Learners with exceptionalities

Exceptionalities- One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity In learning is the
presence of exceptionalities.

The term "exceptional learners" includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functioning, Physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and
giftedness.

Disability- A disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that interfere with a person's ability, for example, to
walk, lift, hear of learn

It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition"

The word disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the
US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or Impairment.

Categories of exceptionalities

1. Specific cognitive or academic difficulties

2. Social/emotional and behavioral difficulties
3. Physical disabilities and health Impairments
4. Sensory Impairments
5. giftedness

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language, memory or
metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation. emotional or behavioral disorders, or
sensory impairments.

ADHD is manifested in either or both of these:

1. difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and
2. recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. Speech and Communication Disorders.

ADHD Stands for Attention - Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Speech and communication disorders- There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability
to produce the sounds.. correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper
classroom performance.
 Social / Emotional And Behavioral Difficulties

Autism- Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication,
repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a
predictable environment.

Mental retardation refers to significant sub- average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is
difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in social situations

Emotional/conduct disorder This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a
considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

Physical and Health Impairments

This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these:
(1) limited energy and strength,
(2) reduced mental alertness, and/or
(3) little muscle control.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities

• This refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, at times at a profound level.
• The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.

Sensory impairments
Visual impairments- These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic
nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.

Hearing Impairments- These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders
perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech

GIFTEDNESS- This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

People first language- Just as the term would imply this language trend involves putting the person first,
not the disability (e.g.), a person with a disability, not a disabled person).
Behaviorist perspective
Pavlov’s Theory of classical conditioning

Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most
renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.
NOTE: READ PAVLOV’S FINDING IN PPT for better understanding.

Connectionism: Edward Thorndike’s

Behavioral Theory
Edward L. Thorndike. gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred
years ago he wrote a textbook entitled. Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term.

He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such
associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.

The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more
than others because of rewards.

The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without considering any unobservable internal states.

Three primary laws

Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened
when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response is
weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this "law" when he found that negative
rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do
not necessarily motivate performance.

Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus- response) bond is practiced the stronger it will
become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of
exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to stimulus and is not made to respond it
becomes annoying to the person.

John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov's ideas. He too was initially involved in
animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed, in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any
processes taking place in the mind.
Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also
wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning
function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education.

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior. Changes in
behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment.
A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to
respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory.

A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.

There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not punishment, in fact it is a reward.

A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence intended

to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not allowed to join a
group work that has already began (punishment) and therefore loses points for that activity. The punishment was
done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late.
 Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are
not likely to be repeated For example, ignoring a student's misbehavior may extinguish that a behavior.

Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will
produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the
animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded
for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and
finally for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would master
each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a
shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not
have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial
reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since
the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes, regardless of how
many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that must
pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) at different intervals, not every
ten minutes
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses occur before reinforcement may recur.
Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement
varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4
times. So, the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food
again.
TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
There is no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning.
Learning is always purposive and goal directed.
Cognitive maps in rats. This is the tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow
formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze.
Latent learning- is a kind of learning that remains or stays with individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
Intervening variables – are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of
behavior

ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

- It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as
observationap learning, imitation and modeling.

General Principles of Social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning theories
(MEANINGS ARE ON PPT)
How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modeling
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This
is known as vicarious reinforcement.
(Meanings are on ppt)
Contemporary Social Learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence that extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning.

Cognitive Factors in social learning

1. Learning without performance:
-Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual
imitation of what has been learned. Similar to Tolman’s Latent learning

2. Cognitive processing during learning:

- Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations
- As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that
future behaviors are likely to bring.

4. Reciprocal causation
- Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In
fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can
have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling
- There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person
or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer
programs. There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person
or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer
programs.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully
model the behavior of someone else:
 1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed,
One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction – The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the
action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to
replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical
motion.
4. Motivation - The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation.
Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since
these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the
same behavior differently.

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
 Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized
the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.
The term gestalt means "form” or "configuration.”

• Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception.
• They concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They
suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process
and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process.
Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs,
attitudes and one's present situation can affect their perception.

GESTALT PRINCIPLE
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGISTS
- Kurt Kofka, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler,
- Additional : Kurt Lewin
Law of proximity. – Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object.
When objects we are perceiving are near each other, we perceive them as belonging together.
Law of similarity – Elements that look similar will be perceived as apart of the same form.
Law of closure – We tend to fill the gaps or “ close” the figures we perceive. We enclose a space
by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
Law of Good continuation – Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the
elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous
line.
Law of Good Pragnant – This stimulus will be organized into as good a figures as possible. The
figure is perceived as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated
shapes.
Law of Figure/ Ground – We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A
stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.

INSIGHT LEARNING – Gestalt psychology adheres to idea of learning taking place by discovery
or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he
described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tool to solve
problems.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching – Learning process

 The six gestalt principle not only influence perception but they also impact on learning.
 Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology, he said that an individual has inner and
outer forces that affect his perception and also his learning.
 Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist writes about the relevance of gestalt psychology on
education.
Gestalt focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It considers with
interest the life space of teachers as well as students
INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information processing - is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how

knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from memory.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short – term
memory and the long term memory.

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

- Relating how the mind and the computer work is powerful analogy.
- The term used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy.
- IPT describes how the learner information (stimuli) from the environment through
the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information
will continue to pass through the sensory register then the short term memory
and the long term memory
TYPES OF MEMORY
General vs. Specific – This one involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks
or in only one.
Declarative – this refers to factual knowledge. They related to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word of an image. Examples are your name, address,
a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.

THE THREE PRIMARY STAGES IN IPT are:

Encoding – information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

MOST THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING REVOLVE AROUND THE

THREE MAIN STAGES IN THE MEMORY PROCESS:

Sensory Register-
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
- Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more that
what our minds can hold or perceive.
- Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely
brief period – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds. There is difference in duration
based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual.

The role of attention

To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it. Such
that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our
attention “gate”
- Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This
means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of
the categorical membership of the information.
Short – term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
- Capacity- The STM only hold 5 to 9 chunks” of information, sometimes
described as 7 +/ -2. It is called working memory because it is where new
information is placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information
for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the
information, or until the information is forgotten.
- DURATION: around 18 seconds or less
- To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance
rehearsal is using repetition to keep the information active in STM like when
you repeat a phone number just given over and over.

Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.

Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other memory methods

- Serial position effect (recency and primacy) – You will remember the
beginning and end of a list more readily
- Part Learning – Break up the list or “chunk” information to increase
memorization.
Long – term memory (LTM) – is the final or permanent storing house for memory
information. It holds the stored information until needed again.
Capacity : LTM has unlimited capacity.
Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

These are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
Decay: information is not attended to, and eventually “fades” away. Very prevalent in
Working memory.
Interference – New or old information “Blocks” access to the information in question.

METHODS FOR INCREASING RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

- Rehearsal – this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
- Meaningful Learning – This is making connections between new information
and prior knowledge
- Organization – it is making connections among various pieces of information.
Info that organized efficiently should be recalled.
- Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
- Visual Imagery – This means forming a “picture” of the information.
- Generation – Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we hear.
- Distributed practice – Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once. (Massed Practice)
- Mnemonic Aids – these are memory techniques that learners may employ to
help them retain and retrieve technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg
word and association techniques, among others.
-