurement of behavioral intention to use software and Figure 4 showing
summary statistics and bolded arrows to emphasize strong correlations.

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Figure 4 TAM Framework including Faculty and Technical Support (Baker-Eveleth et al., 2006, p. 414)

Figure 5 TAM Estimate Acceptance, Standardized Path Coefficients (Baker-Eveleth et al., 2006, p. 418)

Regarding acceptance of online education by teachers and students, Gibson, Harris & Colaric’s
(2008) concise article applies the TAM approach in the context of faculty acceptance of online
education, a topic that fits the overall interest of virtual communities. An interesting artifact
from this paper is list of survey items used because it is representative of the simplicity of a
typical TAM opinion survey (see table 1).

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Table 1 Questions to Predict Ease of Use (Gibson et al., 2008, Table 1, p. 357)

To overcome an obvious limitation of using a convenience sample, the suggestion made is that
“this exploratory study be replicated at other universities to allow for the comparison of results”
(Gibson et al. 2008, p. 358). The Concerns-Based Adoption Model was used interpret a
perspective about influences on individuals’ intention to integrate an innovation. A major
concern by university administrators is IT Alignment. Administrators seek the most
comprehensive yet convenient solution but in the end may outsource technology to a partner or
to a consortium rather than support an internal initiative for online delivery.

Walker and Johnson’s (208) study examined Web Enhanced Instruction (WEI) using a TAM
approach for isolating the faculty’s perspective about factors of usefulness and effectiveness for
virtual learning communities. Their research extended the dissertation research performed by
Landry (2003) on the topic of student reactions to web enhanced instructional elements and
measuring the preferences that influence a decision. Two scales for measuring WEI were used,
namely effectiveness and job performance called “Usefulness-Effectiveness”. This conclusion
drawn from the data gathered was highly dependent on the perceptions of the teacher that WEI
was valuable and that teacher’s mastery of the new tools be engaged early and be convenient.

Decision Making – Aligning IT with the Business of Education

In the context of deployment of eLearning systems in educational institutions, discriminating the

various stages of the implementation process to the final acceptance is critical. In a
comprehensive empirical study from New Zealand the focus is on web-based eLearning

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behaviors by VC membership. Applying the TAM approach to model managerial implications

for intentional usage of an eLearning system to determine significance of perceived usefulness
introduces the concept of flow. The initial structural model is more complex than other TAM
studies with the familiar constructs being in place. In figure 6, Davis and Wong (2007) examine
the influence of user participation and engagement and suggest that “Future research could also
test this integrated model across a broader set of technologies (information systems) and user
populations to determine its predictive robustness and generalizability” (p. 120). The Davis and
Wong paper offers insights about data analysis. The researchers apply a lesson. “Rather than
excluding individuals from participation through sampling criteria, variables that were
considered to be liable to confound the results were measured and statistically controlled during
data analysis” (p. 107). The researchers point out the implications for managing eLearning
system, the intented usage for “is significantly affected by [the] perceived usefulness and flow”
(2007, p. 119). The lesson is for practitioners interested in aligning eLearning systems into the
business side of education should begin by emphasize relevance of known requirements with
features of the tools being evaluated. This applies to the business of online learning with the
customers being adult learners and aligning IT with the business virtual team incentives to retain
online students because of the perceived value of working within virtual communities.

Figure 6 Integrated Conceptual TAM Constructs (Davis & Wong, 2007, Figure 1, p. 207)

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Research Methodology Components

This section evaluates research methodologies used by the scholars and the relevancy to the
outcome of the studies. This paper was drafted with an intention to share ideas with colleagues at
National University to encourage activating projects that apply the principles of TAM for
examination of preferences of diverse learners. In the culture on knowledge institutions such as
universities, regardless of the nature of competition for enrollments in online programs there is a
“recognition of the transactional aspect of knowledge, and an appreciation of the concepts
outlined in the resource-based model” (Grover, Gokhale, & Narayanswamy, 2009). See Figure7
for a proposed decision quadrant defining resource-based implications for disciplinary strategy
which reflects practitioner interest in action research.

Figure 7 Resource-based Implications for Disciplinary Strategy (Grover et al., 2009, p. 322)

The quadrant illustrates reputation (y axis) against heterogeneity (x axis) with the four cells
labeled primary (for high-high), illusionary (high-low), concealed (low-high) and submissive
(low-low). Grover et al (2009) articulate a perspective that resource allocation for knowledge
markets, such as universities, needs to consider behaviors rather than merely opinions. Given
questionable value added, a coupling strategy is to “forego abstract research with long term
implications and instead focus on short term, highly context specific solutions that serve the
needs of the practitioner” (p. 322) with a perspective on sustainability of the solution especially

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when it involves intellectual capital. The relevance of resource based frameworks to online
educational delivery to virtual communities is yet to be determined but is of serious interest for
delivering online education.

Dominant Research TAM Perspectives

TAM’s Old Paradigm. Perceived usefulness is a common factor in many early TAM constructs
when the technique is used to predict decisions shown to affect the intention and the attitude
among goal-directed users, these individuals who will actually try web technology “even if they
do not have a positive attitude towards using it - because it may provide productivity
enhancement”. Goal-directed behavior can be shown to increase rewards without impacting the
attitude of users (Sánchez-Franco, & Roldán, 2005), a study which provides a framework
mapping TAM to several hypotheses of a typical empirical study. Figure 8 provides a
framework for assessing constructs uses a statistical methods for structural equation modeling,
and partial least squares.

Figure 8 Hypotheses mapped on TAM Framework (Sánchez-Franco & Roldán, 2005, Figure 2)

Gibson, Harris & Colaric’s (2008) concise article applies TAM to teachers’ preferences.
Patterns of adoption of technology are analyzed around tradition demographics for evaluating
student populations: age, gender, economic status, an affinity for technology and degree program
in which they are enrolled. Likewise, preferences for types and functionality of media objects
have often been examined (Liu, Liao & Peng, 2005; Hsiu-Fen, 2007). Interestingly, many later
articles on TAM representing the old paradigm frequently cite Bagozzi’s earlier works.

TAM’s New Paradigm. Bagozzi’s (2007) later work is essentially a critique of the predecessor
TAM approach pointing out the legacy of the process, its strengths and the shortcomings and
expands the thinking into IT Alignment. Bagozzi calls the TAM “a remarkable model” that has
had a long track record for empirical research but considers its influence to be at a “turning
point” …saying that a “[m]ethodology is important to consider because it so closely interfaces

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with theory and theory testing and interpretation, and because how we study a phenomenon
constrains how we think about it” (p. 252). Dong-Hee and Won-Young’s (2008) concise article
has a context of using the “Cyworld” for applying the TAM approach, specifically examining
Web2.0, a tool for navigating a virtual world. The resulting diagram is a map for the statistical
facts, capturing data from a Web-based survey collecting data from a random sample of 950
potential respondents selected from a virtual community of learners. The study hypothesized
that “the constructs of perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment would mediate the
relationship between perceived synchronicity and perceived involvement” (2008, p. 381). The
authors claim that “modified TAM framework can be a good tool to understand market potential
through an analysis of users’ needs and prototyping market profiles” (p. 382). This analysis
maps to user factors for Web2.0 solutions which is coming into vogue for eLearning. It is
essential to the new paradigm for e-learning.

As a representative of the new paradigm, Bagozzi (2007) who has a long track record of old
paradigm publications, defends the TAM model because it “consists first of a decision making
core (goal desire → goal intention → action desire → action intention) that is grounded in basic
decision making variables/processes of a universal nature” (p. 243). Figure 9 is a diagram of
“Decision Making Core” representing Bagozzi’s road map offers a foundation for his suggested
new paradigm for TAM models. Inclusion of Bagozzi’s 2007 critique of MAP balances with the
many testimonies about the value of the TAM approach as being useful as a guide to empirical
studies by academic programs without being challenged.

Legend: The heart of the decision making core consists of goal desire → goal intention → action desire
→ action intention. These processes and their causes or constraints (labeled A and B in the figure) and
their effects (D) constitute fully deterministic processes.

Figure 9 The Decision Making Core (Bagozzi, 2007, Figure 1, p. 250)

Components of TAM Methodology

A typical TAM diagram shows the variables gender, educational background, self reported level
of computer knowledge (Alshare et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2005; Dong-Hee & Won-Young, 2007).
A TAM framework often illustrates a technique of plotting a set of hypothesizes along the

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arrows joining the study’s constructs. This pattern of plotting factors on to a framework shows
evidence that some TAM projects started with a simple structure and then refined it.

How does this pattern fit extending a model to the industry of online education and virtual
communities? The answer is to start with basic assumptions about demographics of
learner/participants which may include explicit generalizations, then, when survey results from
participants are assessed, acknowledge the subtle differences. An example is a thirty-something
male student with economic stability and an affinity for technology devices is found to be open
and accepting of online education with a library of media objects. When a variable of parenting
status is included, success with exams might be isolated as factors measured as motivation,
concentration, or preferences for simplicity. Then, the variables that do not impact the findings
can be set aside.

Outcome of Research for Effective Decision Making about Technology

This section covers literature for articles reporting IT Managements use of TAM as a framework
for decision and puts into perspective how TAM research studies has or has not influenced
decisions in the field of IT business alignment, strategy planning and impact on the life cycle for
deployment of solutions involving software or network architectures.

Analysis of the TAM literature reveals that one-time-only published studies are often merely
academic studies whereas a series of studies by a research team may involve research into an
industry that is seeking confidence in an investment decision. The pattern for authors that have
multiple publications is evidence that the TAM approach is being extended by repeating data
gathering phases with new data and new variables for a larger population (Alshare et al., 2008).

Content-based vs. functionally. A research model published by Hsiu-Fen (2007) hypothesized

relationships drawing upon an extended TAM for data that was empirically tested using the
structural equation modeling approach to suggest capability of understanding the “determinants
of sustainability of virtual communities” (¶ 5). The authors note theoretical and managerial
implications for improved effectiveness of strategies for expanding VCs. Whereas their report
does not show a framework diagram nor tables of statistical data it does use a narrative to point
out interpretations of the data that “information quality focuses on the content-based online
feature, whereas system quality and service quality are related to functionally-based online
features (¶ 26). For eLearning environments curriculum that satisfies established learning
outcomes for an entire program compared to the perception of satisfaction by a random selection
of students about their eLearning experiences when invited into a study, caution is needed to
ensure that a sample is unbiased.

Streaming Media to enhance eLearning. VCs favor streaming media for learning and for
conversations. The context for Liu, Liao & Pratt’s (2009) study is that media rich e-learning
technologies which reflect the sophistication by computer users especially for acceptance of
streamed audio and video. The authors express a premise that the “use of just one theory or
model, such as the technology acceptance model, is no longer sufficient to study the intended use
of e-learning systems” (Abstract, p. 299). The authors applied the TAM approach to examine the
perceived ease of use as a predictor of usefulness; and the attitude of the user correlated with
predictors of intention to use for an audience interested in the practical implications of

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integrating streaming media into eLearning. It is still a mystery which other approach would
serve to predict acceptance of streaming media objects to achieve learning goals for virtual
communities that operate within a well-defined culture of dialog.

Limitations of this research paper

Many authors openly point out the limitation of their own research as being based on a
convenience sample and often suggest that their findings should be substantiated by further
research with a difference sample population or by extending the set of variables and gathering
additional data from different demographics for faculty of online education (Gibson, Harris &
Colaric’s, 2008). For web-based learning (Min, Yan & Yuecheng, 2004; Huang, Lin, & Chuang,
2007). Some authors use objective rather than subjective case study data to set up the decision
framework for measuring preferences. Taking an objective approach, Straub (2009) points out
that “state standards, cost, available funds, security, and technical support”, all considered to be
external forces may constrain an overall decision to deploy an innovation but inhibit adopting a
particular technology. When teachers' views on internal factors like perceived ease of use for a
specific technology are variable within a TAM study, opinions are not “the defining factor when
making major technology decisions” (p. 644).

Decisions for an entire enterprise involves risks. Decisions that anticipate acceptance of
technology can reduce risk of the unknown, especially about human behaviors. TAM research
findings do offer a method to isolate variables and reconstruct them into a framework of
understanding that increases confidence in recommendations. For selection of and deployment
of a virtual campus operation of online education and support of virtual communities will
necessarily have a multi-vendor point of view for sponsored experiences by participants in a
TAM study.

This review did not attempt to discover and reveal the many times when TAM studies discussed
finding that were of doubtful value in a business context.

Perspectives

The perspective arrived at after analyzing the literature is that three dominant theories have
viability when combined with use of TAM. One is Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA); the
second is the Common Method Variance (CMV), the third is a compliment of Innovation
Diffusion Theory, Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM), the United Theory of Acceptance
and Use of Technology (UTAUT).

On objective study examines TRA to predict the acceptance of information or advice for
inducing change in behaviors and set of trials where Silva (2007) applies principles of science to
scrutinize the meta-theoretical and scientific foundations of TAM (p. 256). Silva distinguishes
arguments of “logical connection” and positions TAM as a “normal science” and further
examines a possible “paradigmatic crisis” in a discipline known as “Lakatos’ Concept of
Scientific Research Programs” (pp. 258-262). Silva claims to challenge the legimacy of the
TAM approach “through the lens of the post positivist philosophy of science with the purpose of
providing a constructive critique” (p. 263). Silva integrates the perspectives of three post-
positivist philosophers using historical publications and perspectives, to offer a “broader

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perspective on how to evaluate our endeavors in any historical context” (p. 264). The idea
challenges the TAM approach in the context of decision making from a practitioner’s position.
This tie to a university’s operations is respected.

Common Method Variance (CMV). Sharma, Yetton & Crawford (2009) published a
comprehensive study applies a meta-analysis-based technique explaining “between-study
variance in observed correlations as a function of the susceptibility to CMV of the methods
employed in individual studies” … that may be perceived to be a “major potential validity threat
in social sciences research” (p. 473).

Figure 10 Nomological Network of Relationship, Common Model Variance (Sharma et al., 2009, Figure 1, p. 475)

CMV that illustrates the author’s concern that observed correlations are inflated when common
or similar methods are used to employ two variables. From a perspective of mixed methods for
assessing data, Sharma et al. (2009) reviews literature about TAM approach and find that method
effects impacts the observed correlations by a factor of 56% (p. 474).

Sharma et al. (2009) chose the TAM domain as subject to extensive investigation and claims that
findings are generally accepted as valid even when empirical support for TAM is subject to a
validity threat on account of CMV. Special characteristics of TAM research make it simple to
illustrate. These three reasons provide a deeper understanding to TAM and a scholarly
perspective. Like wise, in his dissertation, without explicitly using the TAM approach, but
illustrating his progressive analysis with constructs that resemble the TAM framework, Straub
(2009) discusses emotions in response to a situation when technology fails expectations. His
work models a dual primary appraisal process called “Content Specific Antecedent” (p. 48) and
probes into the perceived important of technology under consideration as a differentiator for
attitudes that increase negative emotions when the technology appears to fail. He credits self-
efficacy theory for negative emotions during failure reduced confidence that a person can
complete a task. Straub classifies three factors (trust, self-efficacy and technical affinity) as
“generalized antecedents” representing “habitual patterns of actions and thoughts” that impact a
decision (p. 51). Trust and an affinity for technology generate persistence on the part of people
having sufficient self-efficacy to accept rather than resist a decision after it may have been made.

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UTAUT, a Successor for TAM?

The article by Straub (2009) includes an analysis of the integration of the TAM with Innovation
Diffusion Theory, CBAM, and UTAUT. Straub’s comprehensive study focuses on use of
multiple theories to predict adoption of technology and promotes UTAUT as successor for TAM.
Addressing their close theoretical ties, Straub documents criticisms of TAM as “lack of
acknowledgement of individual differences” and a weakness described as not accounting for
“prior experience, age, gender, and many other characteristics that may influence attitudes about
technology” (p. 638). Straub’s concern points out “Whereas the results of adoption theory are
measured in terms of behavioral change, the predictors of mat behavioral change can be
understood through contextual, cognitive, and affective factors. Existing theories deals
independently with these factors but no one theory accounts for all three” (p. 627).

Figure 11 How Individual Adoptions Compose Diffusion (Straub, 2009, Figure 1, p. 627).

The pattern found in TAM data does not usually consider the influence of an individual
acceptance of technology impacting results to follow and the bell curve style of statistics
influenced by diffusion of knowledge. How this applies to educational institutions can be
interpreted as pilots being a healthy way to deploy new programs and then letting the testimonies
of satisfied students build up the momentum for those who follow. Figure 11 illustrates
individuals making a decision to adopt early, mid-late in a graphic showing a threshold to the
diffusion curve.

Summary and Conclusions

A summary of analysis of TAM findings acknowledges the value of the TAM approach as an
academic exercise that does not yet have a credible track records for influencing decisions made
in the industry of technology in which investments can be very large. The voice of the believers
encourages persisting with the TAM approach to measure and then predict acceptance of specific
technologies, often single products or processes. As a skeptic, Grover et al. (2009) accomplished

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a project scoped as resource-based sustainability of Information Systems with a discussion

defining TAM as appropriate to decisions regarding intent to use a single IT product for which
an intent is predicted and that the model was fairly accurate. However, scenarios that reveal
TAM’s shortcomings on the positioning criteria when networked products are within the domain
of the study, Grover et al. (2009) state that TAM is “not operationally valid, since perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use are, by themselves, not operationally valid or actionable”.
Grover et al. concludes that the TAM “does not capture use in a context in which IS executives
are likely to be interested” (2009, p. 316) so that TAM in its basic form would not become a
reliable decision tool. The voice of the skeptics is seeking a bigger picture, one which constrains
any risk of an ill advised decision influenced by research into ordinary variables with a
convenience sample of participants that does not represent those concerns of stakeholders in the
long term impact of the near term decision.

Bagozzi’s 2007 perspective is that TAM is “a remarkable model” with a long track record for
empirical research which is now positioned at a turning point considering that TAM interfaces
between academic theory and interpretations about how we study a phenomenon constrained by
our own thinking. As an exercise for learners, the TAM approach still has much to offer as a
structure and a process for worthwhile exercises in designing a scholarly research study.

References
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