Differential Equations and Linear Algebra 2nd Edition Farlow Solutions Manual 1

Differential Equations and Linear Algebra
2nd Edition Farlow

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CHAPTER Higher-Order
Second-Order Linear
Linear
4 Differential Equations
Differential Equations
4.1 The Harmonic Oscillator
 The Undamped Oscillator

1. x + x = 0, x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 0
The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + x = 0 is given by

x ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t
x ( t ) = −c1 sin t + c2 cost .
Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 , gives
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 1
x ( 0 ) = c2 = 0
so c1 =1, c2 = 0 . Hence, the IVP has the solution x ( t ) = cost .
2. x + x = 0, x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 1
The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + x = 0 is given by

x ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t
x ( t ) = −c1 sin t + c2 cost .
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 1
x ( 0 ) = c2 = 1
or c1 = c2 = 1. Hence, the IVP has the solution

x ( t ) = cos t + sin t .
294
295 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.1 The Harmonic Oscillator 295
In polar form, this would be

⎛ π⎞
x ( t ) = 2 cos t − .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
3. x + 9x = 0 , x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 1
The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + 9x = 0 is given by

x ( t ) = c1 cos3t + c2 sin 3t
x ( t ) = −3c1 sin 3t + 3c2 cos 3t .
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 1
x ( 0 ) = 3c2 = 1
1
so c1 = 1, c2 = . Hence, the IVP has the solution
3
1
x ( t ) = cos 3t + sin 3t .
3
10
x (t ) = cos ( 3t − δ )
3
1
where δ = tan −1 . This would be in the first quadrant.
3
4. x + 4x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = −2

x ( t ) = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t
x ( t ) = −2c1 sin 2t + 2c2 cos 2t .
Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = −2 , gives
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 1
x ( 0 ) = 2c2 = −2
so c1 = 1, c2 = −1 . Hence, the IVP has the solution

x ( t ) = cos 2t − sin 2t .
⎛ π⎞
x ( t ) = 2 cos 2t + .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
5. x + 16x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = −1 , x ( 0 ) = 0

x ( t ) = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t
x ( t ) = −4c1 sin 4t + 4c2 cos 4t .
Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = −1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 , gives
x ( 0 ) = c1 = −1
x ( 0 ) = 4c2 = 0
so c1 = −1, c2 = 0 . Hence, the IVP has the solution

x ( t ) = − cos 4t .
6. x + 16x = 0 , x (0) = 0 , x (0) = 4

x ( t ) = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t
x ( t ) = −4c1 sin 4t + 4c2 cos 4t .
Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 4 , we get
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 0
x ( 0 ) = 4c2 = 4
so c1 = 0 , c2 = 1. The IVP has the solution
x ( t ) = sin 4t .
7. x + 16π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 0, x (0) = π

16π 2
ω0 = = 4π
1
x = c1 cos 4π t + c2 sin 4π t
x = −4π c1 sin 4π t + 4π c2 cos 4π t
x(0) = 0 = c1
1
x(0) = π = 4π c2 c2 =
4
1
x= sin 4π t
4
8. 4 x + π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 1, x ( 0 ) = π
π2 π
ω0 = =
4 2
x = c1 cos 4π t + c2 sin 4π t
π π π π
x = c1 sin t + c2 cos t
2 2 2 2
x(0) = 1 = c1
π
x(0) = π = c2 , c2 = 2
2
π π
x = cos t + 2sin t
2 2
 Graphing by Calculator
9. y = cos t + sin t y
1.5 T = 2π
The equation tells us T = 2π and because
2π
T= , ω0 = 1 . We then measure the delay
ω0
δ
≈ 0.8 which we can compute as the phase π t
ω0 δ A ≈ 1.4
≈ 0.8
angle δ ≈ 0.8 (1) = 0.8 . The amplitude A can be ω0
measured directly giving A ≈ 1.4 . Hence,

Š1.5
cost + sin t ≈ 1.4cos ( t − 0.8 ) .
Compare with the algebraic form in Problem 15.
10. y = 2cost + sin t y
2.5
The equation tells us T = 2π and because T = 2π
δ A ≈ 2.2
2π ≈ 0.5
T= , ω0 = 1 . We then measure the delay ω0
ω0
δ t
≈ 0.5 , which we can compute as the phase Š4 4 8
ω0
angle δ ≈ 0.5 (1) = 0.5 . The amplitude A can be
measured directly giving A ≈ 2.2 . Hence, Š2.5

2cost + sin t ≈ 2.2cos ( t − 0.5 ) .

11. y = 5cos3t + sin 3t yδ

≈ 0.05
ω0
2π 5
T = 2π /3 A ≈ 5.1
The equation tells us that period is T = and
3
2π
because T = , ω0 = 3 . We then measure the
ω0
t
δ π
delay ≈ 0.05 , which we can compute as the
ω0
phase angle δ ≈ 3 ( 0.05 ) = 0.15 . The amplitude A

–5
can be measured directly giving A ≈ 5.1 . Hence,
5cos3t + sin 3t ≈ 5.1cos ( 3t − 0.15 ) .
12. y = cos 3t + 5sin 3t y δ

≈ 0.5
ω0
2π 5
T = 2π /3 A ≈ 5.1
The equation tells us the period is T = and
3
2π
ω0
t
δ 3
delay ≈ 0.5 , which we can compute as the
ω0
phase angle δ ≈ 0.5 ( 3) = 1.5 . The amplitude A

Š5
cos3t + 5sin 3t ≈ 5.1cos ( 3t −1.5 ) .
13. y = − cos 5t + 2sin 5t yδ

≈ 0.4
ω0
2π 2 T = 2π /5 A ≈ 2.2
equation tells us that period is T = and
5
2π
ω0 1 2
t
δ π
delay ≈ or 0.4 , which we can compute as
ω0 8
–2
the phase angle δ ≈ 5 ( 0.4 ) = 2 . The amplitude A
− cos 5t + 2sin t ≈ 2.2cos ( 5t − 2 ) .

 Alternate Forms for Sinusoidal Oscillations
14. We have
Acos (ω0t − δ ) = A ( cos ω0t cos δ + cos ω0 t cos δ ) = ( Acos δ ) cos ω0 t + ( Asin δ ) sin ω0 t
= c1 cos ω0 t + c2 sin ω0t
where c1 = Acos δ , c2 = Asin δ .
 Single-Wave Forms of Simple Harmonic Motion
15. cost + sin t

By Equation (4) c1 = 1, c2 = 1, and ω0 = 1 . By Equation (5)
π
A= 2 , δ =
4
yielding
⎛ π⎞
cost + sin t = 2 cos t − .
⎜ ⎟
4⎠
⎝
(Compare with solution to Problem 9.)
16. cost − sin t

By Equation (4) c1 = 1, c2 = −1 , and ω0 = 1 . By Equation (5)
π
A= 2 , δ =−
4
yielding
π
cost − sin t = 2 cos ⎛ t + ⎞ .
⎜ 4 ⎟⎠
⎝
Because c1 is positive and c2 is negative the phase angle is in the 4th quadrant.
17. − cost + sin t
By Equation (4) c1 = −1, c2 = 1, and ω0 = 1 . By Equation (5)
3π
A= 2 , δ =
4
yielding
⎛ 3π ⎞
− cos t + sin t = 2 cos t − .
⎜ ⎟
4 ⎠
⎝
Because c1 is negative and c2 is positive the phase angle is in the 2nd quadrant.
18. − cost − sin t

By Equation (5) c1 = −1, c2 = −1 , and ω0 = 1 . By Equation (6)
5π
A= 2 , δ =
4
yielding
⎛ 5π ⎞
− cos t − sin t = 2 cos t − .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
Because c1 and c2 are negative, the phase angle is in the 3rd quadrant.
 Component Form of Harmonic Motion

Using cos ( A + B ) = cos Acos B − sin Asin B , we write:
19. 2cos ( 2t − π ) = 2 {cos 2t cos ( −π ) − sin 2t sin ( −π )} = −2 cos 2t
⎛ π⎞ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π⎞ 1 3
20. cos t + = cost cos − sin t sin = cost − sin t
⎜ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜3⎟ ⎜3⎟ 2 2
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎧ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎫ 2 2 3 2
21. 3cos t − = 3 cos t cos − − sin t sin − =3 cos t + sin t = {cos t + sin t}
⎜ ⎟ ⎨ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎬ ⎨ ⎬
4 4 4 2 2 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎩ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎭
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ 3 1
22. cos 3t − = cos3t cos − − sin 3t sin − = cos 3t + sin 3t
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
6 6 6 2 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
 Interpreting Oscillator Solutions
23. x + x = 0 , x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 0
1
Because ω0 = 1 , we know the natural frequency is Hz and the period is 2π seconds. Using
2π
the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 1)

x ( t ) = cost ,
which tells us the amplitude is 1 and the phase angle δ = 0 radians.

24. x + x = 0 , x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 1
1
Because ω0 = 1 radians per second, we know the natural frequency is Hz (cycles per
2π
second), and the period is 2π . Using the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 2)
⎛ π⎞
x ( t ) = 2 cos t − ,
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
π
which tells us the amplitude is 2 and the phase angle is δ =
4
radians.
25. x + 9x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 1
3
Because ω0 = 3 radians per second, we know the natural frequency is Hz (cycles per
2π
2π
second), and the period is . Using the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 3)
3
10
x (t ) = cos ( 3t − δ )
3
1
where δ = tan −1 , which tells us the amplitude is
3
10
3
and the phase angle is
1
δ = tan −1 ≈ 0.3218 radians.
3
26. x + 4x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = −2
1
Because ω0 = 2 radians per second, we know the natural frequency is Hz (cycles per second),
π
and the period is π. Using the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 4)
⎛ π⎞
x ( t ) = 2 cos 2t + ,
⎜ ⎟
4⎠
⎝
π
which tells us the amplitude is 2 and the phase angle is δ = − radians.
4
27. x + 16x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = −1 , x ( 0 ) = 0
2
π
π
and the period is . Using the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 5)
2
x ( t ) = cos ( 4t − π ) ,
which tells us the amplitude is 1 and the phase angle is δ = π radians.
28. x + 16x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 4
2
π
π
and the period is . Using the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 6)
2
⎛ π⎞
x ( t ) = cos ⎜ 4t − ⎟ ,
⎝ 2⎠
π
which tells us the amplitude is 1 and the phase angle is δ = radians.
2
29. x + 16π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 0, x ( 0 ) = π
1
From Problem 7, x = sin 4π t
4
1 1 ⎛ π⎞ π 2π 2
Amplitude = ,x= cos 4π t − , phase angle δ = , and period T = = = 8.
4 4 ⎜ ⎟
2⎠ 2 ω π
⎝ 0
4
30. 4 x + π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 1, x ( 0 ) = π
4r2 + π2 = 0
π π π
r= ± i x = c cos t + c sin t 1=c
1 2 1
2 2 2
π π π π π
x=− c1 sin t + c2 cos t π= c
2 2 2 2 2 2
π π
x = cos t + 2sin t c2 = 2
2 2
Amplitude: A = 1+ 22 = 5
⎛π ⎞
x= 5 cos ⎜ t −1.11 ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
 Relating Graphs
31. (a) See graph, next page.

k
(b) x + 0.25x = 0 ω0 = = 0.5
m
From (4) x = c1 cos 0.5t + c2 sin 0.5t

⎛t⎞ c ⎛t⎞
x(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 = 0 so x(t) = c2 sin ⎜ ⎟ and x(t) = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ .

⎝2⎠ 2 ⎝2⎠
Alternatively, you could use (5)
x = A cos (0.5t − δ)
π ⎛t π⎞ ⎛t ⎞
x(0) = 0 ⇒ δ = so x(t) = A cos ⎜ − ⎟ = A sin ⎜ ⎟ ,
2 ⎝2 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
A ⎛t⎞
and x(t) = cos .
2 ⎜ 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
(c) See graph
Graph for b) and d) Graph for a)

A A 2A 5A
(d) Amplitudes are approximately , , , , and A
3 2 3 6
 Phase Portraits
For comparison of phase portraits, the main observation is that the elliptical shape depends on ω0,
which is k in all of these problems because x + kx = 0 .
If ω0 = 1, trajectories are circular. As ω0 increases above 1, ellipses become taller and thinner.
As ω0 decreases from 1 to 0, ellipses become shorter and wider.
x 1
The aspect ratio of max = .
xmax ω
Other observations include:

• All these phase portraits show closed elliptical trajectories that circulate clockwise.
• The trajectory of Problem 33 has a greater radius than that of Problem 32 because the initial
condition is further from the origin.
• The trajectories in Problems 36 and 37 are on the same ellipse with different starting points
that give different solution equations.
32. G ⎡1 ⎤
x+ x=0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0⎦
From Problem 1 x(t) = cos(t),

so x(t) = −sin(t).
33. G ⎡1⎤
x+ x=0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣1⎦
From Problem 2 x(t) = cos(t) + sin(t),

so x(t) = −sin(t) + cos(t).
34. G ⎡1⎤
x + 9x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣1⎦
1
From Problem 3, x(t) = cos 3t + sin 3t,
3
so x(t) = −3 sin 3t + cos 3t.
35. G ⎡1⎤
x + 4x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −2⎦
From Problem 4, x(t) = cos 2t − sin 2t,

so x(t) = −2 sin 2t − 2 cos 2t.
36. G ⎡ −1⎤
x + 16x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0⎦
From Problem 5, x(t) = −cos 4t,

so x′(t) = 4 sin 4t.
37. G ⎡ 0⎤
x + 16x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4⎦
From Problem 6, x(t) = sin 4t,

so x(t) = 4 cos 4t.
38. G ⎡0 ⎤
x + 16π 2 x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣π ⎦
1
From Problem 7, x(t) = sin 4π t,
4
so x(t) = cos 4π t.
39. G ⎡1 ⎤
4x + π 2 x = 0 x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣π ⎦
π π
From Problem 8, x(t) = cos t + 2sin t,
2 2
π π π
so x(t) = − sin t + π cos t.
2 2 2
 Matching Problems
40. B
41. A
42. D
43. C
 Changing Frequencies
(a) ω0 = 0.5 gives tx curve with lowest fre- x ω 0 = 0.5 ω = 2
44. 4 0
quency (fewest humps); ω0 = 2 gives the
highest frequency (most humps). 2

(b) ω0 = 0.5 gives the innermost phase-
plane trajectory; as ω0 increases, the t

π 2π 3
amplitude of x increases. In Figure 4.1.8

–2
the trajectory that is not totally visible is
the one for ω0 = 2 .
–4 ω0 = 1
 Detective Work
⎛ 8π ⎞
45. (a) The curve y = 1.4cos t − is a sinusoidal curve with period 2π , amplitude A ≈ 1.4 ,
⎜ ⎟
5 ⎠
⎝
8π
and phase angle δ ≈ .
5
π
(b) From this graph we estimate ω0 = 1 , A ≈ 2.3 , and δ ≈ . Thus, we have
4
⎛ π⎞ ⎡ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
x ( t ) = Acos (ω0t − δ 0 ) = 2.3cos ⎜ t − ⎟ = 2.3 ⎢ cost ⎜ cos− ⎟ − sin t ⎜ −sin ⎟⎥
⎝ 4⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦
⎧⎪ 2 2 ⎪⎫
= 2.3 ⎨ cos t + sin t ⎬ ≈ 1.6 ( cos t + sin t ) .
⎪⎩ 2 2 ⎪⎭
 Pulling a Weight
46. (a) The mass is m = 2 kg . Because a force of 8 nt stretches the spring 0.5 meters, we find
8
that k = = 16 nt m . If we then release the weight, the IVP describing the motion of
0.5
the weight is 2 x +16x = 0 or

x + 8x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 0.5 , x ( 0 ) = 0 .
The solution of the differential equation is
x ( t ) = Acos ( 8t − δ . )
Using the initial conditions, we get the simple oscillation
x ( t ) = 0.5cos ( 8t ) .
Amplitude =
1 2π 2π 8
(b) m; T = = sec , f = cycles per second
2 ω0 8 2π
)
(c) Setting cos ( 8t = 0 , we find that the weight will pass through equilibrium at
1
4
of the
period or after
π
t= ≈ 0.56 seconds.
2 8
At that time velocity is

⎛π⎞
x ( 0.56 ) = − 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ ≈ −1.414m sec
⎝2⎠
moving away from original displacement.
 Finding the Differential Equation

47. (a) The mass is m = 500 gm, which means the force acting on the spring is 500 × 980 dynes.
This stretches the spring 50 cm, so the spring constant is

500 ×980
k= = 9800 dynes cm .
50
The mass is then pulled down 10 cm from its initial displacement, giving x ( 0 ) = 10 (as
long as we measure downward to be the positive direction, which is typical in these

problems). The initial velocity of the mass is assumed to be zero, so x ( 0 ) = 0 . Thus, the
IVP for the mass is
500 x + 9800x = 0
or
5 x + 98x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 10 , x ( 0 ) = 0 .
(b) The solution of the differential equation found in part (a) is

⎛ 98 ⎞ 98
x ( t ) = Acos t − δ = 10cos t.
⎜ 5 ⎟ 5
⎝ ⎠
(c) In part (b) the amplitude is 10 cm, phase angle is 0, the period is
m 5
T = 2π = 2π ≈ 1.4 sec,
k 98
and the natural frequency is given by the reciprocal

1
f = = 0.71 oscillations per sec-
ond. 1.4
 Initial-Value Problems
16 1
48. (a) The weight is 16 lbs, so the mass is roughly = slugs. (See Table 4.1.1 in text.) This
32 2
1 16
mass stretches the spring foot, hence k = 1 = 32 lb ft . This yields the equation
2 2
1
2
( x ) + 32x = 0 , or
x + 64x = 0 .
1
The initial conditions are that the mass is pulled down 4 inches ( foot) from equilib-
3
rium and then given an upward velocity of 4 ft sec . This gives the initial conditions of
1
x (0) = ft, x ( 0 ) = −4 ft/sec, using the engineering convention that for x, down is
3
positive.
1
(b) We have the same equation x + 64x = 0 , but the initial conditions are x ( 0 ) = − ft,
6
x ( 0 ) = 1 ft/sec.
 One More Weight
12 3 1
49. The mass is m = = slugs. The spring is stretched foot, so the spring constant is
32 8 2
12 1 1
k= = 24 lb ft . The initial position of the mass is 4 inches ( ft) upward so x ( 0 ) = − 3 . The
3
1
2
initial motion is 2 ft sec upward, and thus x ( 0 ) = −2 . Hence, the equation for the motion of the
mass is
1
x + 64x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = − , x ( 0 ) = −2 ,
3
which has the solution

1 1
x ( t ) = − cos8t − sin 8t .
3 4
Writing this in polar form, we have x
2 2 0.4
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 5
A = c2 + c2 = − + − =
1 2 ⎜ 3⎟ ⎜ 4⎟ 12
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛c ⎞ ⎛3⎞
δ = tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ t
c
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝4⎠ 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
≈ 3.78 radians ( angle in 3rd quadrant ) .

Hence, we have the solution in polar form Š0.4 5
x(t) = cos(8t − 3.78)
5 12
x (t ) = cos ( 8t − 3.78 ) .
12
Spring oscillation
See figure.
 Comparing Harmonic Motions

2π k
50. The period of simple harmonic motion is given by T = , where ω0 = . Notice that this
ω0 m
does not depend at all on our initial conditions. Period is the same so is the frequency, but the
amplitude will be twice that in the first case.
 Testing Your Intuition

51. x + x + x3 = 0
Here we have a vibrating spring with no friction, but a nonlinear restoring force F = −x − x3 that
is stronger than a purely linear force –x. For small displacement x the nonlinear F will not be
much different (for small x, x 3 is very small), but for larger x, the force F will be much stronger
than in a linear spring; as F increases, the frequency of the vibration increases. This equation is
called Duffing’s (strong) equation, and the associated springs are called strong springs.
52. x + x − x3 = 0
Here we have a vibrating spring with no friction, and a nonlinear restoring force F = −x + x3 . For
small displacement x the nonlinear term x 3 has little effect, but as x increases toward 1, the
restoring force F diminishes (i.e., the spring weakens when it is stretched a lot, and the restoring
force becomes zero when x = 1 ). The decreasing F causes decreasing frequency (and increasing
period). This equation is called Duffing’s (weak) equation, and the associated springs are called
weak springs.
53. x−x=0
This equation describes a spring with no friction and a negative restoring force. You may wonder
if there are such physical systems. In the next two sections we will see that this equation describes
the motion of an inverted pendulum (4.3 Problems 58, 59), and it has solutions sinh t and cosh t
(4.2 Example 2), in contrast to x + x = 0 , which has solutions sin t and cos t. The restoring force
for the equation under discussion is always directed away from the equilibrium position; hence
the solution always moves away from the equilibrium, which us unstable.
1
54. x+ x+x=0
t
This equation can be interpreted as describing the motion of a vibrating mass that has infinite
1
friction x at t = 0 , but friction immediately begins to diminish and approaches zero as t
t
becomes very large. You may simulate in your mind the motion of such a system. Do you think for
large t that the oscillation might behave much like simple harmonic motion? (See 4.3 Problem 68.)
55. ( )
x + x 2 −1 x + x = 0
This is called van der Pol’s equation and describes oscillations (mostly electrical) where internal
friction depends on the value of the dependent variable x. Note that when x < 1, we actually have
negative friction, so for a small displacement x we would expect the system to move away from
the zero solution (an unstable equilibrium) in the direction of x = 1. But when x > 1, we will
have positive friction causing damping. We will see in 4.3 Problem 70 and in Chapter 7 that there
is a periodic solution between small x and large x that attracts all these other solutions.
56. x + tx = 0
Here we have a vibrating spring with no friction, but the restoring force –tx gets stronger as time
passes. Hence we expect to see no damping, but faster vibrations as t increases.
 LR-Circuit
57. (a) Without having a capacitor to store energy, we do not expect the current in the circuit to
oscillate. If there had been a constant voltage V0 on in the past, we would expect the
V0
current to be (by Ohm’s law) I = . If we then shut off the voltage, we would expect
R
the current to die off in the presence of a resistance.
(b) If a current I passes through a resistor with resistance R, then the voltage drop is RI; the
voltage drop across an inductor of inductance L is LI . We obtain the IVP:
V0
LI + RI = 0 , I ( 0 ) =
R
(c) The solution of the IVP is

V0 −( R L )t
I (t ) = e .
R
1
(d) If R = 40 ohms, L = 5 henries, V0 = 10 volts, then I ( t ) = e −8t ohms.
4
 LC-Circuit
58. (a) With a nonzero initial current and no resistance, we do not expect the current to damp to
zero. We would expect an oscillatory current due to the capacitor. Thus the charge on the
capacitor would oscillate indefinitely. The exact behavior depends on the initial
conditions and the values of the inductance and capacitance.
(b) Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the sum of the voltage drops around the circuit is equal
to the impressed voltage source. Hence, we have
1
LI +
C ∫
I =0
or, in terms of the charge across the capacitor, we have the IVP
1
LQ + Q = 0 , Q (0) = 0 , Q (0) = 5 .
C
(c) The solution of the IVP is
sin ( 1
t )
Q (t ) = 5
LC
.
1
LC
This agrees with the oscillatory behavior predicted in part (a).
(d) With values L = 10 henries, C = 10−3 farads, the charge on the capacitor is
Q (t ) = 5
sin ( 100t ) = 1 sin10t .
100 2
 A Pendulum Experiment
59. The pendulum equation is
g
θ+ sin θ = 0 .
L
For small θ, we can approximate sin θ ≈ θ , giving the differential equation

g
θ + θ =0.
L
g
This is the equation of simple harmonic motion with circular frequency ω0 = , and natural
L
1 g 1 L
frequency f0 = . Hence, the period of motion is T = = 2π .
2π L f0 g
Tearth g sun
= = 400,000 = 100 40 ≈ 632 .
Tsun g earth
 Changing into Systems

60. 4 x − 2x + 3x = 17 − cost
x= y
1
y = (−3x + 2 y +17 − cost)
4
1
61. Lq + Rq + q = V (t)
c
q=I
1⎛ 1 ⎞
I= ⎜ − q − RI + V (t) ⎟
L⎝ c ⎠
1
62. 5q +15q + q = 5cos 3t
10
q=I
1
I =− q − 3I + cos3t
50
63. t 2 x + 4tx + x = t sin 2t t >0

4 1 sin 2t
x+ x+ 2 x=
t t t
x= y
x 4 sin 2t
y=− 2 − y+
t t t
64. 4 x +16x = 4sin t
x + 4x = sin t
x= y
y = −4x + sin t
 Circular Motion
65. Writing the motion in terms of polar coordinates r and θ and using the fact that the angular
velocity is constant, we have θ = ω0 (a constant). We also know the particle moves along a circle
of constant radius, which makes r a constant. We then have the relation x = r cosθ , and hence
x = ( −r sin θ )θ
x = ( −r sin θ )θ − ( r cos θ )θ 2 .
Because θ = 0 , θ = ω0 , we arrive at the differential equation
x + ω02 x = 0 .
 Another Harmonic Motion

66. For simple harmonic motion the circular frequency ω0 is
kR 2
ω0 = ,
mR 2 + I
so the natural frequency f 0 is
1 kR 2
f0 = .
2π mR 2 + I
 Motion of a Buoy
67. The buoy moves in simple harmonic motion, so the period is
2π = 2π m .
T = 2.7 =
ω0 k
We have one equation in two unknowns, but the buoyancy equation yields the second equation. If
we push the buoy down 1 foot, the force upwards will be F = V ρ , where V is the submerged
volume and ρ is the density of water. In this case, V = π r 2 h , r = 9 inches = 0.75 ft , h = 1 ft, and
9
ρ = 62.5 ft sec , so the force required to push the buoy down 1 foot is π (1)( 62.5 ) ≈ 110 lbs.
16
110
But k is the force divided by distance, so k = = 110 lbs ft . Finally, solving for m in the
1
kT 2
equation for T, we get m = , and substituting in all of our numbers, we arrive at m ≈ 20.4
4π 2
slugs (see Table 4.1.1. in the text.) The buoy weighs mg = ( 20.4 )( 32.2 ) = 657 lbs.
 Los Angeles to Tokyo
68. (a) Along the tunnel,
mx = −kr cosθ = −kx
x(0) = d if x is measured positive to the left of the center of the tunnel.

x(0) = 0 means that the train starts from rest (as soon as a brake is released).
(b) The solution to the IVP in part (a) is
x(t) = c1 cos ω0t + c2 sin ω0 t,

k
where ω0 = .
m
At the surface of the earth mg = kr
k q
where r = R, so ω0 = = .
m R
Letting x(0) = d yields c1 = d, while letting x(0) = 0 yields c2 = 0.
Hence we have
q
x(t) = d cos t.
R
For the train to go from L.A. to Tokyo, x(t) goes from d to −d.
q
and t goes from 0 to π.
R
Hence,
R
tf =π
q
4000 mi ×5280 ft/mi
=π
32 ft/sec 2
= 2552 sec ≈ 42.5 minutes
R
(c) The solution tf = π from part (b) does not depend on the location of the points on the
q
earth’s surface; π, R, and q are all constant.
 Factoring Out Friction

69. (a) Letting x ( t ) = e( −b 2m )t X ( t ) , we have
−b ( −b 2m )t
X ( t ) + e(
−b 2m )t
x (t ) = e X (t )
2m
b 2 ( −b 2m )t −b ( −b 2m )t
x (t ) = 2
e X (t ) + e X ( t ) + e −( b 2m )t X ( t ) .
4m m
Substituting this into the original equation (1) and dividing through by e −( b 2m )t , we arrive
at
⎡ b b2 ⎤ ⎡ b ⎤
m⎢X − X + 2 X ⎥ + b ⎢−
X + X ⎥ + k[X] = 0.
⎣ m 4m ⎦ ⎣ 2m ⎦
Rearranging terms gives

⎡ b2 b2 ⎤
mX + [ −b + b ] X + − +k X =0
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 4m 2m ⎦
or
⎛ b2 ⎞
mX + ⎜ k − ⎟X =0.
⎝ 4m ⎠
b2
(b) If we assume k − > 0 , then divide by m and let
4m
1
ω0 = 4mk − b 2 )
2m
we find the solution of this DE in X is

X ( t ) = c1 cos ω0 t + c2 sin ω0t = Acos ( ω0 t − δ ) .
Thus, we have
− ( b 2m )t − ( b 2m )t
() () ( )
x t =e X t = Ae cos ω0t − δ .
 Suggested Journal Entry
70. Student Project

317 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.2 Real Characteristic Roots 317
4.2 Real Characteristic Roots
 Real Characteristic Roots

1. y′′ = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 = 0 , so there is double root at r = 0 . Thus, the general solution
is
y ( t ) = c e0t + c te0t = c + c t .
1 2 1 2
2. y′′ − y′ = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − r = 0 , which has roots 0, 1. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1 + c2 et .
3. y′′ − 9 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 9 = 0 , which has roots 3, –3. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1e3t + c2e −3t .
4. y′′ − y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 −1 = 0 , which has roots 1, –1. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1et + c2 e−t .
5. y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 3r + 2 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 2 )( r −1) = 0 , and hence has
roots 1, 2. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1et + c2e 2t .
6. y′′ − y′ − 2 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r − r − 2 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 2 )( r +1) = 0 , and hence has
2
roots 2, –1. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e2t + c2 e −t .
7. y′′ + 2 y′ + y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r +1 = 0 , which factors into ( r +1)( r +1) = 0 , and hence has
the double root –1, –1. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e−t + c2 te−t .
8. 4 y′′ − 4 y′ + y = 0
The characteristic equation is 4r 2 − 4r +1 = 0 , which factors into ( 2r −1)( 2r −1) = 0 , and hence
1 1
has the double root , . Thus, the general solution is
2 2
y ( t ) = c1et 2 + c2tet 2 .
9. 2 y′′ − 3y′ + y = 0
The characteristic equation is 2r 2 − 3r +1 = 0 , which factors into ( 2r −1)( r −1) = 0 , and hence
1
has roots , 1. Thus, the general solution is
2
y ( t ) = c1et 2 + c2 et .
10. y′′ − 6 y′ + 9 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 6r + 9 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 3)( r − 3) = 0 , and hence has
the double root 3, 3. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1e3t + c2 te3t .
11. y′′ − 8y′ +16 y = 0

The characteristic equation is r 2 − 8r +16 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 4 )( r − 4 ) = 0 , and hence
has the double root 4, 4. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e4t + c2te 4t .
12. y′′ − y′ − 6 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − r − 6 = 0 , which factors into ( r + 2 )( r − 3) = 0 , and hence has
roots –2, 3. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e −2t + c2 e3t .
13. y′′ + 2 y′ − y = 0
(
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r −1 = 0 , which factors into r +1− 2 r +1 + 2 = 0 , and )( )
hence has roots −1+ 2 , −1− 2 . Thus, the general solution is
(
y ( t ) = e −t c e 2t
+ c e− 2t
).
1 2
14. 9 y′′ + 6 y′ + y = 0
The characteristic equation is 9r 2 + 6r +1 = 0 , which factors into ( 3r +1) = 0 , and hence has the
2
1 1
double root − , − . Thus, the general solution is
3 3
y ( t ) = c1e −t 3 + c2te −t 3 .
 Initial Values Specified

15. y′′ − 25y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0
The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r 2 − 25 = 0 , which factors into

( r − 5)( r + 5) = 0 , and thus has roots 5, –5. Hence,
y ( t ) = c1e5t + c2 e −5t .
Substituting in the initial conditions y ( 0 ) = 1 gives c1 + c2 =1 . Substituting in y ( 0 ) = 0 gives

1
5c1 − 5c2 = 0 . Solving for c1 , c2 gives c1 = c2 = . Thus the general solution is
2
1 5t 1 −5t
y (t ) = e + e .
2 2
16. y′′ + y′ − 2 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0
The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r 2 + r − 2 = 0 , which factors into
( r + 2 )( r −1) = 0 , and thus has roots 1, –2. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1e −2t + c2 et .
1 2
Substituting into y ( 0 ) = 1, y′ ( 0 ) = 0 yields c1 = , c2 = , so
3 3
1 2
y ( t ) = e −2t + et .
3 3
17. y′′ + 2 y′ + y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r +1 = 0 , which factors into ( r +1)( r +1) = 0 , and hence has
the double root –1, –1. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e −t + c2 te .
−t
Substituting into y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1 yields c1 = 0 , c2 = 1, so
y ( t ) = te −t .
18. y′′ − 9 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = −1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 9 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 3)( r + 3) = 0 , and hence has
roots are 3, –3. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e3t + c2 e −3t .
y ( 0 ) = −1,
Substituting into
y′ ( 0 ) = 0 yields c 1 2 =−
1
=c
, so
2
1 3t 1 −3t
y (t ) e − e .
=−
2 2
19. y′′ − 6 y′ + 9 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = −1
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 6r + 9 = 0 , which factors into ( r − 3)( r − 3) = 0 , and hence has
the double root 3, 3. Thus, the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1e3t + c2 te3t .
Substituting into y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = −1 yields c1 = 0 , c2 = −1 , so
y ( t ) = −te3t .
20. y′′ + y′ − 6 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 1
The characteristic equation is r 2 + r − 6 = 0 , which factors into ( r + 3)( r − 2 ) = 0 , and hence has
roots –3, 2. Thus, the general solution is

y ( t ) = c1e −3t + c2 e 2t .
1 4
Substituting into y ( 0 ) = 1, y′ ( 0 ) = 1 yields c1 = , c2 = , so
5 5
1 4
y ( t ) = e −3t + e 2t .
5 5
21. y′′ − y′ = 0 y(0) = 2, y(0) = −1
r2 − r = 0 (Characteristic equation)
r(r − 1) = 0 r = 0, 1
y = c1 + c2et ⇒ 2 = c1 + c2
y′ = c2et ⇒ −1 = c2, c1 = 3
y = 3 − et
22. y′′ − 4 y′ −12 y = 0 y(0) = 1, y′(0) = −1
r2 − 4r − 12 = 0 (Characteristic equation)
(r + 2)(r − 6) = 0 r = −2, 6
y = c e −2t + c e 6t y(0) = 1⇒ c + c = 1 7 ⎫ 1
1 2 1 2
⎬ ⇒ c = ,c =
−2t 6t ′ 1 2
y ′ = −2c1e + 6c2 e y (0) = −1⇒ −2c1 + 6c2 = −1⎭ 8 8
1 −2t 3 −6t
y= e + e
4 4
 Bases and Solution Spaces

23. y′′ − 4 y′ = 0
r2 − 4r = 0 (Characteristic equation)
r(r − 4) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 4
Basis: {1, e4t}
Solution Space: {y ⎜y = c1 + c2e4t; c1, c2 ∈ \ }
24. y′′ −10 y′ + 25y = 0

r2 − 10r + 25 = 0 (Characteristic equation)
(r −5) = 0 ⇒ r = 5, 5
2
Basis: {e5t, te5t}

Solution Space: {y⎜y = c1e5t + c2te5t; c1, c2 ∈ \ }
25. 5y′′ −10 y′ −15 y = 0

5r2 − 10r − 15 = 0 (Characteristic equation)
r2 − 2r − 3 = 0 ⇒ (r − 3)(r + 1) = 0 ⇒ r = 3, −1
Basis: {e3t, e−t}
Solution Space: {y ⎜y = c1e3t + c2e−t; c1, c2 ∈ \ }
26. y′′ + 2 2 y′ + 2 = 0
r 2 + 2 2r + 2 = 0 (Characteristic equation)
(r + 2)(r + 2 ) = 0 r = − 2, − 2
Basis: e − { 2t
,te −
2t
}
Solution Space: {y y = c e− 2t
+ c te − 2t
;c ,c ∈ \}
1 2 1 2
 Other Bases
27. y′′ − 4 y = 0
r2 − 4 = 0 (Characteristic equation)
r = ±2 ∴ {e2t, e−2t} is a basis
To show {cosh 2t, sinh 2t} is a basis, we need only show that cosh 2t and sinh 2t are linearly
independent solutions:
cosh 2t sinh 2t
W= = 4 cosh2 2t − 4 sinh2 2t
2sinh 2t 2cosh 2t
2
⎛ e 2t + e −2t ⎞ ⎛ e 4t +1+ e −4t ⎞
⎟ =⎜
2
cosh 2t = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
⎛ e 2t − e −2t ⎞ ⎛ e 4t −1− e −4t ⎞
⎟ =⎜
2
sinh 2t = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
so cosh2 2t − sinh2 2t = 1 and W = 4 ≠ 0.
∴ cosh 2t, sinh 2t are linearly independent.
Substitute y = cosh 2t, y′ = 2 sinh 2t, y ′ = 4 cosh 2t
Then y′′ − 4y = 4 cosh 2t − 4 cosh 2t = 0 ∴ y = cosh 2t is a solution.

In similar fashion, we can show that y = sinh 2t is also a solution.
{
To show that e 2t ,cosh 2t } is a basis, we use the facts that e 2t
and cosh 2t are solutions.
Then:
e2t +e −2t
e 2t cosh 2t e 2t
W= = 2
2e 2t 2sinh 2t 2e 2t e 2t − e −2t
= (e4t − 1) − (e4t + 1) = −2 ≠ 0
∴ e2t and cosh 2t are linearly independent

28. y′′ = 0
r2 = 0 (Characteristic equation) so that r = 0, 0.
Basis: {1, t}
To show {t + 1, t − 1} is also a basis:
Note that for both y = t + 1 and y = t − 1, y ′ = 0, so both are solutions.
t +1 t −1
W= = (t + 1) − (t − 1) = 2
1 1
∴ t + 1, t − 1 are linearly independent
To show {2t, 3t − 1} is another basis:
Note that for both y = 2t and y = 3t − 1, y ′ = 0, so both are solutions.
2t 3t −1
W= - 6t − 2(3t − 1) = 2
2 3
∴ 2t, 3t − 1 are linearly independent

 The Wronskian Test

t +1 t −1 t 2 + t t3
1 2t + t 3t 2 t −1 t 2 + t t3
1 1 2t +1 3t 2
29. W= = (t +1) 0 2 6t −1 0 2 6t
0 0 2 6t
0 0 6 0 0 6
0 0 0 6
= (t + 1)12 − 12(t − 1) = 24 ≠ 0
Yes, {t + 1, t − 1, t2 + t, t3} is a basis for the solution space for y(4) = 0.

te5t e5t 2e5t −1 t 1 2 − e −5t
30. W= (5t +1)e5t 5e5t 10e5t = e5t 5t + 1 5 10

(25t +10)e5t 25e5t 50e5t 25t +10 25 50
⎡ 5 10 5t +1 10 5t +1 5 ⎤
= e5t t −1 + (2 − e −5t )
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 25 50 25t +10 50 25t +10 25 ⎦
= 25e5t ≠ 0
Yes, {te5t, e5t, 2e5t − 1} is a basis for the solution space for y′′′ −10 y′′ + 25y′ = 0.
31. The given set has only three solutions, so it cannot be a basis. A basis for the solution space of y(4)
= 0 must have 4 linearly independent solutions.
 Sorting Graphs
32.
 Relating Graphs
For Problems 33−35, x + 5x + 6x = 0 has (from Example 1) solutions

x(t) = c1e −2t + c2 e −3t (1)
x(t) = −2c1e −2t − 3c2e −3t (2)
33. (a), (b)
x(0) ≈ − 10 x(0) ≈ 0
⇓ ⇓
c1 + c2 = −10 −2c1 − 3c2 = 0
c1 = −30, c2 = 20
(c) From (1) in box, x(t) = −30e−2t + 20e−3t.
For t > 0, each term diminishes as t increases; the result remains negative, below the
t-axis.
For t < 0, each exponential increases as t decreases; the negative term cancels the positive
term when 30e−2t = 20e−3t or e−t = 1.5,
that is, when t = −ln 1.5 ≈ −.405 which looks about right on the tx-graph.
(d) From (2), x(t) = 60e−2t − 60e−3t = 60e−2t(1 − e−t) which is always positive for t > 0,
decreasing as t increases.
x(t) reaches a maximum when x (t) = −120e −2t +180e −3t = 0

−2 + 3e −t = 0
2
e −t = ,
3
2
so t = − ln ≈ 0.406, which looks about right on the tx -graph.
3
34. (a)
(b)
(b) x(0) ≈ 5 x(0) ≈ 0
⇓ ⇓
c1 + c2 = 5 −2c1 − 3c2 = 0
G G G G
Because all problems for finding ci are of type Ac = b , we solve for c = A −1b
⎡1 1⎤ ⎡ −3 −1⎤ G ⎡5⎤
−1
We have A = ⎢ ⎥ so A = − ⎢ ⎥ , and here b = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −2 −3⎦ ⎣2 1⎦ ⎣0⎦
so
G ⎡−3 −1⎤ ⎡5⎤ ⎡+15⎤
c = −⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ −10 ⎦
(c) From (1) in box on previous page, x(t)= 15e−2t − 10e−3t.
As t increases from zero, both exponentials decrease with their sum remaining positive, which
agrees with the tx graph.
−2t −3t −2t −t
(d) From (2), x(t) = −30e − 30e = −30e (1 + e )
For t > 0, this quantity is always negative, and as long as t increases, each term gets
closer to zero, in agreement with tx -graph.
35.
(a) x(0) ≈ 0 and x(0) ≈ −8
(b) From the method of 34(b),

⎡c1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡−3 −1⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ −8⎤
= A −1 =− =
⎢c ⎥ ⎢ −8⎥ ⎢2 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −8⎦⎥ ⎢ +8 ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ ⎦
so from (1), x(t) = −8e−2t + 8e−3t.

−2t −3t
(c) For t > 0, e > e so the sum is always negative and approaches zero as t increases,
in agreement with the tx graph.

−2t −3t −2t −3t
(d) From (2) x(t) = +16e − 24e = 0, so 2e − 3e = 0,
2
which yields e−t = or t ≈ .406,
3
which looks about right on the tx -graph.

For t > 0.406, x(t) > 0 and decreases toward zero as t increases.
For Problems 36−39, x − x − 6x = 0 has (from Example 1) solutions
x(t) = c1e −2t + c2e3t (1)

−2t
x(t) = −2c1e + 3c2 e 3t
(2)
36. (a)
(b) From (1) c1 + c2 = 0

2 2
c1 = − ; c2 =
From (2) −2c1 + 3c2 = 2 5 5
2 2
x(t) = − e−2t + e3t
5 5
4 −2t 6 3t
x(t) = e + e
5 5
(c) For t > 0, e−2t < e3t, so x(t) is always positive, and as t increases, so does x(t).
This result agrees with the tx-graph.
For t < 0, e3t < e−2t so x(t) is always negative, and as t becomes more negative, x(t)
becomes more negative.
(d) x(t) is always positive.
For t > 0, e−2t < e3t, so the second term dominates as t increases, and x(t) increases as
well. These facts are in agreement with the tx -graph.
37. (a)
(b) From (1), c1 + c2 = 2 6 4

c1 = ; c =
From (2), −2c1 + 3c2 = 0 5 2 5
6 −2t 4 3t
x(t) = e + e
5 5
12 −2t 12 3t
x(t) e + e
=−
5 5
(c) x(t) is always positive.
For t > 0, as t increases, the first term decreases toward 0 and the second term increases
ever more rapidly, in agreement with the tx-graph.
(d) For t > 0, e3t > e−2t, so x(t) is positive, and x(t) increases as t increases, as shown on the
tx graph.
For t < 0, the first term will dominate and x(t) will be negative, ever more so as t
becomes more negative, in agreement with the tx -graph.
38. (a)
(b) From (1), c1 + c2 = −3 9 6

=−
From (2), −2c1 + 3c2 = 0 c1 = − ; c2
5 5
9 6
x(t) = − e −2t − e3t
5 5
18 18
x(t) e −2t − e3t
=+
5 5
(c) x(t) is always negative, with a maximum at t = 0. (See part (d) and set x(t) = 0.)
These facts agree with the tx graph.
(d) For t > 0, e3t > e−2t so the negative term dominates in x(t) and x(t) is negative, ever
more so as t increases.
For t < 0, e−2t > e3t so the positive term dominates in x(t) and x(t) is positive, ever more
so as t becomes more negative. These facts agree with the tx graph.

39. (a)
(b) From (1), c1 + c2 = 0 1 1

c1 = ; c2 = −
From (2), −2c1 + 3c2 = −1 5 5
1 −2t 1 3t
x(t) = e − e
5 5
2 −2t 3 3t
x(t) e − e
=−
5 5
(c) For t > 0 the second term dominates, so x(t) is negative, ever more so as t increases.
For t < 0 the first term dominates, so x(t) is positive, ever more so as t becomes more
negative.
These facts agree with the tx graph.

(d) x(t) is always negative. The maximum value will occur when t = 0, as shown on the tx -
graph.
 Phase Portraits
Careful inspection shows:
40. (B) 41. (D) 42. (A) 43. (C)

 Independent Solutions
44. Letting
r1t r2 t
c1e + c2 e =0
for all t, then by setting t = 0 and t = 1 we have, respectively

c1 + c2 = 0
c e r1 + c e r2 = 0.
1 2
When r1 ≠ r2 then these equations have the unique solution c1 = c2 = 0 , which shows the given
functions er1t , e r2t are linearly independent for r1 ≠ r2 .

 Second Solution
45. Substituting y = v ( t ) e −bt 2a into
ay ′ + by′ + cy = 0
gives
b −bt 2a
y′ = v′e −bt 2a − ve
2a
b b2
y ′′ = v′′e −bt 2a − v′e −bt 2a + 2 ve −bt 2a .
a 4a
Substituting v, v′, v ′ into the differential equation gives the new equation (after dividing by
e −bt 2a )
⎛ b b2 ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞
a ⎜ v′′ − v′ + 2 v ⎟ + b ⎜ v′ − v ⎟ + cv = 0 .
⎝ a 4a ⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠
Simplifying gives
⎛ b2 ⎞
av′′ − ⎜ − c⎟v = 0 .
⎝ 4a ⎠
Because we have assumed b 2 = 4ac , we have the equation v ′ = 0 , which was the condition to be
proven.
 Independence Again
46. Setting
c1e −bt 2a + c2 te −bt 2a = 0
for all t, we set in particular t = 0 and then t = 1. These yield, respectively, the equations
c1 = 0
c1e −b 2a + c2 e −b 2a = 0
which have the unique solution c1 = c2 = 0 . Hence, the given functions are linearly independent.
 Repeated Roots, Long-Term Behavior

47. Because e −bt 2a approaches 0 as t → ∞ (for a, b > 0 ), we know the first term tends toward zero.
For the second term we need only verify that

t
te −bt 2a = bt 2a →0
e
does as well. To use l’Hôpital’s rule, we compute the derivatives of both the numerator and de-
nominator of the previous expression, getting
1
b bt 2a
,
2a
e
which clearly approaches 0 as t → ∞ . Then l’Hôpital’s rule assures us that the given expression
te −( b 2a )t approaches 0 as well.
 Negative Roots
We have r = −b ± b − 4mk , so in the overdamped case where b − 4mk > 0 , these
2 2
48.
characteristic roots are real. Because m and k are both nonnegative, b 2 − 4mk < b 2 causing
r1 = −b + b 2 − 4mk to be a negative sum of negative and positive terms
and
r2 = −b − b 2 − 4mk to be a negative sum of two negative terms.
 Circuits and Springs

1
49. (a) The LRC equation is LQ + RQ + Q = 0 , hence the following discriminant conditions
C
hold:
L
Δ = R2 − 4
C
<0 ( underdamped )
L
Δ = R2 − 4 = 0
C ( critically damped )
L
Δ = R2 − 4 > 0 ( overdamped ) .
C
(b) The conditions in part (a) can be written

L
R<2 ( underdamped )
C
R=2
L ( critically damped )
C
R>2
L ( overdamped ) .
C
1
These correspond to the analogy that m, b, and k correspond respectively to L, R, and .
C
(see Table 4.1.3 in the textbook.)
 A Test of Your Intuition
50. Intuitively, a curve whose rate of increase is proportional to its height will increase very rapidly
as the height increases. On the other hand, upward curvature doesn’t necessarily imply that the
function is increasing! (The curve e −t has upward curvature, yet decreases to 0 as t → ∞ .) In this
case, the restriction that y ′ ( 0 ) = 0 will cause the second curve to increase, but probably not
nearly as rapidly as the first curve. Solving the equations, the IVP y′ = y , y ( 0 ) = 1 has the
solution y = et , whereas the second curve described by y ′ = y , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0 has the

solution
1 t 1 −t
y (t ) = e + e .
2 2
The first curve is indeed above the second curve.
 An Overdamped Spring
51. (a) The solution of an overdamped equation has the form

x ( t ) = c1e r1t + c2e r2t .
Suppose that
c1 e r1t1 + c2 er2t1 = 0
rt rt ( r1 −r2 )t1
for some t1 . Because e 21
is never zero, we can divide by e 21
to get c1e + c2 = 0 .
Solving for t1 gives

1 −c
t1 = ln 2 .
r1 − r2 c1
This unique number is the only value for which the curve may pass through 0. If the
argument of the logarithm is negative or if the value of t1 does not
cross the
equilibrium point. is negative, then the solution
(b) By a similar argument, we can show that the derivative x ( t ) also has one zero.
 A Critically Damped Spring

52. (a) Suppose
( c1 + c2t1 ) er t
11
=0.
We can divide by the nonnegative quantity e r1t1 getting the equation c + c t = 0 , which
1 21
c
has the unique solution t1 = − 1 . Hence, the solution of a critically damped equation can
c2
pass through the equilibrium at most once. If the value of t1 is negative, then the solution
does not cross the equilibrium point.
(b) By a similar argument, we can show that the derivative x ( t ) has one zero.
 Linking Graphs
After inspection, we have labeled the yt and y′t graphs as follows.
y y' y'
53.
2 1 5 3 1 5
1 3
2
3
2
t t y
3 3 –5 5
4
4 4 t=0
–5 –5 –5
54.
55.
 Damped Vibration
56. The IVP problem is
1
x + 2x + x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 3 in = ft , x ( 0 ) = 0 ft sec .
4
The solution is
1 −t 1 −t
x (t ) = e + te .
4 4
This is zero only for t1 = −1 , whereas the physical system does not start before t = 0 .
 Surge Functions
57. For mx + bx + kx = 0 , let m = 1, find b, k and initial conditions for the solution x = Ate−rt
x + bx + kx = 0
r 2 + br + k = 0 (characteristic equation)
−b ± b 2 − 4 ⋅1⋅ k
r=
2
b b
b2 − 4k = 0 to obtain repeated roots, r = − , −
2 2
x = c1e−rt + c2te−rt
x = −rc1e −rt + c2 (t(−r)e−rt + e −rt ) ∴ c1 = 0 = x(0)
c2 = A = x(0)
x(0) = c2
∴ b = −2r, 4k = b2
and from above we know 4k = 4r2 so that k = ±r, for k > 0

Results: r and A are given, and
b = −2r
k=r
x(0) = 0
x′(0) = A
 LRC-Circuit I
1
58. (a) LQ + RQ + Q = 2Q +101Q + 50Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = 99 , Q ( 0 ) = 0
C
(b) Q ( t ) = −e −50t +100e −t 2 (c) I ( t ) = Q ( t ) = 50e −50t − 50e −t 2
(d) As t → ∞ , Q ( t ) → 0 and I ( t ) → 0
 LRC-Circuit II
1
59. (a) LQ + RQ + Q = Q +15Q + 50Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = 5 , Q ( 0 ) = 0
C
(b) Q ( t ) = 10e −5t − 5e −10t (c) I ( t ) = Q ( t ) = −50e −5t + 50e−10t
(d) As t → ∞ , Q ( t ) → 0 and I ( t ) → 0
 The Euler-Cauchy Equation at 2 y′′ + bty′ + cy = 0

60. Let y ( t ) = t r , so
y′ = rt r −1
y ′′ = r ( r −1) t r −2 .
Hence
at 2 y ′′ + bty ′ + cy = ar ( r −1) t r + brt r + ct r = 0 .
Dividing by t r yields the characteristic equation

ar ( r −1) + br + c = 0 ,
which can be written as

ar 2 + ( b − a ) r + c = 0 .
If r1 and r2 are two distinct roots of this equation, we have solutions
y1 ( t ) = t r1
y2 ( t ) = t r2 .
Because these two functions are clearly linearly independent (one not a constant multiple of the
other) for r1 ≠ r2 , we have
y ( t ) = c1t r1 + c2 t r2
for t > 0 .
 The Euler-Cauchy Equation with Distinct Roots
For Problems 61–65, see Problem 60 for the form of the characteristic equation for the Euler-Cauchy DE.
61. t 2 y′′ + 2ty′ −12 y = 0
In this case a = 1 , b = 2 , c = −12 , so the characteristic equation is

r ( r −1) + 2r −12 = r 2 + r −12 = ( r + 4 )( r − 3) = 0 .
Hence, we have roots r1 = −4 , r2 = 3, and thus
y ( t ) = c1t 3 + c2 t −4 .
62. 4t 2 y′′ + 8ty′ − 3y = 0
In this case a = 4 , b = 8 , c = −3 , so the characteristic equation is

4r ( r −1) + 8r − 3 = 4r 2 + 4r − 3 = ( 2r −1)( 2r + 3) = 0 .
1 3
Hence, we have roots r1 = , r2 = − , and thus
2 2
y (t )= c1t
12 −3 2
+ c2t .
63. t 2 y′′ + 4ty′ + 2 y = 0
In this case a = 1 , b = 4 , c = 2 , so the characteristic equation is

r ( r −1) + 4r + 2 = r 2 + 3r + 2 = ( r +1)( r + 2 ) = 0 .
Hence, we have roots r1 = −1, r2 = −2 , and thus
y ( t ) = c1t −1 + c2 t −2 .
64. 2t 2 y′′ + 3ty′ − y = 0
In this case a = 2 , b = 3 , c = −1, so the characteristic equation is

2r ( r −1) + 3r −1 = 2r 2 + r −1 = ( 2r −1)( r +1) = 0 .
1
Hence, we have roots r1 = , r = −1, and thus
2 2
y ( t ) = c1t1 2 + c2 t −1 .
 Repeated Euler-Cauchy Roots
65. We are given that the characteristic equation

ar 2 + ( b − a ) r + c = 0
of Euler’s equation
at 2 y′′ + bty′ + cy = 0
has a double root of r. Hence, we have one solution y1 = t r . To verify that t r ln t is also a
r −1 r −1
solution, we differentiate y′ = rt ln t + t ,
y ′′ = r ( r −1) t r −2 ln t + rt r −2 + ( r −1) t r −2 = r ( r −1) t r −2 ln t + ( 2r −1) t r −2 .
By direct substitution we have

at 2 y ′′ + bty ′ + cy = at 2 ⎡⎣ r ( r −1) t r −2 ln t + ( 2r −1) t r −2 ⎤⎦ + bt ⎡⎣rt r −1 ln t + t r −1 ⎤⎦ + ct r ln t
= ⎡⎣ ar ( r −1) + br + c t r ln t + ⎡⎣ a ( 2r −1) + b t r .
We know that ar ( r −1) + br + c = 0 , so this last expression becomes simply
at 2 y ′′ + bty ′ + cy = ⎡⎣ a ( 2r −1) + b t r .
b −a
Thus the root of the characteristic equation is r = − , which makes this expression zero.
2a
b −a
To verify that t r and t r ln t are linearly independent (where r = − is the double
2a
root of the characteristic equation), we set
c1tr + c2t r ln t = 0
for specific values t = 1 and 2, which give, respectively, the equations

c1 = 0
c1 2 + c2 2 ln 2 = 0
r r
and yields the unique solution c1 = c2 = 0 . Hence, t and t ln t are linearly independent
r r
solutions.
 Solutions for Repeated Euler-Cauchy Roots

For Problems 66 and 67 use the result of Problem 60, y ( t ) = c1t r + c2 t r ln t .
66. t 2 y′′ + 5ty′ + 4 y = 0
In this case, a = 1 , b = 5 , and c = 4 , so our characteristic equation for r is r 2 + 4r + 4 = 0 , with a

double root at –2. The general solution is
y ( t ) = c1t −2 + c2t −2 ln t
for t > 0 .
67. t 2 y′′ − 3ty′ + 4 y = 0
In this case, a = 1 , b = −3 , and c = 4 , so our characteristic equation for r is r − 4r + 4 = 0 , with

2
a double root at 2. The general solution is

y ( t ) = c1t 2 + c2 t 2 ln t
for t > 0 .
68. 9t2y″ + 3ty′ + y = 0 Euler-Cauchy method: y = t m, t > 0

9m(m − 1) + 3m + 1 = 0 (characteristic equation)
9m2 − 6m + 1 = 0
1
(3m − 1)2 = 0 m=
3
y(t) = c1t1/ 3 + c2 t1/ 3 ln t
69. 4t 2 y′′ + 8ty′ + y = 0 Euler-Cauchy method: y = t m, t > 0

4m(m − 1) + 8m + 1 = 0
4m2 + 4m + 1 = 0
1
(2m + 1)2 = 0 m= −
2
y(t) = c1t −1/ 2 + c2 t −1/ 2 ln t
 Computer: Phase-Plane Trajectories

70. (a) y ( t ) = 2e−t + e −3t
The roots of the characteristic equation are –1 and –3, so the characteristic equation is
( r +1)( r + 3) = r 2 + 4r + 3 = 0 .
y ( t ) satisfies the differential equation
y ′ + 4 y′ + 3y = 0 .
(b) To find the IC for the trajectory of y ( t )

in yy′ space we differentiate y (t ) ,
getting
y ′ ( t ) = −2e −t − 3e −3t
The IC of the given trajectory of
( y ( t ) , y′ ( t ) )
in yy ′ space is ( y ( 0 ) , y′ ( 0 ) ) = ( 3, − 5) .
(c) We plot the trajectory starting at DE trajectories in yy ′ space
( 3, − 5) along with a few other
trajectories in yy′ space.
71. y ( t ) = e −t + e −8t
(a) The roots of the characteristic equation are –1 and –8, so the characteristic equation is
( r +1)( r + 8 ) = r 2 + 9r + 8 = 0 .
y ′ + 9 y′ + 8y = 0 .
(b) The derivative is

y ′ ( t ) = −e −t − 8e −8t .
The IC for the given trajectory in yy′

space is
( y ( 0 ) , y′ ( 0 ) ) = ( 2, − 9) .
(c) We plot this trajectory in yy′ space.
DE trajectory in yy′ space
72. y ( t ) = et + e−t
(a) The roots of the characteristic equation are 1 and –1, so the characteristic equation is
( r −1)( r +1) = r 2 −1 = 0 .
y′− y =0 .
(b) The derivative is y
y ′ ( t ) = et − e −t . 4
The IC for the given trajectory in yy′ 2

space is (2, 0)
y
( y ( 0 ) , y′ ( 0 ) ) = ( 2, 0) . –4 –2 2 4
–2
(c) We plot this and a few other trajectories
of this DE in yy′ space. –4
DE trajectories in yy′ space
73. y ( t ) = e −t + te −t
(a) The characteristic equation has a double root at –1, so the characteristic equation is
( r +1)
2
= r 2 + 2r + 1 = 0 .

y ′ + 2 y′ + y = 0 .
(b) The derivative is y'

1.5
y ′ ( t ) = −te −t .
The IC for the given trajectory in yy′ (1, 0) y
–1.5 1
1.5
space is
y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0 .
–1.5
DE trajectory in yy′ space
74. y ( t ) = 3 + 2e 2t
(a) The roots of the characteristic equation are 0 and 2, so the characteristic equation is
r ( r − 2 ) = r 2 − 2r = 0 .
y ′ − 2 y′ = 0 .
(b) The derivative is

y ′ ( t ) = 4e 2t .
The IC for the given trajectory in yy′

space is
( y ( 0 ) , y′ ( 0 ) ) = ( 5, 4 ) .
(c) See the figure to the right.
DE trajectories in yy′ space

 Reduction of Order
75. (a) Let y2 = vy1 and

y2′ = v′y1 + vy1′
y2′ = v ′y1 + 2v′y1′ + vy1′.
Then
y2′′ + p ( x ) y2′ + q ( x ) y2 = v′′y1 + 2v′y1′ + pv′y1 + ( vy1′′ + pvy1′ + qvy1 ) = 0 .
Because y1′′ + py1′ + qy1 = 0 , cancel the terms involving v, and arrive at the new equation
y1v′′ + ( 2 y1′ + p ( x ) y1 ) v′ = 0
(b) Setting v′ = w and using the fact that y1′dx = dy1′ , we obtain
y1 w′ + ( 2 y1′ + p ( x ) y1 ) w = 0
⎛ 2y′1 +p (x )y1 ⎞
w′ + ⎜ ⎟w = 0
⎝ y1 ⎠
dw ⎛ −2 y1′−p (x )y1 ⎞
= ⎟ dx
w ⎜⎝ y1 ⎠
⎛ −2 y1′ ⎞
ln w = − p ( x ) dx
∫ ⎜⎝ y
⎟
⎠
−2
ln w = ∫y 1
∫
dy1 − p ( x ) dx
ln w = ln y1−2 − p ( x ) dx
∫
− p ( x ) dx
e ∫
w=± = v′
y12
− p ( x ) dx
e ∫
v=± ∫ y12
By convention, the positive sign is chosen.
(c) If v is a constant function on I, then v′ ≡ 0 and w ≡ 0 because v′ = w . The condition
w ≡ 0 contradicts our work in part (b) as ln w where w = 0 is undefined. Because v is
not constant on I, { y1 , y2 } is a linearly independent set of I.
 Reduction of Order: Second Solution

y′′ − 6 y′ + 9 y = 0 , y1 = e
3t
76.
We identify p ( t ) = −6 , so
∫ p ( t ) dt = −6t .
Substituting in the formula developed in Problem 75, we have
− p ( t ) dt
e ∫ e6t
y =y dt = e3t ∫ dt = te3t .
2 1 ∫ 2
3t 2
y1 ( t )
(e )
77. y′′ − 4 y′ + 4 y = 0 , y1 = e 2t
We won’t use the formula this time. We simply redo the steps in Problem 75. We seek a second
solution of the form y2 = vy1 = ve 2t . Differentiating, we have
y′2 = v′e 2t + 2ve 2t

y′′2 = v′′e 2t + 4v′e 2t + 4ve 2t .
Substituting into the equation we obtain

y2′′ − 4 y2′ + 4 y2 = v′′e2t = 0 .
Dividing by e2t gives v′′ = 0 or
v ( t ) = c1t + c2 .
Hence, we have found new solutions
y2 = ve 2t = c1te 2t + c2 e 2t .
Because y = e 2t , we let c =1, c = 0 , yielding a second independent solution

1 1 2
y2 = te2t .
78. t 2 y′′ − ty′ + y = 0 , y1 = t
solution of the form y2 = vy1 = tv . Differentiating, we have
y2′ = tv′ + v
y2′ = tv ′ + 2v′ .
Substituting into the equation we obtain

t 2 y2′ − ty′2 + y2 = t 3v ′ + t 2 v′ = 0 .
Letting w = v′ and dividing by t 3 yields

1
w′ + w = 0 .
t
We can solve by integrating the factor method, getting w = c1t −1 . Integrating we find
v = c1 ln t + c2 ,
so
y2 = tv = c1t ln t + c2t .
Letting c1 = 1, c2 = 0 , we get a second linearly independent solution
y2 = t ln t .
79. (t 2
)
+1 y ′′ − 2ty ′ + 2 y = 0 , y1 = t
solution of the form y2 = vy1 = tv . Differentiating yields
y2′ = tv′ + v
y2′ = tv ′ + 2v′ .
Substituting into the equation we get
(t 2
) ( )
+1 y2′ − 2ty2′ + 2 y2 = t t 2 +1 v ′ + 2v′ = 0 .
( )
Letting w = v′ and dividing by t t 2 +1 , we can solve the new equation using the integrating
factor method, getting

t2
∫(
2
dt = − ln t 2
+ 1 + (
2 ln t =)ln .
t t 2 +1 ) t 2 +1
We arrive at
t 2 +1
w=c = c + c t −2 .
1 1 1
t2
Integrating this, we get
(
v = c1 t − t −1 + c2 , )
so
(
y2 = tv = c1 t 2 −1 + c2 t . )
Letting c1 = 1, c2 = 0 we get a second linearly independent solution
y2 = t 2 −1.
 Classical Equations
80. y′′ − 2ty′ + 4 y = 0 , y1 ( t ) =1− 2t 2 (Hermite’s Equation)
( )
Letting y2 = vy1 = v 1− 2t 2 , we have
( )
y′2 = 1− 2t 2 v′ − 4tv
y ′′ = (1− 2t ) v′′ − 8tv′ − 4v

2
2
and perform the long division, yielding the equation

⎛ 8t ⎞
v ′ + ⎜ −2t + 2 ⎟ v′ = 0 .
⎝ 2t −1 ⎠
Letting w = v′ and solving the first-order equation in w, we get
( 2t )
−2
t2
w = c1e
2
−1 .
To find y2 we simply let c1 = 1 and integrate to get
∫ ( )
2 −2
v = et 2t 2 −1 dt .
( )
Multiplying by 1 − 2t 2 yields a final answer of
y2 ( t ) = (1− 2t ) ∫ e ( 2t −1)
2 t2 2 −2
dt .
81. (1− t ) y′′ − ty′ + y = 0 , y ( t ) = t

2
1 (Chebyshev’s Equation)
Letting y2 = vy1 = vt , we have y2′ = tv′ + v ,

y2′ = tv ′ + 2v′ ,
hence we have the equation

(1− t ) y ′ − ty′ + y
2
2 2 2
( 2
)
= t 1− t v ′ + 2 − 3t v′ = 0 . ( 2
)
( )
Dividing by t 1 − t 2 , and letting w = v′ ,
2 − 3t 2
w′ + w=0.
(
t 1− t2 )
Using partial fractions yields
2 − 3t 2 1 1
∫ t (1 − t ) dt = 2ln t + 2 ln t −1 + 2 ln 1+ t ,
2
so our integrating factor is t 2 1− t 2 and

1
w = c1 2
.
t 1− t 2
Letting c1 = 1 and multiplying by t yields a final answer of
1
y2 ( t ) = tv = t ∫t 2
1− t 2
dt .
This is a perfect example of a formula that does not tell us much about how the solutions behave.
Check out the IDE tool Chebyshev’s Equation to see the value of graphical solutions.
82. ty ′′ + (1− t ) y ′ + y = 0 , y1 ( t ) = t −1 (Laguerre’s Equation)
Letting y2 = vy1 = v ( t −1) , we have
y2′ = v′ ( t −1) + v , y2′ = v ′ ( t −1) + 2v′ ,
hence we have the equation
(
ty2′′ + (1− t ) y2′ + y = t ( t −1) v ′ + −t 2 + 4t −1 v′ = 0 . )
Dividing by t ( t −1) and letting w = v′ yields
−t 2 + 4t −1
w′ + w = 0.
t ( t −1)
1 2
Hence by use of partial fractions, our integrating factor is u = e ∫ t t −1 so that
−1+ + dt
t ( t − 1)
et
w = C1 .
t(t −1) 2
Letting c1 = 1 and multiplying by t −1 yields a final answer of
et
y2 ( t ) = v ( t −1) = ( t −1) ∫
2
dt .
 Lagrange’s Adjoint Equation
83. (a)−(b) Differentiating the right side of

d
μ (t) [ y′′ + y ′ + y ] = [ μ (t) y′ + g(t) y ]
dt
we obtain
μ y′′ + μ y′ + μ y = μ ′y + μ y′ + g′y + gy′
Setting the coefficients of y, y′, y′′ equal, we find
for y : μ = μ (no information)

for y′ : μ = μ ′ + g
for y′′ : μ = g′
The last equation yields g = ∫ μdt and substituting this into the second equation, and
differentiating, gives a differential equation for the “integrating factor”
μ ′′ − μ ′ + μ = 0.
(c) We perform the differentiation on the right-hand-side of the given equation, yielding
μ (t) [ y′′ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y ] = μ y′′ + μ ′y′ + g(t) y′ + g′(t) y.
Multiplying out the left-hand side and subtracting yields

[ μ p(t) − μ ′ − g(t)] y′ + [ μ q(t) − g ′(t)] y = 0.
Setting the first set of coefficients equal to 0 yields μ ′ = μ p − g ,
hence μ ′′ = μ p′ + μ ′ p − g′, so that g′ = − μ ′′ + μ p′ + μ ′ p.
The second set of coefficients yields μ q − g′ = 0 so that g′ = μ q.
Setting these two equations for g′ equal to each other yields μ ′ − p μ ′ + (q − p′) μ = 0
which was to be shown.
84. Student Project

347 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.3 Complex Characteristic Roots 347
4.3 Complex Characteristic Roots
 Solutions in General
1. y′′ + 9 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 9 = 0 , which has roots 3i, –3i. The general solution is
y ( t ) = c1 cos3t + c2 sin 3t .
2. y′′ + y′ + y = 0
1 3
The characteristic equation is r 2 + r +1 = 0 , which has roots − ± i . The general solution is
2 2
⎛ 3 3 ⎞
y ( t ) = e −t 2 c cos t + c sin t .
⎜ 1 2
2
2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
3. y′′ − 4 y′ + 5y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 4r + 5 = 0 , which has roots 2 ± i . The general solution is

y ( t ) = e 2t ( c1 cost + c2 sin t ) .
4. y′′ + 2 y′ + 8 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r + 8 = 0 , which has roots −1± i 7 . The general solution is
(
y ( t ) = e −t c1 cos 7t + c2 sin 7t . )
5. y′′ + 2 y′ + 4 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r + 4 = 0 , which has roots −1± i 3 . The general solution is
(
y ( t ) = e −t c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t . )
6. y′′ − 4 y′ + 7 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 4r + 7 = 0 , which has roots 2 ± i 3 . The general solution is
(
y ( t ) = e 2t c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t . )
7. y′′ −10 y′ + 26 y = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 −10r + 26 = 0 , which has roots 5 + i . The general solution is
y ( t ) = e5t ( c1 cost + c2 sin t ) .
8. 3y′′ + 4 y′ + 9 y = 0
2 23
The characteristic equation is 3r 2 + 4r + 9 = 0 , which has roots − ± i . The general solution
3 3
is
⎛ 23 23 ⎞
y ( t ) = e −2t 3 c cos t + c sin t .
⎜ 1 3
2
3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
9. y′′ − y′ + y = 0
1 3
The characteristic equation is r 2 − r +1 = 0 , which has roots ±i . The general solution is
2 2
⎛ 3 3 ⎞
y ( t ) = et 2 c cos t + c sin t .
⎜ 1 2
2
2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
10. y′′ + y′ + 2 y = 0
1 7
The characteristic equation is r 2 + r + 2 = 0 , which has roots − ± i . The general solution is
2 2
⎛ 7 7 ⎞
y ( t ) = e −t 2 c cos t + c sin t .
⎜ 1 2
2
2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
11. y′′ + 4 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = −1
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 4 = 0 , which has roots ±2i . The general solution is
y ( t ) = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t .
Substituting this into the initial conditions gives y ( 0 ) = c1 = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 2c2 = −1 . Hence, the
solution of the initial-value problem is
1
y ( t ) = cos 2t − sin 2t .
2
12. y′′ − 4 y′ +13y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 4r +13 = 0 , which has roots 2 ± 3i . The general solution is
y ( t ) = e 2t ( c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t ) .
Substituting this into the initial conditions yields y ( 0 ) = c1 = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 2c1 + 3c2 = 0 , resulting in
2
c1 = 1, c2 = − . Hence, the solution of the initial-value problem is
3
⎛ 2 ⎞
y ( t ) = e 2t ⎜ cos 3t − sin 3t ⎟ .
⎝ 3 ⎠
13. y′′ + 2 y′ + 2 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r + 2 = 0 , which has roots −1± i . Hence, the general solution
is
y ( t ) = e −t ( c1 cos t + c2 sin t ) .
Substituting this into the initial conditions yields y ( 0 ) = c1 = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = c1 − c2 = 0 , resulting in
c1 = 1, c2 = 1. Hence, the solution of the initial-value problem is
y ( t ) = e−t ( cos t + sin t ) .
14. y′′ − y′ + y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1
From Problem 6,
⎧ ⎡ 3 ⎡ 3 ⎫
y (t ) = e t 2
c cos (t ) + c sin (t ) .
⎪ ⎤ ⎤⎪
⎨ 1 ⎢ ⎥ 2 ⎢ ⎥⎬
2 2
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Substituting this into the initial conditions yields y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1 , resulting in c1 = 0 ,
2
c2 = 3 . Hence, the solution of the initial-value problem is
3
2 ⎛ 3 ⎞
y (t ) = 3e −t 2 sin
⎜
t .
⎟
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
15. y′′ − 4 y′ + 7 y = 0 , y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = −1
From Problem 6,
y (t ) = e
2t
{c cos ( 3t ) + c sin ( 3t )} .
1 2
Subsituting this into the initial conditions yields y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = −1, resulting in
1
c1 = 0 , c2 = − 3.
3
Hence, the solution of the initial-value problem is
16.
y (t )
1
y′′ + 2 y′ + 5y = 0 ,
3e 2t sin ( 3t ) .
=−
3
y (0) y ′ ( 0 ) = −1
= 1,
The characteristic equation is r 2 + 2r + 5 = 0 , which has roots −1± 2i . Hence, the general solu-
tion is
y ( t ) = e −t ( c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t ) .
Subsituting this into the initial conditions yields y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = −1, resulting in c1 = 1, c2 = 0 .
Hence, the solution of the initial-value problem is

y ( t ) = e −t cos 2t .
 Working Backwards
17. (r −1)3 = r 3 − 3r 2 + 3r −1
y′′′ − 3y′′ + 3y′ − y = 0
18. (r − 4)(r − (1− i))(r − (1+ i)) = r 3 − 6r 2 +10r − 8 = 0

y′′′ − 6 y ′ + 10 y′ − 8 y = 0
19. (r − 2)(r − (2 + i))(r − (2 − i)) = r 3 − 6r 2 + 13r −10

y′′′ − 6 y′′ +13y′ −10 y = 0
20. (r − 4)(r 2 − (2 + i))(r − (2 − i)) = r 4 − 4r 3 + r 2 +16r − 20 = 0

y (4) − 6 y′′′ + y′′ +16 y′ − 20 y = 0
 Matching Problems
21. y′′ − y′ = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 1
y(t) = c1 + c2et Graph D
22. y′′ + y′ = 0 ⇒ r = 0, −1
y(t) = c1 + c2e−t Graph B
23. y′′ + 3y′ + 2 y = 0 ⇒ r = −2, −1
y(t) = c1e−2t + c2e−t Graph A
24. y′′ − 5 y′ + 6 y = 0 ⇒ r = 2, 3
y(t) = c1e2t + c2e3t Graph C
−1 ± 3i
25. y′′ + y′ + y = 0 ⇒ r =
2
−⎛ ⎞
1
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎟ t ⎛ 3t 3t ⎞
y(t) = e c cos + c sin Graph G
⎜ 1
2
2
2 ⎟⎠
⎝
26. y′′ + y′ = 0 ⇒ r = ±i
y(t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t Graph F
27. y′′ + 4 y′ + 4 y = 0 ⇒ r = −2,−2

−2t
y(t) = (c1 + c2 t)e Graph E
1 ± 3i
28. y′′ − y′ + y = 0 ⇒ r =
2
⎛1⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟t ⎛ 3 ⎞
y(t) = e ⎝ ⎠
c cos t + c sin 3 t Graph H
⎜ 1
2 2
2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 Euler’s Formula
29. (a) The Maclaurin series for e x is

1 2 1 3 1
e x = 1+ x + x + x +" + x n +"
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
eiθ = 1+ iθ + ( iθ ) ( iθ ) ( iθ )
2 3 n
(b) + +" + +"
2! 3! n!
(c) Using the given identities for i, we can write

1 1 1
eiθ = 1+ iθ + ( iθ ) + ( iθ ) + " + ( iθ ) + "
2 3 n
2! 3! n!
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜1 − θ 2 + θ 4 −" + ⎟ + i ⎜θ − θ 3 + θ 5 −" ⎟= cosθ + i sin θ
2! 4! 3! 5!
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(d) Done in part (c). (e) Done in part (c).
 Long-Term Behavior of Solutions

30. r1 < 0 , r2 < 0 . When r1 ≠ r2 , the solution is
y ( t ) = c1er1t + c2 e r2t
and goes to 0 as t → ∞ . When r = r1 = r2 < 0 , the solution has the form
y ( t ) = c1e rt + c2 te rt .
In this case using l’Hôpital’s rule we prove the second term te rt goes to zero as t → ∞ when
r<0.
31. r1 < 0 , r2 = 0 . The solution
y ( t ) = c1er1t + c2
approaches the constant c2 as t → ∞ because r1 < 0 .
32. r = α ± βi , y ( t ) = eα t ( c1 cos β t + c2 sin β t ) . For β ≠0 the solution y(t) oscillates with
decreasing amplitude when α < 0 ; oscillates with increasing amplitude when α > 0 ; oscillates
with constant amplitude when α = 0 .

33. r1 = 0 , r2 = 0 . The solution
y ( t ) = c1 + c2t
approaches ∞ as t → ∞ when c2 > 0 and –∞ when c2 < 0 .
34. r1 > 0 , r2 < 0 . The solution
y ( t ) = c1e r1t + c2 e r2t
approaches ∞ as t → ∞ when c1 > 0 and –∞ when c1 < 0 .

2π
35. r = ± β i , y ( t ) = c1 cos β t + c2 sin β t is a periodic function of period , and amplitude
β
c12 + c22
 Linear Independence
36. Suppose
c1eα t cos β t + c2eα t sin β t = 0
on an arbitrary interval. Dividing both sides by eα t , then differentiating the new equation and
dividing by β, yields
c1 cos β t + c2 sin β t = 0
c2 cos β t − c1 sin β t = 0.
Hence, c1 = 0, c2 = 0 and we have proven linear independence of the given functions.
 Real Coefficients
37. Solution of the differential equation is

y ( t ) = k1eα t ( cos β t + i sin β t ) + k 2 eα t ( cos β t − i sin β t )
αt
= eα t ( k1 + k 2 ) cos β t + ie ( k1 − k2 ) sin β t .
For the solution to be real, there must exist real numbers r and s such that
k1 + k 2 = r
k1 − k 2 = si
Solving for k1 and k2 , we get
1 1
k1 = r + si
2 2
1 1
k 2 = r − si.
2 2
dny
 Solving =0
dt n
d4y
38. (a) =0 (b) y ( 4 ) = 0 . The characteristic equation is
dt 4
d3y r 4 = 0 , which has a fourth-order root at
= k3
dt 3 0. Hence, the solution is
d2y 2 3
= k 3t + k 2 y ( t ) = c0 + c1t + c2t + c3t ,

dt 2
dy 1 which is the same as in part (a).

= k t2 + k t + k
3 2 1
dt 2
1 3 1 2
y= k 3t + k2t + k1t + k 0
3! 2
(c) In general we have

1 1
= t n−1 + k t n−2 +" + k t + k
y ( t ) kn−1
( n −1)! n−2
( n − 2 )! 1 0
= cn−1t n−1 + cn−2 t n−2 +" + c1t + c0
because all of the constants are arbitrary.
 Higher-Order DEs
d5y 4d 4 y 4d 3 y
39. − + =0
5 4 3
dt dt dt
The characteristic equation is
( )
r 5 − 4r 4 + 4r 3 = r 3 r 2 − 4r + 4 = r 3 ( r − 2 ) = 0 ,
2
which has roots, 0, 0, 0, 2, 2. Hence,

y ( t ) = c + c t + c t + c e + c te .
2 2t 2t
1 2 3 4 5
d 3 y 4d 2 y 7dy
40. + − −10 y = 0
dt 3 dt 2 dt
r 3 + 4r 2 − 7r −10 = 0 ,
which has roots, –1, 2, –5. Hence,
y ( t ) = c e−t + c e 2t + c e −5t . 1 2 3
d 5 y dy
41. − =0
dt 5 dt
( ) ( )( )
r 5 − r = r r 4 −1 = r r 2 −1 r 2 +1 = r ( r −1)( r +1) r 2 + 1 = 0 , ( )
which has roots, 0, ±1, ±i. Hence
y ( t ) = c1 + c2 et + c3e −t + c4 cost + c5 sin t .
42. y′′′ − 4 y ′ + 5y′ − 2 y = 0

r 3 − 4r 2 + 5r − 2 = 0 (characteristic equation)
f (1) = 1− 4 + 5 − 2 = 0 By long division, we obtain
∴r = 1 is a root (r −1)(r 2 − 3r + 2) = 0
(r −1)(r − 2)(r −1) = 0 r = 1, 1, 2
y(t) = c1et + c2 tet + c3e 2t

43. y′′′ + 6 y′′ +12 y′ + 8y = 0
r 3 + 6r 2 +12r + 8 = 0 (characteristic equation)
f (−2) = −8 + 24 − 24 + 8 = 0 By long division, we obtain

∴r = −2 is a root (r + 2)(r 2 + 4r + 4) = 0
(r + 2)3 = 0 r = −2, −2, −2
y(t) = c1e −2t + c2 te−2t + c3t 2 e −2t

44. y (4) − y = 0
r 4 −1 = 0 (characteristic equation)
(r 2 +1)(r 2 −1) = 0 r = ±i,±1
y(t) = c1 cost + c2 sin t + c3e t + c4 e −t
 Linking Graphs
y y' y'
45. 3
5 5 5
3
1
1
t t y
3 1 –5 1 5
2 3
–5 –5 –5 t=0
46. y y' y'

5 3 5 5 3
1 2
2
t t y
3 1 –5 5
2
1 1
3
–5 –5 –5 t=0
 Changing the Damping

47. The curves below show the solution of
x + bx + x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 4 , x ( 0 ) = 0
for damping b = 0 , 0.5, 1, 2, 4. The larger the damping the faster the curves approach 0. The
curve that oscillates has no damping ( b = 0 ) .

.
x
x(t) b = 4
b=1 4
b=0
4 b=2
2
2 b = 0.5 b=2
b=4
t x
4 8 12 16 –4 –2 2 4
–2
–2
b = 0.5
–4 b=1
b=0
–4
In Figure 4.3.12 (b) in the text the larger the damping b the more directly the trajectory “heads”
for the origin. The trajectory that forms a circle corresponds to zero damping. Note that every
time a curve in (a) crosses the axis twice the corresponding trajectory in (b) circles the origin.
 Changing the Spring
48. (a) The solutions of x(t)

k =1
4
x + x + kx = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 4 , x ( 0 ) = 0 k = 0.5
2
are shown for k =

1
,
1
, 1, 2, 4. For k = 0.25
4 2 t
4 8 12 16
larger k we have more oscillations. k =2
–2 k =4
–4
.
(b) For larger k, since there are more oscilla- x
tions, the phase-plane trajectory spirals

4
further around the origin.
k =2 2
k = 0.25
–4 –2 2 x
–2
–4 k = 0.5
k =4 k =1
 Changing the Mass
k
49. (a) b = 0 and ωo = so that ωo is inversely proportional to m.
m
1
(b) If m is doubled, ωo is decreased by a factor of .
2
(c) If m is doubled, the damping required for critical damping is increased by a factor of 2.
 Finding the Maximum
50. (a) x + 2x + 3x = 0 , x(0) = 1, x(0) = 0
r2 + 2r + 3 = 0 (characteristic equation)
r = −1± 2i
(
x = e −t c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t ) ⎫
⎪
⎬ ⇒
⎭
( ) (
x = e −t − 2c1 sin 2t + 2c2 cos 2t − e −t c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t ) ⎪
1 = c1
1
0= 2c2 −1 so that c2 =
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
x = e−t ⎜ cos 2t + sin 2t ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
To find maximum displacement, set x = 0 .
⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
x = e −t − 2 sin 2t + 2 cos 2t − e −t cos 2t + sin 2t = 0
⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ π
− 2+ sin 2t = 0 when 2t = π , so that t = sec
⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
π π
−
− ⎛ ⎛ π ⎞ 1 π ⎞
⎟+ ⎟ = −e
2 2
Substituting for t: xmax = e ⎜ cos 2 ⎜ sin 2
⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 2⎠
π
−
2
Max. Amplitude xmax = e
(b) m = 1, b = 2, k = 10 x(0) = 0, x(0) = 2
The DE is x′′ + 2x′ +10x = 0 for which the characteristic equation
r2 + 2r + 10 = 0 gives r = −1 ± 3i.
x(t) = e−t (c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t)
x′(t) = e−t (−3c1 sin 3t + 3c2 cos 3t) − e −t (c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t)
2 −t
x(t) = e sin 3t is the solution
3
To find the maximum displacement x max , set x′(t) =0 and solve for t:
2
0 = (3e−t cos 3t − e− t sin 3t)
3
so that tan 3t = 3 and t = 0.416 radians which gives x max = 0.4172 .
(c) m = 1, b = 4, k = 4 x(0) = 0, x(0) = 2
The DE is x′′ + 4x′ + 4 = 0 for which the characteristic equation
r2 + 4r + 4 = 0 gives r = −2, −2
x(t) = c1e −2t + c2te −2t ⎫⎪
⎬ ⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 2
x′(t) = −2c1e −2t + c2 (−2te −2t −2t
+ e ) ⎪⎭
−2t
The solution is x(t) = 2te .
To find the maximum displacement xmax, we set so that t = 1/2 which

0 = 2(−2te −2t + e −2t ) yields xmax = e−1.
x′(t) = 0 and solve for t:

 Oscillating Euler-Cauchy
51. We used the substitution y = t r and obtained for r1 = α + i β and r2 = α − i β the solution
y ( t ) = k1t α +iβ + k2 t α −iβ = k1 e(α +iβ ) ln t + k2 e(α −iβ ) ln t = k1 eα ln t +iβ ln t + k2 eα ln t −iβ ln t
=e
α ln t
( c1 cos ( β ln t ) + c2 sin ( β ln t )) = tα ( c1 cos ( β ln t ) + c2 sin ( β ln t ) ).
This is the same process as that used at the start of Case 3 in the text utilizing the Euler’s For-
mula (4).
1 3
52. t 2 y′′ + 2ty ′ + y = 0 , r ( r −1) + 2r +1 = 0 , r 2 + r +1 = 0 , r = − ± i,
2 2
⎡ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞⎤
y (t ) = t −1 2
c cos ln t + c sin ln t
⎢ 1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
53. t 2 y′′ + 3ty′ + 5 y = 0
Letting y = t r yields
t 2 r ( r −1) t r −2 + 3trt r −1 + 5t r = 0
t r {r ( r −1) + 3r + 5} = 0,
and gives r 2 + 2r + 5 = 0 , which has roots −1± 2i . Hence, the solution is
y (t ) = t
−1
( c1 cos ( 2 ln t ) + c2 sin ( 2 ln t ) ) .
54. t 2 y′′ + 17ty′ +16 y = 0 Euler-Cauchy: y = tm, t > 0
m(m − 1) + 17m + 16 = 0 (characteristic equation)

m2 + 16m + 16 = 0
−16 ± (16) 2 − 4(16)
m= = −8 ± 4 3
2
(
y(t) = t −8 c1 cos(4 3 ln t) + c2 sin(4 3 ln t) )
 Third-Order Euler-Cauchy
55. The third-order Euler-Cauchy equation has the form at 3 y′′′ + bt 2 y ′ + cty′ + dy = 0 . The derivatives
of y = t r (t > 0) are
y′ = rt r −1
y ′′ = r ( r −1) t r −2
y ′′′ = r ( r −1)( r − 2 ) t r −3
Substitute these equations into the third-order Euler-Cauchy equation above to obtain:
at 3 r ( r −1)( r − 2 ) t r −3 + bt 2 r ( r −1) t r −2 + ctrt r −1 + dt r = 0
at r r ( r −1)( r − 2 ) + bt r r ( r −1) + ct r r + dt r = 0
Dividing by t r , we obtain the characteristic equation:

ar ( r −1)( r − 2 ) + br ( r −1) + cr + d = 0
 Third-Order Euler-Cauchy Problems

56. t 3 y′′′ + t 2 y′′ − 2ty′ + 2 y = 0 has Euler-Cauchy characteristic equation:
r ( r −1)( r − 2 ) + r ( r −1) − 2r + 2 = 0
r 3 − 3r 2 + 2r + r 2 − r − 2r + 2 = 0
r 3 − 2r 2 − r + 2 = 0
Note: r = 1 is a zero of the polynomial f ( r ) = r 3 − 2r 2 − r + 2 because
f (1) = 1− 2 −1+ 2 = 0 .
Therefore r −1 is a factor of r 3 − 2r 2 − r + 2 , which enables us to find the other factors.

r 3 − 2r 2 − r + 2 = ( r −1)( r +1)( r − 2 )
so r = 1, –1, 2. Hence, the general solution to this Euler-Cauchy DE is

y ( t ) = c1t + c2t −1 + c3t 2 ,
for t > 0 .
57. t 3 y′′′ + 3t 2 y′′ + 5ty = 0 Let y = tm, t > 0
m(m −1)(m − 2) + 3m(m −1) + 5m = 0 (characertistic equation)

m − 3m + 2m + 3m − 3m + 5 = 0
3 2 2
m3 + 4m = 0 m = 0, ±2i
y(t) = c1 + c2 cos (2 ln t) + c3 sin (2 ln t)

 Inverted Pendulum
58. The differential equation x − x = 0 has the characteristic equation r 2 −1 = 0 with roots ±1.
Hence, the general solution is

x ( t ) = c1et + c2 e−t .
1 1
(a) With initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , we find c1 = and c2 = − . Hence, the solu-
2 2
tion of the IVP is
1 t 1 −t
x (t ) = e − e = sinh t .
2 2
(b) As t → ∞ , x ( t ) → 0 if c1 = 0 , and then x ( t ) → 0 also. This will happen whenever
x ( 0 ) = −x ( 0 ) .
 Pendulum and Inverted Pendulum
59. (a) The inverted pendulum equation has characteristic equation r 2 −1 = 0 , which has roots
±1. Hence, the solution
x ( t ) = c1et + c2 e = c1 ( cosh t + sinh t ) + c2 ( cosh t − sinh t ) = C1 sinh t + C2 cosh t ,

−t
where C1 = c1 − c2 , C2 = c1 + c2 .
(b) The characteristic equation of the pendulum equation is r 2 +1 = 0 , which has roots ±i .
Hence, the solution
x ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t .
(c) The reader may think something strange about this because one form (a) appears real and
(b) complex, but they are really the same; the difference is taken up by how one chooses
{ }
the coefficients c1 , c2 in each case. The span of eit , e −it is the same as the span of
{sin t, cos t} .
 Finding the Damped Oscillation

60. The initial conditions x
1.5
x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 1 x(t) = e−t (cost + 2 sin t)
1
give the constants c1 = 1, c2 = 2 . Hence, we have
x ( t ) = e −t ( cost + 2sin t ) . 0.5
t
1 3 5
–0.5
 Extremes of Damped Oscillations

61. The local maxima and minima of the curve
x ( t ) = eα t ( c1 cos ω t + c2 sin ω t )
have nothing to do with the exponential factor eα t ; they depend only on

c1 cos ω t + c2 sin ω t ,
2π
which can be rewritten as Acos (ω t − δ ) having period T = . Hence, consecutive maxima and
ω
minima occur at equidistant values of t, the distance between them being one-half the period, or
π
. (You can note in Problem 32 that the time between the first local maxima and the first local
ω
π
minima is = π .)
1
 Underdamped Mass-Spring System

62. We are given parameters and initial conditions
m = 0.25 , b = 1, k = 4 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 .
Hence, the IVP is

0.25 x + x + 4x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 ,
which has the solution

⎛ 3 ⎞
x ( t ) = e −2t cos 2 3t + sin 2 3t .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠
 Damped Mass-Spring System

63. The IVP is
x + bx + 64x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 .
⎛ 5 ⎞
(a) b = 10 : (underdamped), x ( t ) = e −5t cos 39t + sin 39t
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 39 ⎠
b = 16 : (critically damped), x ( t ) = (1+ 8t ) e

−8t
(b)
(c) b = 20 : (overdamped), x ( t ) =
1
3
(4e −4t − e −16t )
 LRC-Circuit I
1
64. (a) The IVP is LQ + RQ + Q = Q + 8Q + 25Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = 1 , Q ( 0 ) = 0
C
⎛ 4 ⎞ 5 4
(b) Q ( t ) = e −4t cos3t + sin 3t = e −4t cos ( 3t − δ ) where δ = tan −1
⎜ 3 ⎟ 3 3
⎝ ⎠
20 4
(c) I ( t ) = Q ( t ) = −5e −4t sin ( 3t − δ ) − e −4t cos ( 3t − δ ) where δ = tan −1
3 3
(d) Charge on the capacitor and current in the circuit approach zero as t → +∞ .
 LRC-Circuit II
1 1
65. (a) The IVP is LQ + RQ + Q = Q + 1Q + 4Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = 1 , Q ( 0 ) = 0
C 4
⎛ ⎞ 2 3 −2t
(b) Q ( t ) = e −2t cos 2 3t +
⎜
3
sin 2 3t =
⎟
e cos 2 3t − δ , tan δ = ( 3
)
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 3
(c) I (t ) = Q (t ) = −
4 3 −2t
( ) (
e cos 2 3t − δ − 4e −2t sin 2 3t − δ , tan δ =
3
)
3 3
(d) As t → ∞ , both Q ( t ) → 0 and I ( t ) → 0
 Computer Lab: Damped Free Vibrations
66. IDE Lab

 Effects of Nonconstant Coefficients

1
67. x+ x=0
t
(a) This ODE describes (among other things) an undamped vibrating spring in which the
restoring force is initially very large (when t is near zero), but eventually decays to zero,
causing the frequency of vibration to decrease and the solution period to increase as t
increases.
(b) We plotted the solution with IC x ( 0.1) = 2 , x ( 0.1) = 0 in the tx and xx planes.
x
3
2
1
–10 x
–20 10 20
–1
–2
–3
–4
(c) As we expected, the tx graph shows that the period of the oscillation increases with t. We
see also that the amplitude increases in the absence of friction. The xx phase portrait
shows that as time and amplitude increase, velocity decreases, which is consistent with
the previous observations. A good question for further exploration would be whether
amplitude increases indefinitely or levels off.
1
68. x+ x+x=0
t
(a) This ODE describes a damped vibrating spring in which the damping starts very large
when t is near zero, but decays to zero. We suspect that initially the amplitude of a
solution will rapidly decay, but as time increases the motion could become almost like
simple harmonic oscillation, as there will be almost no friction.
(b) We plotted the solution with IC x ( 0.1) = 2 , x ( 0.1) = 0 in the tx as well as the xx
planes.
x
1
0.5
–1 1 2 x
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
(c) As first expected, the tx graph shows that the solution is rapidly decaying. However the
xx phase portrait, constructed with a longer time interval, shows that our second expectation
is not confirmed. As time increases the oscillations do not become harmonic—the
amplitude of the oscillations continues to decrease, gradually and indefinitely.
tx + x = 0
69.
(a) If you divide by t, you will see that this equation is the same as the equation in
Problem 67.
70. ( )
x + x 2 −1 x + x = 0
(a) This ODE shows negative friction for x < 1 and positive damping for x > 1. For a small
initial condition near x = 0 , we might expect the solution to grow and then oscillate
around x = 1.
(b) We plotted the solutions in the tx and xx planes at initial velocity x ( 0 ) = 0 for three
different initial displacements: x ( 0 ) = 0.5 , x ( 0 ) = 2.0 , x ( 0 ) = 4.0 .

x.
4
–4 4 x
–4
(c) As expected, the tx graph shows that initially the solution is growing for x ( 0 ) = 0.5 and
decaying for x ( 0 ) = 4 . We also see that all the solutions seem to become periodic with
the same amplitude and period, but we note that the motion is not exactly sinusoidal and
that the amplitude is about 2 rather than 1 as we suspected. The xx phase portrait
confirms that the long term trajectories are not circular as in simple harmonic motion, but
distorted as we see in the tx graph. This equation is called van der Pol’s equation and
describes oscillations (mostly electrical) where internal friction depends on the value of the
dependent variable x; further details will be explored in Chapter 7.
71. x + ( sin t ) x + x = 0
(a) In this ODE damping changes periodically from negative to positive, so we can predict
oscillation in amplitude as well as periodic vibratory motion.
(b) We plotted the solution with IC x ( 0 ) = 2, x ( 0 ) = 0 in the tx and xx planes.
(c) The tx graph looks like a superposition of two periodic oscillations. The xx phase
portrait for a longer time interval shows that continued oscillations almost repeat, but never
exactly. This is called quasi-periodic motion.
1
72. x + x + tx = 0
t
(a) For this ODE damping is initially large, but vanishes as time increases; the restoring
force on the other hand is initially small but increases with time. How will these effects
combine?
(b) We plotted the solution with IC x ( 0.1) = 2, x ( 0.1) = 0 in the tx and xx planes.
x
2
–1 1 2 x
–1
–2
(c) As we expected, the tx graph shows initially large damping, which rapidly decreases the
amplitude of the solution, and increasing frequency, due to the effect of the increasing
spring “constant”, which shortens the period. The center of the xx graph will continue to
fill in, very slowly, if you give it a much longer time interval.
73. x + ( sin 2t ) x = 0
(a) In this ODE the restoring force changes periodically from positive to negative with a
frequency that is different from the natural frequency of the spring. We expect some
complicated but periodic motion.
(b) We plotted the solution with IC x ( 0 ) = 2 , x ( 0 ) = 0 in the tx and xx planes.
20 40 60 80 100 t
–2
–4
(c) The tx graph to t = 100 indeed looks almost periodic, with period 50. However the xx
phase portrait over a longer time interval shows that continued motion almost repeats, but
never exactly. This is another example of quasi-periodic motion, as in Problem 71.
Extending the tx graph will be another good way to see that the long term motion is
indeed not perfectly repeating.
 Boundary-Value Problems
⎛π⎞
74. y′′ + y = 0 , y(0) = 0, y ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ 2⎠
y(t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t

y(0) = 0 = c1
⎛π⎞
y = 0 = c , so y(t) = 0 is the solution.
⎜2⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
⎛π⎞
75. y′′ + y = 0 , y(0) = 0, y ⎜ ⎟ = 1
⎝ 2⎠

y(0) = 0 = c1
⎛π⎞
y = 1 = c , so y(t) = sin t is the solution.
⎜2⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
76. y′′ + y = 0 , y(0) = 1, y(π ) = 1
y(0) = 1 = c1
y(π ) = 1 = −c1 *No solutions
⎛π⎞ ⎛π⎞
77. y′′ + y = 0 , y ⎜ ⎟ = 1, y ⎜ ⎟ = 2
⎝4⎠ ⎝2⎠

1 1
1 = c1 + c2 c1 + c2 = 2
2 2
2 = c2 c1 = 2 −2
y(t) = ( )
2 − 2 cost + 2sin t is the solution.
 Exact Second-Order Differential Equations
1 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤′
78. y ′′ + y′ − 2 y = 0 is the same as y′′ + ⎢ y ⎥ = 0 .
t t ⎣t ⎦
1
Integrating we obtain the linear equation y′ + y = c1 ,
t
1
dt
for which μ = e
∫t
= e ln t = t so we have ty′ + y = c t.
1
d c c c
Thus, (ty) = c1t, so ty = 1 t 2 + c2 and y(t) = 1 t + 2 .
dt 2 2 t
c
Substituting back into the original equation we find c1 = 0, so y(t) = is the general solution.
t
2 2
79. y′′ + y′ − 2 = 0
t t
⎡ 2 ⎤′
y′′ + y =0
⎢⎣ t ⎦⎥
Integrating and setting c1 = 0, we obtain

2
′
2
y + y=0 ∫ dt
μ = e t = e 2ln t = t 2
t
t 2 y′ + 2ty = 0 = c.
d 2 c
(t y) = 0 , t2y = c, y(t) = 2
dt t
80. (t 2 − 2t) y′′ + 4(t −1) y′ + 2 y = 0 where t 2 − 2t ≠ 0
Find (gy)′′ :
(gy)′ = gy′ + yg′
(gy) ′ = (gy′ + yg′)′ = gy ′ + y′g′ + yg ′ + g′y′
= gy′′ + 2g′y′ + yg′′
Let g = t2 − 2t. Then g′ = 2t − 2, g ′ = 2
Then (gy)′′ = (t 2 − 2t) y′′ + 4(t −1) y′ + 2 y

(gy)′′ = 0
(gy)′ = c1
gy = c1t + c2
c1t+c2
so y(t) = .
t 2 − 2t
81. Student Project

369 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.4 Undetermined Coefficients 369
4.4 Undetermined Coefficients
 Inspection First
1. y′′ − y = t ⇒ y p ( t ) = −t 2. y′′ + y ′ = 2 ⇒ y p ( t ) = 2t
3. y′′ = 2 ⇒ y p ( t ) = t 2 4. ty′′ + y ′ = 4t ⇒ y p ( t ) = t 2
5. y′′ − 2 y′ + 2 y = 4 ⇒ y p ( t ) = 2 6. y′′ − y = −2cost ⇒ y p ( t ) = cost
7. y′′ − y′ + y = et ⇒ y p ( t ) = et 8. y ′′′ + y ′ + y = 2t + 2 ⇒ y p ( t ) = 2t
 Educated Prediction
The homogeneous equation y′′ + 2 y′ + 5y = 0 has characteristic equation r 2 + 2r + 5 = 0 , which has
complex roots −1± 2i . Hence,
yh ( t ) = c1e−t sin 2t + c2 e−t cos 2t ,
so for the right-hand sides f ( t ) , we try the following:
9. f ( t ) = 2t 3 − 3t ⇒ y p ( t ) = At 3 + Bt 2 + Ct + D
10. f ( t ) = tet ⇒ y p ( t ) = ( At + B ) et 11. f ( t ) = 2sin t ⇒ y p ( t ) = Asin t + B cost
12. f ( t ) = 2e −t sin t ⇒ y ( t ) = e−t ( Acos t + B sin t )

p
 Guess Again
The homogeneous equation y′′ − 6 y′ + 9 y = 0 has characteristic equation r 2 − 6r + 9 = 0 , which has a
double root 3, 3. Hence,
yh ( t ) = c1e3t + c2 te3t .
We try particular solutions of the form:

13. f ( t ) = t cos 2t ⇒ y p ( t ) = ( At + B ) sin t + ( Ct + D ) cost
14. 3t
(
f ( t ) = te ⇒ y p ( t ) = At + Bt e
3 2
) 3t
(We can’t have any terms here dependent on terms in the homogeneous solution.)
15. f ( t ) = e −t + sin t ⇒ y p ( t ) = Ae −t + B sin t + C cos t
16. f ( t ) = t 4 − t 2 + 1⇒ y p ( t ) = At 4 + Bt 3 + Ct 2 + Dt + E
 Determining the Undetermined

17. y′ = 1 . The homogeneous solution is yh ( t ) = c , where c is any constant. By simple inspection we
observe that y p ( t ) = t is a solution of the nonhomogeneous equation. Hence, the general solution
is
y (t ) = t + c .
18. y′ + y = 1. The homogeneous solution is yh ( t ) = ce −t where c is any constant. By simple inspec-
tion we observe that y p ( t ) = 1 is a solution of the nonhomogeneous equation. Hence, the general
solution is
y ( t ) = ce −t +1.
19. y′ + y = t . yh ( t ) = ce −t , y p = At + B , y ′p = A . Substituting into the DE gives A + ( At + B ) = t .
Coefficient of t: A = 1. Coefficient of 1: A + B = 0 . Hence, A = 1, B = −1 . y p = t −1,
y = ce −t + t −1 .
20. y′′ = 1. The homogeneous solution of the equation is
yh ( t ) = c1t + c2 ,
1
where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants. By inspection, we note that y p = t 2 is a particular
2
solution. Hence, the solution of the homogeneous equation is

1 2
y (t ) = t + c1t + c2 .
2
If you could not find a particular solution by inspection, you could try a solution of the form
y p ( t ) = At 2 + Bt + C .
21. y′′ + 4 y′ = 1. The characteristic equation is r 2 + 4r = 0 , which has roots 0, –4. Hence, the homo-
geneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1 + c2 e −4t .
The constant on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular
solution of the form y p ( t ) = A , except that the homogeneous solution has a constant solution;
thus we seek a solution of the form y p ( t ) = At . Substituting this expression into the differential
1
equation yields 4A = 1, or A = . Hence, we have a particular solution
4
1
y p (t ) = t ,
4
so the general solution is

1
y ( t ) = c + c e −4t + t .
1 2
4
22. y′′ + 4 y = 1 . The characteristic equation is r 2 + 4 = 0 , which has roots ±2i . Hence, the homoge-
neous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t .
The constant on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular
solution of the form y p ( t ) = A . Substituting this expression into the differential equation yields
1 1
4A = 1, or A = . We have a particular solution y p ( t ) = , so the general solution
4 4
1
y ( t ) = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t + .
4
23. y′′ + 4 y′ = t . The characteristic equation is r 2 + 4r = 0 , which has roots 0, –4. Hence, the homo-
geneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1 + c2 e −4t .
The term on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular solution
of the form
y p ( t ) = At + B .
However, the homogeneous solution has a constant term so we seek a solution of the form
y p ( t ) = At 2 + Bt .
Substituting this expression into the differential equation yields

y ′ + 4 y′ = 2A + 8At + 4B = t .
1 1
Setting the coefficient of t, 1 equal to each other yields A = , B = − . Thus, the solution
8 16
1 2 1
y (t ) = c + c e + t − t .
−4t
1 2
8 16
24. y′′ + y′ − 2 y = 3 − 6t . The characteristic equation is r 2 + r − 2 = 0 , which has roots –2 and 1.
Hence, the homogeneous solution
yh ( t ) = c1e
−2t
+ c2 et .
The linear polynomial on the right-hand side of the equation indicates we seek a particular
solution of the form
y p ( t ) = At + B .
(Note that we don’t have any matches with the homogeneous solution.) Substituting this expres-
sion into the differential equation yields the equation
y′′ + y′ − 2 y = A − 2At − 2B = 3 − 6t
so A = 3 , B = 0 . Hence, we have the general solution

y ( t ) = c1e −2t + c2et + 3t .
25. y′′ + y = et + 3 . The characteristic equation is r 2 +1 = 0 , which has roots ±i . Hence, the
homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t .
The terms on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular
y p ( t ) = Aet + B .

y′′ + y = 2Aet + B = et + 3 .
1
Setting coefficients of et , 1 equal to each other, we get equations for A, B, which yield A = ,
2
B = 3 . Hence, we have the general solution

1
y ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t + et + 3 .
2
26. y′′ − y′ − 2 y = 6et . The characteristic equation is r 2 − r − 2 = 0 , which has roots –1 and 2. Hence,
the homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1e2t + c2 e−t .
The exponential term on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a
particular solution of the form
y p ( t ) = Aet .
(Note this is not linearly dependent on any of the exponential terms in the homogeneous
solution.) Substituting this expression into the differential equation we get
y′′ − y′ − 2 y = −2Aet = 6et .
Hence, A = −3 , and we have a particular solution
y p ( t ) = −3et ,
and hence
y ( t ) = c1e 2t + c2e −t − 3et .
27. y′′ + y′ = 6sin 2t . The characteristic equation is r 2 + r = 0 , which has roots 0 and –1. Hence, the
yh ( t ) = c1 + c2 e−t .
The sine term on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular
y p ( t ) = Acos 2t + B sin 2t .
Substituting into the differential equation yields

y ′′ + y ′ = ( −4 A + 2B ) cos 2t + ( −4B − 2 A ) sin 2t = 6sin 2t .
Comparing coefficients yields the equations

−4A + 2B = 0
−4B − 2A = 6,
3 6
which has the solution A , B = − . Hence, we have
=−
5 5
3 6
y p ( t ) = − cos 2t − sin 2t ,
5 5
and the general solution is
3 6
y ( t ) = c1 + c2 e−t − cos 2t − sin 2t .
5 5
y′′ + 4 y′ + 5 y = 2et . The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r + 4r + 5 = 0 ,

2
28.
which has roots −2 ± i . Hence, the homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = e −2t ( c1 cos t + c2 sin t ) .
The exponential on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek a particular
y p ( t ) = Aet .

y′′ + 4 y′ + 5 y = 10 Aet = 2et ,
1 1
which yields A = . Hence, we have a particular solution y p ( t ) = et , and the general solution
5 5
is given by
1
y ( t ) = e −2t ( c1 cos t + c2 sin t ) + et .
5
29. y′′ + 4 y′ + 4 y = te −t . The characteristic equation is given by r 2 + 4r + 4 = 0 , which has a double

root of –2, so the homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1e −2t + c2 te−2t .
of the form
y p ( t ) = Ate + Be .
−t −t

y ′′ + 4 y ′ + 4 y = Ate −t + ( 2A + B ) e −t = te −t .
Comparing coefficients, yields equations, which we solve, getting A = 1, B = −2 . Hence, the
general solution is
y ( t ) = c1e−2t + c2 te−2t + te −t − 2e −t .
30. y′′ − y = t sin t . The characteristic equation is r 2 −1 = 0 , which has roots ±1. Hence, the
yh ( t ) = c1et + c2 e .
−t
y p ( t ) = ( At + B ) cos t + ( Ct + D ) sin t .
Differentiating this expression two times and substituting it into the differential equation yields
the algebraic equation
y ′′ − y = −2Ct sin t − 2 At cost + ( −2 A − 2D ) sin t + ( 2C − 2B ) cos t = t sin t .
Comparing terms in sin t , cos t , t sin t , t cos t , we get equations that yield
1 1
A = 0, B = − , C = − , D = 0.
2 2
Hence,
1
y ( t ) = c1et + c2 e −t − ( t sin t + cost ) .
2
31. y′′ + y = 12cos 2 t . The characteristic equation is r 2 +1 = 0 , which has roots ±i . Hence, the
yh ( t ) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t .
Using the trigonometric identity
1
cos t =
2
(1+ cos 2t )
the term on the right-hand side of the differential equation yields

12cos 2 t = 6 (1+ cos 2t ) .
Hence, we seek a particular solution of the form

y p ( t ) = Acos 2t + B sin 2t + C .
Substituting this into the differential equation yields

y′′ + y = −3Acos 2t − 3B sin 2t + C = 6 + 6cos 2t .
Comparing coefficients, we get A = −2 , B = 0 , C = 6 , so the general solution is
y ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t − 2cos 2t + 6 .
32. y′′ − y = 8tet . The characteristic equation is r 2 −1 = 0 , which has roots ±1. Hence, the homoge-
neous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1et + c2 e−t .
y p ( t ) = Atet + Bet ,
but one term in the homogeneous solution is linearly dependent on this term, so we seek
( )
y p ( t ) = et At 2 + Bt .

y ′′ − y = 4 Atet + ( 2 A + 2B ) et = 8tet ,
which gives the two equations 4A = 8 , 2A + 2B = 0 , which gives A = 2 , B = −2 . Hence, the
general solution is
y ( t ) = c1et + c2 e−t + 2tet ( t −1) .

33. y′′ − 4 y′ + 4 y = te 2t . The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r 2 − 4r + 4 = 0 ,

which has a double root of 2. Hence, the homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1e2t + c2 te2t .
of the form
y p ( t ) = Ate2t + Be2t ,
but both terms are linearly dependent with terms in the homogeneous solution, so we choose
() 3 2t
y p t = At e + Bt e .
2 2t
Differentiating and substituting this expression into the differential equation yields the algebraic
equation
y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 4 y = e 2t ( 0 + 0 + 6 At + 2B ) = te 2t .
1
Comparing coefficients, we get A = , B = 0 . Hence, the general solution is
6
1
y ( t ) = c1e 2t + c2te 2t + t 3e 2t .
6
34. y′′ − 4 y′ + 3y = 20cost . The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r 2 − 4r + 3 = 0 ,
which has roots 1, 3. Hence,
yh ( t ) = c1et + c2 e3t .
The term on the right-hand side of the differential equation indicates we seek
y p ( t ) = Acost + B sin t .

y ′′ − 4 y ′ + 3y = ( 4 A + 2B ) sin t + ( 2 A − 4B ) cos t = 20cos t .
Comparing coefficients yields A = 2 , B = −4 . Hence,
y ( t ) = c1et + c2 e3t + 2cost − 4sin t .
35. y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = et sin t . The characteristic equation of the differential equation is r 2 − 3r + 2 = 0 ,
which has roots 1, 2. Hence,
yh ( t ) = c1et + c2 e2t .
The term on the right-hand side of the equation indicates we seek a particular solution
y p ( t ) = Aet cos t + Bet sin t .

Differentiating and substituting this expression into the equation yields

y ′′ − 3y ′ + 2 y = ( A − B ) et sin t + ( − A − B ) et cos t = et sin t .
1 1
Comparing coefficients, we find A = , B = − , yielding the general solution
2 2
1
y ( t ) = c1et + c2e 2t + et ( cost − sin t ) .
2
36. y′′ + 3y′ = sin t + 2cos t . The characteristic equation is r 2 + 3r = 0 , which has roots 0, –3. Hence,
the homogeneous solution is
yh ( t ) = c1 + c2 e−3t .
The sine and cosine terms on the right-hand side of the equation indicate we seek a particular
y p ( t ) = Acost + B sin t .
Substituting this into the equation yields

y ′′ + 3y′ = ( − A + 3B ) cos t + ( −B − 3A ) sin t = sin t + 2cost .
1 1
Comparing terms, we arrive at ( − A + 3B ) = 2 , ( −B − 3A ) = 1 , yielding A = − , B = . From
2 2
this, that the general solution is
1
y ( t ) = c + c e −3t + ( sin t − cost ) .
1 2
2
37. y′′′ − 4 y′′ = 6t
(1) Find yh: r3 − 4r2 = 0 ⇒ r2(r − 4) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 0, 4
∴ yh = c1 + c2t + c3e4t
(2) Find yp: yP = t2(At + B) = At3 + Bt2
y p′ = 3At2 + 2Bt
y p′′ = 6At + 2B
y p′′′ = 6A
y p′′′ − 4 y p′′ = 6A − 4(6At + 2B) = −24At + 6A − 8B = 6t
coefficient of t: −24A = 6, coefficient of 1: 6A − 8B = 0

1 ⎛ 1⎞ 3 3
so that A = − , and 8B = 6 − = − so that B = − .
4 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠ 2 16
1 3
Hence yp = − t 3 − t 2
4 16
1 3
(3) y(t) = y + y = c + c t + c e 4t − t 3 − t 2
h p 1 2 3
4 16
38. y (3) − 3y′′ + 3y′ − y = et
(1) Find yh: r3 − 3r2 + 3r − 1 = 0 (characteristic equation)
f(r) =− r3 −3r2 + 3r − 1 = 0
f(1) = 1 − 3 + 3 − 1 = 0 so r = 1 is a root.
By long division, we obtain
r3 − 3r2 + 3r − 1 = (r − 1)(r2 − 2r + 1) = (r − 1)3 Triple root r = 1, 1, 1
yh = c1et + c2tet + c3t2et
(2) Find yp: yp = t3(Aet) = At3et
y p′ = At 3et + 3At 2 et
y p′′ = At 3et + 3At 2 et + 3At 2 et + 6 Atet = At 3et + 6 At 2 et + 6Atet
(3) 3 t 2 t 2 t t 2 t t t t
y p = At e + 3 At e + 3 At e + 6 Ate + 3 At e + 6 Ate + 6 Ate + 6 Ae
p − 3y′′
y (3) p + 3y′p − y p = At 3et + 9At 2 et +18Atet + 6Aet
− 3At 3et −18At 2 et −18Atet + 0et

+ 3At 3et + 9At 2 et + 0tet + 0et
− At 3et + 0t 2 et + 0tet + 0et

1
6Aet = et so that A =
6
1 3 t
Thus yp = t e
6
t t 2 t 1 3 t
(3) ()
y t = yh + y p = c1e + c2 te + c3t e + t e
6
39. y (4) − y = 10
(1) Find yh:

r4 − 1 = 0 (r 2 +1)(r 2 −1) = (r 2 +1)(r −1)(r +1) r = ±i, ± 1
yh = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + c3et + c4e−t

(2) Find yp:
yp = A, so that y ′ = y ′ = y ′′′ = y (4) = 0
p p p p
⇒ y (4) − y = 0 − A = 10 ⇒ A = −10 ⇒ y = −10

p p p
(3) y(t) = yh + y p = c1 cost + c2 sin t + c3et + c4 e −t −10
40. y′′′ = y′′ ⇒ y′′′ − y ′ = 0
(1) Find yh: r3 − r2 = 0 ⇒ r2(r − 1) = 0 r = 0, 0, 1
(2) There is no yp because the DE is homogeneous.
(3) y(t) = c1 + c2t + c3et
41. y′′ + y′ − 2 y = 3 − 6t, y(0) = −1, y′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:
r2 + r − 2 = 0 ⇒ (r − 1)(r + 2) = 0 ⇒ r = 1, −2
∴ yh = c1et + c2e−2t
(2) Find yp: yp = At + B, y ′p = A, y ′p′ = 0 ⇒ y ′p′ + y ′p − 2 y p = A − 2( At + B) = 3 − 6t
coefficient of t: −2A = −6, coefficient of 1: A − 2B = 3 ⇒ A = 3, B = 0

∴ yp = 3t
(3) y(t) = yh + yp = c1et + c2e−2t + 3t; y′ = c1et − 2c2 e −2t + 3
y(0) = −1 ⇒ c1 + c2 = −1; y ′(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 − 2c2 + 3 = 0
5
c + c = −1 c =−
1 2 1
3
⇒
2
c − 2c = −3 c =
1 2 2
3
5 2
∴ y = − et + e −2t + 3t
3 3
42. y′′ + 4 y′ + 4 y = te −t , y(0) = −1, y′(0) = 1
(1) Find yh:
r2 + 4r + 4 = 0 ⇒ (r + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ r = −2, −2
∴ yh = c1e−2t + c2te−2t = (c1 + c2t)e−2t
(2) Find yp:

yp = e−t(At + B) ⇒ y′p = −e −t ( At + B) + Ae −t
⇒ y′′p = e −t ( At + B) − Ae −t − Ae −t = e −t ( At + B) − 2 Ae −t
So y′p′ + 4 y′p + 4 y p = e −t ( At + B) − 2 Ae−t + 4(−e −t ( At + B) + Ae −t ) + 4e −t ( At + B)
= e −t ( At + 2A + B)
This gives A = 1, 2A + B = 0 and so A = 1 and B = −2.
Therefore yp = e−t(t − 2).

(3) y = yh + yp = c1e−2t + c2te−2t + e−t(t − 2)
y ′ = −2c1e−2t + c2 e −2t − 2c2 te−2t − e −t (t − 2) + e −t
y(0) = −1 ⇒ c1 − 2 = −1 c1 = 1
⇒
y′(0) = 1⇒ −2c1 + c2 + 2 +1 = 1 c2 = 0
∴ y(t) = e−2t + e−t(t − 2)

43. y′′ + 4 y = t, y(0) = 1, y′(0) = −1
(1) Find yh: r2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ r = ± 2i ⇒ yh = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t

(2) Find yp: yp = At + B, y ′p = A, y ′p′ = 0
∴ y ′p′ + 4 y p = 4( At + b) = 4At + 4B = t
1
coefficient of t: 4A = 1, coefficient of 1: 4B = 0 ⇒ A = ,B = 0
4
1
∴ yp = t
4
1 1
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t + t , y′ = −2c1 sin 2t + 2c2 cos 2t +
4 4
1 5 5
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 = 1; y′(0) = −1 ⇒ 2c2 + = −1 ⇒ 2c2 = − ⇒ c2 = −
4 4 8
5 1
∴ y(t) = cos 2t − sin 2t + t
8 4
44. y′′ + 2 y′ + y = 6cost, y(0) =1, y′(0) = −1
(1) Find yh: r2 + 2r + 1 = 0 ⇒ (r + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1, −1
yh = c1e−t + c2te−t
(2) Find yp: yp = A cos t + B sin t , y ′p = − Asin t + B cos t, y′p′ = − Acos t − B sin t
⇒ y′p′ + 2 y′p + y p = − Acos t − B sin t

+ 2(B cos t − Asin t)
+ Acost + B sin t
2B cos t − 2A sin t = 6 cost
coefficient of cos t: 2B = 6, coefficient of sin t: −2A = 0 ⇒ A = 0, B = 3
∴ yp = 3 sin t
(3) y = yh + yp = c1e −t + c2 te−t + 3sin t, y′ = −c1e −t − c2 te−t + c2 e−t + 3cos t
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 = 1; y′(0) = −1 ⇒ −c1 + c2 + 3 = −1 ⇒ c2 = −3
∴ y(t) = e −t − 3te −t + 3sin t
45. 4 y′′ + y = cos 2t, y(0) = 1, y′(0) = 0

1 1 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
(1) Find yh: 4r2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ r2 = − ⇒ r = ± i ⇒ yh = c cos ⎜ t ⎟ + c sin ⎜ t ⎟
1 2
4 2 ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
(2) Find yp: yp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t, y ′p = −2 Asin 2t + 2B cos 2t, y ′p′ = −4 Acos 2t − 4B sin 2t
⇒ 4 y ′p′ + y p = −16 Acos 2t −16B sin 2t + Acos 2t + B sin 2t
= −15Acos 2t −15B sin 2t = cos 2t
coefficient of cos 2t: −15A = 1, coefficient of sin 2t: −15 B = 0

1
⇒ A= − ,B=0
15
1
∴ yp = − cos 2t
15
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ 1
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 cos ⎜ t ⎟ + c2 sin ⎜ t ⎟ − cos 2t
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 15
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
y′ = − c sin t + c cos t + sin 2t
2
1 ⎜2 ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ 15
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 16
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 − = 1 ⇒ c1 =
15 15
y ′(0) = 0 ⇒ c2 = 0
16 ⎛1 ⎞ 1
∴ y(t) = cos ⎜ t ⎟ − cos 2t
15 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 15
46. y′′ + 9 y = cos3t, y(0) =1, y′(0) = −1
(1) Find yh: r2 + 9 = 0 r = ± 3i
yh = c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t
(2) Find yp: yp = t(A cos 3t + B sin 3t)

y′p = t(−3Asin 3t + 3B cos3t) + ( Acos3t + B sin 3t)
y ′p′ = t(−9 Acos 3t − 9B sin 3t) + (−3Asin 3t + 3B cos3t) − 3Asin 3t + 3B cos 3t

y ′p′ + 9 y p = (9 A − 9A)t cos3t + (9B − 9B)t sin 3t + (6B) cos 3t + (−6 Asin 3t) = cos 3t
coefficient of cos 3t: 6B = 1, coefficient of sin 3t: −6A = 0

1 1
⇒ A = 0, B = so that yp = t sin 3t
6 6
1
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 cos 3t + c2 sin 3t + t sin 3t ,
6
1 1
y′ = −3c1 sin 3t + 3c2 cos 3t + t cos3t + sin 3t
2 6
1
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 = 1; y′(0) = −1 ⇒ 3c2 = −1 ⇒ c2 = −
3
1 1
∴ y(t) = cos3t − sin 3t + t sin 3t
3 6
47. y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = 4e −t , y(0) = 1, y′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:
r2 − 3r + 2 = 0 ⇒ (r − 1)(r − 2) = 0 ⇒ r = 1, r = 2, so that yh = c1et + c2e2t

(2) Find yp:
yp = Ae−t, y ′ = − Ae −t , y ′ = Ae−t
p p
2 2
y′p′ − 3y′p + 2 y p = Ae −t − 3(− Ae −t ) + 2 Ae −t = 6 Ae −t = 4e −t so that A = ⇒ yp = e −t
3 3
2 −t 2
(3) y = yh + yp = c1et + c2e2t + e , y′ = c1et + 2c2 e 2t − e −t
3 3
2 1
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 + c2 + =1 c 1 + c2 = c1 = 0
3 3
⇒ ⇒
2 2 1
y′(0) = 0 ⇒ c + 2c − =0 c + 2c = c =
1 2 1 2 2
3 3 3
1 2t 2 −t
Thus y(t) = e + e .
3 3
48. y′′ − 4 y′ + 3y = e −t + t, y(0) = 0, y′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:
r2 − 4r + 3 = 0 ⇒ (r − 1)(r − 3) = 0 so that yh = c1et + c2e3t

(2) Find yp:
yp = Ae−t + Bt + C, y ′p = − Ae −t + B, y′′p = Ae −t
Thus y′p′ − 4 y′p + 3y p = Ae −t − 4(− Ae −t + B) + 3( Ae −t + Bt + C)
= Ae −t − 4(− Ae −t + B) + 3( Ae −t + Bt + C)
= 8Ae−t + 3Bt − 4B + 3C = e−t + t
⇒ 8A = 1, 3B = 1, −4B + 3C = 0
1 1 4 4
⇒A = ,B= , C= B= .
8 3 3 9
1 1 4
Thus, yp = e −t + t + .
8 3 9
(3) Find y:
1 1 4
y = yh + yp = c1et + c2e3t + e −t + t + .
8 3 9
1 1
y′ = c1et + 3c2e3t − e −t + .
8 3
1 4 41 3
y(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + c2 + + =0 c1 + c2 = − c1 = −
8 9 72 4
⇒ ⇒
1 1 5 13
y′(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + 3c2 − + =0 c1 + 3c2 = − c2 =
8 3 24 72
3 13 1 1 4
Therefore, y(t) = − et + e3t + e −t + t + .
4 72 8 3 9
49. y′′ − y′ − 2 y = 4 cos 2t, y(0) = 0, y′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:
r2 − r − 2 = 0 ⇒ (r + 1)(r − 2) = 0 so r = 2, −1
yh = c1e−t + c2e2t
(2) Find yp:
yp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t, y ′p = −2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t
y′p′ = −4A cos 2t − 4B sin 2t
y′p′ − y′p − 2 y p = −4A cos 2t − 4B sin 2t + 2A sin 2t − 2B cos 2t − 2A cos 2t − 2B sin 2t
= (−6A − 2B) cos 2t + (2A − 6B) sin 2t = 4 cos 2t
∴ coefficient of cos 2t: −6A − 2B = 4, coefficient of sin 2t: 2A − 6B = 0

1 3
so A = 3B and B = − ⇒ A= −
5 5
3 1
Thus yp = − cos 2t − sin 2t .
5 5
3 1
(3) y = yh + yp = c1e−t + c2e2t − cos 2t − sin 2t
5 5
6 2
y′ = −c1e−t + 2c2e2t + sin 2t − cos 2t
5 5
3 3 4
y(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + c2 − =0 c1 + c2 = c1 =
5 5 15
⇒ ⇒
2 2 1
y′(0) = 0 ⇒ −c1 + 2c2 − = 0 −c1 + 2c2 = c2 =
5 5 3
4 −t 1 2t 3 1
∴ y(t) = e + e − cos 2t − sin 2t
15 3 5 5
50. y′′′ − 4 y′′ + 3y′ = t 2 , y(0) = 1, y′(0) = 0, y ′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:

r3 − 4r2 + 3r = 0 ⇒ r(r2 − 4r + 3) = 0
r(r − 3)(r − 1) = 0, so r = 0, 1, 3
yh = c1 + c2et + c3e3t
(2) Find yp:
yp = t(At2 + Bt + C) = At3 + Bt2 + Ct

y′p = 3At2 + 2Bt + C, y′p′ = 6At + 2B, y′p′′ = 6A
y ′p′′ − 4 y′p′ + 3y ′p = 6A − 24At − 8B + 9At2 + 6Bt + 3C = t2
coefficient of t2: 9A = 1, coefficient of t: −24A + 6 B = 0,
coefficient of 1: 6A − 8B + 3C = 0
1 4 26
A= ,B= , C=
9 9 27
1 3 4 2 26
∴ yp = t + t + t
9 9 27
1 4 26
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 + c2et + c3e3t + t3 + t2 + t
9 9 27
Using this general solution and the initial conditions we obtain:

161 2 t 8 3t 1 3 4 2 26
y(t) = − e − e + t + t + t
81 3 81 9 9 27
51. y(4) − y = e2t, y(0) = y′(0) = y ′(0) = y ′(0) = 0
(a) Find yh:
r4 − 1 = 0 ⇒ (r2 + 1)(r2 − 1) ⇒ r = ± i, ± 1

(2) Find yp:
yp = Ae2t, y′p = 2Ae2t, y′′p = 4Ae2t, y′′′p = 8Ae2t, y (4)
p = 16Ae2t
1 1
Thus y (4) − y = 16Ae2t − Ae2t = e2t ⇒ 15Ae2t = e2t ⇒ A = so that y = e 2t .
p p p
15 15
1 2t
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 cos t + c2 sin t + c3et + c4e−t + e
15
2
y′ = −c1 sin t + c2 cos t + c3 et − c4e−t + e 2t
15
4 2t
y′′ = −c1 cos t − c2 sin t + c3 et + c4e−t + e
15
8 2t
y′′′ = c1 sin t − c2 cos t + c3 et − c4e−t + e
15
1
y(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + c3 + c4 + =0
15
2
y ′(0) = 0 ⇒ c + c − c + =0
2 3 4
15
4
y ′′(0) = 0 ⇒ −c + c + c + =0
1 3 4
15
8
y ′′′(0) = 0 ⇒ −c + c − c + =0
2 3 4
15
From these 4 equations in 4 unknowns, we obtain (by the methods of Chapter 3),
1 1 1 1
c1 = , c2 = , c3 = − and c4 =
10 5 4 12
1 1 1 1 1
∴ y(t) = cos t + sin t − et + e −t + e 2t
10 5 4 12 15
52. y(4) = et, y(0) = 1, y′(0) = 0, y′′(0) = 0 , y′′′(0) = 0
(1) Find yh:

r4 = 0 ⇒ r = 0 (multiplicity 4)
yh = c1 + c2t + c3t2 + c4t3

(2) Find yp:

yp = Aet, y′p = Aet, y p′ = Aet, y′′′p = Aet, y (4)
p = Aet
y (4)
p = Aet = et ⇒ A = 1 so that yp = et
(3) y = yh + yp = c1 + c2t + c3t2 + c4t3 + et

y′ = c2 + 2c3t + 3c4t2 + et
y′′ = 2c3 + 6c4t + et
y′′′ = 6c4 + et
y(0) = 1 ⇒ c1 + 1 = 1 ⇒ c1 = 0
y ′(0) = 0 ⇒ c2 +1 = 0 ⇒ c2 = −1
1
y ′′(0) = 0 ⇒ 2c +1 = 0 ⇒ c = −
3 3
2
1
y ′′′(0) = 0 ⇒ 6c +1 = 0 ⇒ c = −
4 4
6
1 1
∴ y(t) = −t − t 2 − t 3 + et
2 6
⎛t⎞
53. 4 y′′ + y = t − cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
Find yh: yh = c1 cos ⎜ t ⎟ + c2 sin ⎜ t ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Find yp: y p1 = At + B
⎛ ⎛t⎞ ⎛ t ⎞⎞
y p2 = t ⎜ c cos ⎜ ⎟ + D sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
⎛t⎞ ⎛t⎞
∴ y p (t) = y p1 + y p2 = At + B + Ct cos ⎜ ⎟ + Dt sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
54. y′′′ − y′′ = t 2 + et
Find yh:
r3 − r2 = 0 ⇒ r2(r − 1) = 0 ⇒ r = 0, 0, 1
∴ yh = c1 + c2t + c3et
Find yp:
y p1 = t 2 ( At 2 + Bt + C), y p2 = t(Det )
4 3 2 t
∴ ()
y p t = y p1 + y p2 = At + Bt + Ct + Dte
55. y′′ − 5y′ + 6 y = cost − tet
Find yh:
r2 − 5r + 6 = 0 ⇒ (r − 2)(r − 3) = 0 ⇒ r = 2, 3
∴ yh = c1e2t + c2e3t
Find yp:
y p1 = Acost + B sin t, y p2 = et (Ct + D)
∴ y p (t) = y p1 + y p2 = Acos t + B sin t + et (Ct + D)
56. y(4) − y = tet + sin t
r4 − 1 = 0 ⇒ (r2 + 1)(r2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ r = ± i, ±1

y p1 = tet ( At + B) , y p2 = t(C cost + D sin t)
∴ y p (t) = et ( At 2 + Bt) + Ct cost + Dt sin t
 Judicious Superposition
57. (a) The characteristic equation is r 2 − r − 6 = 0 has roots r = 3 , –2, so the general solution is
() 3t
yh t = c1e + c2 e
−2t
.
(b) (i) Substituting y p ( t ) = Aet yields
Aet − Aet − 6Aet = et ,

1 1
which yields A = − . Hence, y p ( t ) = − et .
6 6
(ii) Substituting y p ( t ) = Ae −t yields

or A Ae −t + Ae −t − 6Ae −t = e −t
1 −t
. Hence, y p ( t ) = − 4 e .
1
=−
4
(c) Calling L ( y ) = y′′ − y ′ − 6 y we found in part (b) that
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
L ⎜ − et ⎟ = et , and L ⎜ − e −t ⎟ = e −t .
6 4
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1
Multiplying each equation by and using basic properties of derivatives yields
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
L ⎜ − et ⎟ = et , and L ⎜ − et ⎟ = e −t
12 2 8 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
and
⎛ 1
⎝ 12
1 ⎞ 1
L ⎜ − et − e −t ⎟ = et + e −t = cosh t .
8 ⎠ 2
( )
Hence, a solution of y ′ − y′ − 6 y = cosh t is
1 1
yp
(t ) = − e
t
−
e
−t
.
12 8
 Wholesale Superposition
58. We first solve the equation
tn
y′ + y =
n!
first getting the homogeneous

yh ( t ) = ce −t .
To find a particular solution, we try

( n)
() n n−1
yp t = An t + An−1t + … + A1t + A0 .
Substituting this into the equation yields

tn
⎡ nA t n−1 + ( n − )A (
t n−2 +…+ A + A t n + A t n−1 +…+ A t + A =
⎤
) .
n 1 n−1 1 n n−1 1 0
n!
⎣ ⎦
Comparing coefficients, we have

1
An =
n!
−1
An−1 =
( −1)!
n
1
A =
n−2
( n − 2 )!
−1
An−3 = ,
( − 3 )!
n
and so on. Hence, we have

n n−1 n−2
( n) t t t
yp = − + −… .
n! ( n −1)! ( n − 2 )!
Further, we have
y (p0 ) ( t ) = 1
y (p1) ( t ) = t −1
t2
y (p2 ) ( t ) = − t +1
2!
t3 t2
y (p ) ( t ) = − + t −1
3
3! 2!
4
t t3 t2
y (p ) ( t ) = − + − t + 1
4
4! 3! 2!
… … … …
n n−1 n−2
t t t
y (pn ) ( t ) = − + −…
n! ( n −1)! ( n − 2 )!
By superposition, the sum of these solutions is a solution of y′ + y = et . (We agree our discussion
is formal in the sense that we have proven superposition for finite sums.) There is a slight
problem in adding the preceding functions because the sum changes form depending on whether
we add an even or odd number of terms. We have
t2 t 4 t 2n
S 2n = y (p0 ) ( t ) + y (p1) ( t ) +… y (p2n ) ( t ) = 1+ + +…+
2! 4! ( 2n )!
t3 t 5 t 2n+1
S 2n+1 = y (p ) ( t ) + y (p ) ( t ) +… y (p ) ( t ) = t + + +…+
0 1 2n+1
3! 5! ( 2n +1)!
However, because the sequence S n converges, it converges to the average of the nth and
( n +1) st terms. That is,
1 1⎛ t2 t3 ⎞ 1 t
( S2n + S 2n+1 ) = ⎜1+ t + + +… ⎟ = e
2 2⎝ 2! 3! ⎠ 2
1 t
Hence, we found y p ( t ) = e .
2
 Discontinuous Forcing Functions

⎧2 0 ≤ t < 4 y(0) = y′(0) = 0
59. y′′ + y′ = ⎨
⎩1 t ≥ 4
Part 1: y1′′ + y1′ = 2 y1(0) = y1′ (0) = 0
Find (y1)h: r2 + r = 0
r(r + 1) = 0 r = 0, −1 (y1)h = c1 + c2e−t
Find (y)p: (y1)p = 2t by inspection, so
y1 = c1 + c2e−t + 2t 0 = c 1 + c2
⇒ ⇒ c2 = 2, c1 = −2
y1′ = −c2 e −t + 2 0 = −c + 2
2
∴ y1 = −2 + 2e−t + 2t
Part 2: y2′′ + y2′ = 1
y2 = c1 + c2e−t + t y2(4) = y1(4) = −2 + 2e−4 + 8 = 6 + 2e−4

y′2 = −c2e−t + 1 y2′ (4) = y1′ (4) = −2e −4 + 2
Thus, when t = 4,
6 + 2e −4 = c + c e −4 + 4
1 2
−4 −4
−2e + 2 = −c2 e +1
8 = c1 + 5 ⇒ c1 = 3
−4 −4
−2e + 1 = −c2e ⇒ −2 + e4 = −c2 ⇒c2 = 2 − e4
∴ y2 = 3 + (2e − e4)e−t + t
⎧⎪−2 + 2e −t + 2t 0≤t <4
and y(t) = ⎨
3 + (2 − e 4 )e −t + t t≥4
⎧cos t 0≤t ≤π y(0) = 1, y′(0) = 0

60. y′′ + 16 y = ⎨
⎩0 t >π
Part 1: y1′′ +16 y1 = cost 0≤t≤π y1(0) = 1, y1′ (0) = 0
Find (y1)h: (y1)h = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t
Find (y1)p : (y1)p = A cos t + B sin t

1
⇒ B = 0, A =
( y1 )′p′ = − Acost − B sin t 15
1
Therefore, y1 = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t + cos t
15
1
y1′ = −4c1 sin 4t + 4c2 cos 4t − sin t
15
1 14
y1(0) = 1 = c1 + c1 = −
15 15
⇒
y1′ (0) = 0 = 4c2 c2 = 0
14 1
∴ y1(t) = − cos 4t + cos t
15 15
Part 2: y2′′ +16 y2 = 0 t>π
y2 = c1 cos 4t + c2 sin 4t
y2′ = −4c1 sin 4t + 4c2 cos 4t
14 1 13 13
y1(π) = − + = − = y2 (π ) = −c1 c1 = −
15 15 15 15
y1′(π ) = 4 = y2′ (π ) = 4c2 c2 = 1
13
Thus y2(t) = − cos 4t + sin 4t
15
⎧ 14 1
− cos 4t + cost 0≤t ≤π
⎪
and y(t) = ⎨ 15 15
⎪− 13 cos 4t + sin 4t t >π

⎪⎩ 15
 Solutions of Differential Equations Using Complex Functions

61. y′′ − 2 y′ + y = 2sin t
The homogeneous solution is yh = c1et + c2tet.

For the particular solution we use y′′ − 2 y′ + y = 2eit and seek the imaginary part of the particular
solution.
We let yp = Aeit. Then y′p = iAeit and y p′ = −Aeit.
By substitution, we obtain
−Aeit − 2iAeit + Aeit = 2eit

−1
−2iA = 2 A= − =i
i
yp = ieit = i(cos t + i sin t) = i cos t − sin t
Im(yp) = cos t
∴ y(t) = yh + Im yp = c1et + c2tet + cos t

62. y′′ + 25y = 6sin t We will use y′′ + 25y = 6eit
The homogeneous solution is yh = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t

For the particular solution we want Im(yp) where yp = Aeit; y ′ = iAeit and y ′ = − Aeit
p p
−Aeit + 25Aeit = 6eit

1
24A = 6 so that A =
4
⎛1 ⎞ 1
Im(yp) = Im ⎜ eit ⎟ = sin t
⎝4 ⎠ 4
1
∴ y(t) = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t + sin t
4
We will use y′′ + 25 y = 20e

i5t
63. y′′ + 25y = 20sin 5t
The homogeneous solution is yh = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t
For the particular solution we note that e5it is included in yh, so we must use an extra factor of t in
yp. We want Im(yp) where yp = Ate5it, so y′p = A(t5ie5it + e5it ) ,
and y′p′ = A5i(t5ie + e ) + Ai5e = A(10ie − 25te ) .

5it 5it 5it 5it 5it
A(10ie −5i − 25te5it ) + 25Ate5it = 20e5it so that 10Ai = 20. Thus A = −2i and yp = −2ite5it.
Im(yp) = Im ( −2it(cos5t + i sin 5t) ) = −2t cos 5t
y = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t− 2t cos 5t
 Complex Exponents
64. y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = 3e 2it
The homogeneous solution is yh = c1et + c2e2t.
We seek a particular solution of the form yp = Ae2it.

Then y′ = 2iAe2it and y′′ = −4 Ae2it .
−4Ae 2it − 3(2iAe 2it ) + 2( Ae 2it ) = 3e 2it
−2 Ae 2it − 6Aie 2it = 3e 2it
− A(2 + 6i) = 3
−3 2 −6i −3 9
A= ⋅ = + i
2 + 6i 2 − 6i 20 20
⎛ −3 9 ⎞ ⎛ −3 9 ⎞
y p = ⎜ + i ⎟e 2it = ⎜ + i ⎟(cos 2t + i sin 2t
20 20 20 20
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ −3 9 ⎞ ⎛ 9 3 ⎞
= ⎜ cos 2t − sin 2t ⎟ + i ⎜ cos 2t − sin 2t ⎟
20 20 20 20
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
It can be verified directly by substitution that

3 9
Re(yp) = − cos 2t − sin 2t satisfies
20 20
y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = 3cos 2t

9 3
and that Im(yp) = cos 2t − sin 2t satisfies
20 20
y′′ − 3y′ + 2 y = 3sin 2t
65. Student Project

395 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.5 Variation of Parameters 395
4.5 Variation of Parameters
 Straight Stuff
1. y′′ + y = 4t
The homogeneous solutions to the equation are y1(t) = 1 and y2 (t) = e−t .
To find a particular solution of the form y p ( t ) = v1 + v2 e −t , we solve the equations
v′1 + e −t v′2 = 0
−e −t v′ = 0.
for v1′ , v′2 . This gives v1′ = 4t and v′2 = −4tet .
Integrating yields v1 ( t ) = 2t 2 and v2 ( t ) = 4et (1 − t ) .
Hence, we have a particular solution
()
y p t = y1v1 + y2 v2 = 1 2t
( ) + e ( 4e (1− t )) = 2t
2 −t t 2
− 4t + 4 .
Combining the constant term with the homogeneous solution, we write the general solution as
y(t) = c1 + c2e−t + 2t 2 − 4t .
2. y′′ − y′ = e−t
The homogeneous solutions to the equation are y1(t) = 1 and y2 (t) = et .
To find a particular solution of the form y p ( t ) = v1 y1 + v2 y2 = v1 + v2 et , we solve
v′1 + et v′2 = 0
et v′2 = e −t .
This gives v1′ = −e−t and v′2 = e−2t .
−t 1 −2t
Integrating yields v1 ( t ) = e and v2 ( t ) = − e .

2
1( )+ e ⎛− 1 e ⎞ 1 1
() −t t −2t −t −t −t
y p t = y1v1 + y2 v2 = e ⎜ ⎟=e − 2e = e .
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
The general solution is t
y ( t ) = c1 + c2 e
+
1
e
−
.
2
1
3. y′′ − 2y′ + y = et , (t > 0)
t
The two linear independent solutions y1 and y2 of the homogeneous equation are
y1(t) = et and y2 (t) = tet .
Using the method of variation of parameters, we seek the particular solution

y p ( t ) = v1 ( t ) et + v2 ( t ) tet .
In order for y p (t) to satisfy the differential equation, υ1 and υ 2 must satisfy
y1v′1 + y2 v′2 = et v′te

1
t
v′2 = 0
1 .
y v′ + y v′ = et v′et (t +1)v′ = et
1 1 2 2 1 2
t
1
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v′2 we obtain v1′ ( t ) = −1 and v′2 = .
t
Integrating gives the values v1 ( t ) = −t and v2 = ln t .
Substituting these values into y p yields the particular solution
y p (t) = −tet + tet ln t .
Hence, the general solution is y(t) = c1et + c2tet + tet ln t .
4. y′′ + y = csc t
The two linearly independent solutions y1 and y2 of the homogeneous equation are
y1(t) = cost and y2 (t) = sin t .
Using the method of variation of parameters, we seek the particular solution

y p ( t ) = v1 ( t ) cost + v2 ( t ) sin t .
In order for y p (t) to satisfy the differential equation, v1 and v2 must satisfy
y1v1′ + y2 v′2 = (cost)v1′ + (sin t)v′2 = 0

y1v1′ + y2 v′2 = (−sin t)v1′ + (cost)v′2 = csct.
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v′2 we obtain v1′ ( t ) = −1 and v′2 = cot t .
Integrating gives the values v1 ( t ) = −t and v2 = ln ( sin t ) .
Substituting these values into y p yields the particular solution
y p ( t ) = −t cost + sin t ln ( sin t ) .

Hence, the general solution is y ( t ) = c1 cost + c2 sin t − t cos t + sin t ln ( sin t ) .
5. y′′ + y = sec t tan t
The homogeneous solutions are y1(t) = cost and y2 (t) = sin t .

We seek the solution y p ( y ) = ( cost ) v1 + ( sin t ) v2 .
(cost)v′1 (sin t)v′2 = 0

We form the system .
−(sin t)v1′ + (cos t)v′2 = sec t tan t.
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v′2 yields v1′ ( t ) = − tan 2 t and v′2 = tan t .
Integrating gives the values v1 = tan t − t and v2 = ln sect .
The particular solution is y p = (tan t − t)cost + sin t ln sec t = sin t − t cost + sin t ln sec t .
Thus, the general solution is y(t) = c1 cost + c2 sin t − t cost + sin t ln sec t .
6. y′′ − 2y′ + 2y = et sin t
The homogeneous solutions are y1(t) = et cost and y2 (t) = et sin t .

t t
To find a particular solution of the form y p ( t ) = v2 e cost + v2 e sin t ,
we solve the equations et cos tv′1 + et sin tv′2 = 0
( e cost − e sin t ) v′ + ( e sin t + e cos t ) v′ = e sin t

t t
1
t t
2
t
for v1′ and v′2 . This yields v1′ = −sin 2 t and v′2 = sin t cos t .
1 1
Integrating yields the functions v1 ( t ) =
2
( −t + cos t sin t ) and v2 ( t ) = sin 2 t .
2
Hence, a particular solution
et sin t ( sin 2 t ) =
1 1 1
y (t ) = y v + y v = et cos t ( −t + cost sin t ) + et ( sin t − t cost )
p 1 1 2 2
2 2 2

1
y(t) = c1et cost + c2et sin t − tet cost .
2
1
7. y′′ − 3y′ + 2y =
1 + e−t
The homogeneous solutions are y1(t) = et and y2 (t) = e2t .
Hence we seek the particular solution y ( y) = e t v + e 2t v to form the system
p 1 2
et v′1 + e 2t v′2 = 0
1
et v′1 + 2e 2t v′2 = .
1+ e −t
−e −t e −2t
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v′2 yields v1′ = and v′2 = .
1+ e −t 1+ e−t
−t
The first integral is trivial; v1 = ln(1+ e ).
The second one is more difficult. However, if we perform some algebra, we can write
e −2t e −t (1+ e −t ) − e −t e −t
v′ = = = e −t − , which integrates to give v = −e −t + ln (1+ e −t ) .
2
1+ e −t 1+ e −t 1+ e −t
2
With υ1 and υ2 we have the particular solution

b g
y p = et ln 1 + e −t − et + e2t ln 1 + e−t b g
y ( t ) = c1e + c2 e + e + e
t 2t
( t 2t
) ln (1+ e ) . −t
(The term −et in yp was absorbed in the homogeneous solution, giving a better form for the
solution.)
8. y′′ + 2y′ + y = e−t ln t , (t > 0)
The homogeneous solutions are y1(t ) = e−t and y2 (t ) = te−t .
We seek a particular solution y ( y) = e v1 + te v2 to form the system
−t −t
p
e−t v1′ + te −t v′2 = 0

−e −t v′1 + (e −t − te −t )v′2 = e−t ln t.
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v′2 , yields v1′ = −t ln t and v′2 = ln t .
1 1
Integrating yields v1 = − t 2 ln t + t 2 and v2 = t ln t − t .
2 4
1 2 −t 1 2 −t 2 −t 2 −t 2 −t ⎛1 3⎞
ln ln ln .
=− + + − = ⎜ − ⎟
yp t e t t e t e t t e t e t
2 4 ⎝2 4⎠
1
Thus the general solution is y(t) = c1e−t + c2te−t + t 2e−t (2 ln t − 3).
4
9. y′′ + 4 y = tan 2t
os 2t + c2 sN
yh = c1 cN in 2t
y1 y2
(− tan 2t)(sin 2t) 1 sin 2 2t 1 1− cos 2 2t 1

v1 = ∫ dt = − ∫ dt = − ∫ dt = − ∫ sec 2t − cos 2t dt
2 2 cos 2t 2 cos 2t 2
=−
1
4
( ln sec 2t + tan 2t − sin 2t )
tan 2t cos 2t 1
v2 = ∫ dt = − cos 2t
2 4
So yp = y1v1 + y2v2 = − cos 2t ( ln sec 2t + tan 2t − sin 2t ) − sin 2t cos 2t .

1 1
4 4
General solution: y(t) = c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t + yp.

10. y′′ + 5y′ + 6 y = cos(et )
−2t −3t
yh = c1 eN + c2 eN
y1 y2
v1 = ∫
( − cos(e ) ) e
t −3t
dt = ∫ e 2t cos(et )dt = et sin(et ) + cos(et )

−e −5t
e −2t cos(et )
v2 = ∫ dt = −∫ e3t cos(et )dt = 2sin(et ) − e 2t sin(et ) = 2et cos(et )
−e−5t
( ) (
So yp = y1v1 + y2v2 = e −2t et sin(et ) + cos(et ) + e −3t 2sin(et ) − e 2t sin(et ) − 2et cos(et ) )
= 2e −3t sin(et ) − e −2t cos(et )
General solution: y(t) = c1e−2t + c2e−3t + yp.

11. y′′ + y = sec 2 t
ost + c2 sN
yh = c1 cN in t
y1 y2
v1 = ∫ (−sec 2 t)sin dt = ∫ (−sect tan t)dt = −sect
v2 = ∫ sec2 t cost dt = ∫ sect dt = ln sect + tan t
So, yp = y1v1 + y2v2 = − cos t sect + sin t ln sect + tan t

= −1+ sin t ln sect + tan t
General solution: y(t) = cos1 cos t + c2 sin t −1+ sin t ln sect + tan t
et
12. y′′ − y =
t
−t
yh = c1 eNt + c2 eN
y1 y2
1 ⎛ e ⎞ −t
t
1 1 1
v = (e )dt = dt = ln t
2∫ t 2∫t
1 ⎜ ⎟
2
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ et ⎞ t 1 e 2t 1 t e2s
2∫ ⎝ t ⎠ 2∫ t 2 ∫ t0 s
v2 = − ⎜ ⎟ e dt = − dt = − ds
1 1 −t t e 2 s
So yp = v1y1 + v2y2 = et ln t − e ∫ ds
2 2 t0 s
General solution: y(t) = c1et + c2e−t + yp
 Variable Coefficients
13. t 2 y′′ − 2ty′ + 2y = t 3 sin t , y1(t) = t , y2 (t) = t 2
We begin by dividing the equation by t 2 , to get the proper form for using variation of parameters.
2 2
y′′ − y′ + 2 y = t sin t .
t t
Substitution verifies that y1 and y2 for a fundamental set of solution to the associated
homogeneous equation, so yh = c t + c t 2 ,
we seek a particular solution y p ( y )1= v 1t 2+ v 2t 2 ,
1 2
where v1 and v2 satisfy the conditions tv′ + t 2 v′ = 0
v′1 + 2t 2 v′2 = t sin t
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v2′ , yields v1′ = −t sin t and v2′ = sin t .
Integrating yields v1 = t cost − sin t and v2 = − cost .

Thus, y p (t) = t 2 cost − t sin t − t 2 cost = −t sin t .
Hence, the general solution of this equation is y(t) = c1t + c2t 2 − t sin t .
14. b g
t 2 y′′ + ty′ − 4y = t 2 1 + t 2 , y1(t) = t 2 , y2 (t) = t −2
We begin by dividing the equation by t 2 , to get the proper form for using variation of parameters:
1 4
y′′ + y′ − 2 y = 1 + t 2 .
t t
Substitution verifies that y1 and y2 form a fundamental set of solutions to the associated
homogeneous equation, so yh = c1t 2 + c2t −2 .
We seek a particular solution y p ( y ) = v′1t 2 + v 2t −2 ,
where υ1 and υ 2 satisfy the conditions t 2 v′ + t −2 v′ = 0

1 2
2tv′1 − 2t −3v′2 = 1+ t 2 .
1+ t 2 −t 3 (1+ t 2 )
Solving algebraically for v1′ and v2′ yields v1′ = and v2′ = .
4t 4
1 1 1 4 1 6
Integrating yields v1 = ln t + t 2 and v2 = − t − t .
4 8 16 24
2 4
1 1 t t
Thus, y (t) = t 2 ln t + t 4 − − .
p
4 8 16 24
1 1
Hence, the general solution of this equation is bg
y t = c1t 2 + c2t −2 + t ln t + t 4 .
4 12
(Notice that the term t 2 in yp can be absorbed in the homogeneous solution.)
15. (1 − t)y′′ + ty′ − y = 2(t − 1)2 e−t , y (t) = t , y t = et bg
1 2
We begin by dividing the equation by (1− t) , to get the proper form for variation of parameters
t 1
y′′ +
1− t
y′ −
1− t
y = 2 t −1 e −t b g
Susbtitution verifies that y1 and y2 form a fundamental set of solutions to the associated
homogeneous equation, so yh = c1t + c2 et
We seek a particular solution y p ( y ) = v1t + v2 e t ,
1 2
where v1 and v2 satisfy the conditions t v′ + et v′ = 0
v′1 + et v′2 = −2(t −1)e −t

Solving algebraically for v1′ and v2′ yields v1′ = 2e−t and v2′ = −2te−2t . Integrating
−t −2t ⎛ 1⎞
yields v1 = −2e and v2 = e ⎜ t + 2 ⎟.
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛1 ⎞
Thus, y ( t ) = −2te−t + te−t + e −t = e −t −t .
p
2 ⎜2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Hence, the general solution of this equation is y(t) = c t + c et + e t F 1 − tI .

−
1 2 H2 K
16.
1
y′′ + y′ + 1−F 1 I
y = t −1 2 , y ( t ) = t −1/ 2 sin t , y ( t ) = t −1/ 2 cost
t H4t 2 K 1 2
Substitution verifies that y1 and y2 form a fundamental set of solutions to the associated
homogeneous equation, so yh = c1t −1/ 2 sin t + c2t −1/ 2 cost
We seek a particular solution y p ( y) = v 1t −1/ 2 sin t + v 2t −1/ 2 cos t ,
where v1 and v2 satisfy the conditions t −1/ 2 sin tv1′ + t −1/ 2 cos v2′ = 0
⎛ 1 −3/ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜− t sin t + t −1/ 2 cost ⎟ v′1 + ⎜ − t −3/ 2 cost − t −1/ 2 sin t ⎟ v′2 = t −1/ 2 .
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Multiplying through by t1/ 2 then solving for v′ and v′ : v′ = cost and v′ = −sin t.
1 2 1 2
v1 = sin t and v2 = cos t.
Thus, ( )
y p ( t ) = t −1/ 2 sin 2 t + cos 2 t = t −1/ 2 , and the general solution of this equation is
y ( t ) = yh + y p = c1t −1/ 2 sin t + c2t −1/ 2 cost + t −1/ 2 .
 Third-Order Theory
17. L( y) = y′′′ + p(t) y′′ + q(t) y′ + r(t) y = f (t)
Given yh (t) = c1 y1 + c2 y2 + c3 y3 ,
we seek y p (t) = v1 y1 + v2 y2 + v2 y3 .
Differentiating yields y ′p = v1 y1′ + v1′ y1 + v2 y2′ + v2′ y2 + v3 y3′ + v3′ y3
= = v1 y1′ + v2 y2′ + v3 y3′ (if we set y1v1′ + y2 v2′ + y3v3′ = 0 ).
Differentiating, again y ′p′ = v1′ y1′ + v1 y1′′ + v2′ y2′ + v2 y2′′ + v3′ y3′ + v3 y3′′
= v1 y1′ + v2 y2′ + v3 y3′ (if now we set y1′v1′ + y2′ v2′ + y3′ v3′ = 0 ).
Differentiating yet again: y ′p′′ = v1′ y1′′ + v1 y1′′′+ v2′ y2′′ + v2 y2′′′ + v3′ y3′′ + v3 y3′′′.
Substituting y p , y ′p , y ′p′ and y′p′′ into the L( y) = f , then regrouping all terms in v1 and v2, we see
that the coefficient of each is 0 because each yi is a solution of L(yi) = 0. Thus we are left with
y ′p′′ = y1′′v1′ + y2′′v2′ + y3′′v3′ = f .
This last equation, together with the two assumptions (in parentheses) that we made while
differentiating, gives a system to solve for v1′ , v2′ , v3′ :
y1v1′ + y2 v2′ + y3 v3′ = 0
y1′v1′ + y2′v2′ + y3′v3′ = 0
y1′′v1′ + y2′′v2′ + y3′′v3′ = f .
We use Cramer’s Rule to solve the system, then integrate to find v1 , v2 , v3 and hence, obtain a
particular solution
y p ( t ) = v1 y1 + v2 y2 + v3 y3 .
 Third-Order DEs
18. y′′′ − 2y′′ − y′ + 2 y = et
The characteristic equation ( λ −1)( λ +1)( λ − 2 ) = 0 and has roots 1, –1, and 2. The fundamental
set is y1 = et , y2 = e−t , and y3 = e2t . Hence,
yh = c1et + c2e−t + c3e2t .
By variation of parameters, we seek y p (t) = v1et + v2 e −t + v3e 2t , as in Problem 17. Hence the
system to solve is
et v′1 + e −t v′2 + e 2t v′3 = 0
et v′1 − e −t v′2 + 2e2t v′3 = 0
et v′1 + e −t v′2 + 4e 2t v′3 = et .
Using Cramer’s rule and computing the determinants yields:
⎡ 0 e −t e 2t ⎤
⎢ −t
⎥
⎢ 0 −e 2e 2t ⎥
⎡ et e −t e 2t ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
t −t 2t
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎣ e e 4e 3e 2t 1
W = ⎢ et −e −t 2e 2t ⎥ = −6e 2t ; v1′ = = 2t
=−
W −6e 2
⎢e
t
e −t 4e 2t ⎥
⎡ et 0 e 2t ⎤
⎢ t ⎥
⎢e 0 2e 2t ⎥
⎢ ⎥
et et 4e 2t ⎥⎦ −e 4t 1
v2′ = = = e 2t
W −6e 2t 6
⎡e t
e −t 0⎤
⎢ t ⎥
⎢e −e −t 0⎥
= ⎢e
t
e −t et ⎥ −2et 1
v′ = = = e −t
3
W −6e 2t 3
1 1 1
Hence we obtain v′ = − v′ = e2t v′ = e −t .
1 2 3
2 6 3
t 1 1
Hence, v =− v = e 2t v e −t .
1
2
2
12 3 =−
3
1 1 1
We get a particular solution of y p (t) = − tet + et − et and the general solution is
2 12 3
1 1
y(t) = c1et + c2e−t + c3e2t − tet − et .
2 4
19. y′′′ + y′ = sect
Find yh: yh = r 3 + r = 0 r(r2 + 1) = 0 r = 0, ±i
yh = c1 + c2 cos t + c3 sin t
yp = v1 + v2 cos t + v3 sin t
1 cos t sin t
W = 0 −sin t cost = 1
0 − cost −sin t
0 cost sin t
0 −sin t cos t
sect − cos t −sin t cos t sin t
v1′ = = sect = sect
1 −sin t cost
v′ = ln sect + tan t
1 0 sin t
0 0 cos t
0 sec t −sin t 0 cos t ⎛ − cos t ⎞

′= = = =−
v2 1 −sin t 1⎜ ⎟ 1
1 sect sect
⎝ ⎠
v2 = −t
1 cost 0
0 −sin t 0
0 − cos t sec t −sin t 0 −sin t
′= = =− =
v3
1 1 sect sin t sect cos t
− cost
v3 = ln cos t
y(t) = c1 + c2 cost + c3 sin t + ln sect + tan t − t cos t + sin t ln cost
20. y′′ + 9 y′ = tan 3t
Find yh: r3 + 9r = 0 r(r2 + 9) = 0 r = 0 ± 3i

yh = c1 + c2 cos 3t + c3 sin 3t
yp = v1 + v2 cos 3t + v3 sin 3t
−3sin 3t
1 cos 3t sin 3t
3cos 3t
W = 0 −3sin 3t 3cos3t = 1 = 27
−9cos 3t −9sin 3t
0 −9cos 3t −9sin 3t
0 cos3t sin 3t
0 −3sin 3t 3cos 3t
tan 3t −9 cos 3t −9 sin 3t tan 3t cos3t sin 3t tan 3t tan 3t

v′ = = = (3cos 2 3t + 3sin 2 3t) =
1
27 27 −3sin 3t 3cos 3t 27 9
− ln cos3t
v1 =
27
1 0 sin 3t
0 0 3cos3t
0 tan 3t −9sin 3t −3cos 3t tan 3t 1
v2′ = = = − sin 3t
27 27 9
1
v2 = cos 3t
27
1 cos3t 0
0 −3sin 3t 0
0 −9cos 3t tan 3t −3sin 3t tan 3t 1 sin 2 3t
v3′ = = =−
27 27 9 cos3t
1 1− cos 2 3t
dt = − ( ln sec3t + tan 3t − sin 3t )
1
v3 = −
9 ∫ cos 3t 27
y = c + c cos 3t + c sin 3t −
1
ln cos3t +
1
cos 2 3t −
sin 3t
( ln sec3t + tan 3t − sin 3t )
1 2 3
27 27 27
 Method Choice
21. y′′′ − y′ = f (t)
We first find the homogeneous solution. The characteristic equation λ (λ 2 −1) = 0 has roots 0, ±
1, so the homogeneous solution is yh = c1 + c2 et + c3e−t .
(a) y′′′ − y′ = 2e −t . Because e−t is in yh, we must try yp = a te−t. The method of undetermined
coefficients is straightforward and gives a = 1, so yp = te−t and the general solution can be
−t
written y(t) = c1 + c2 et + c3e + te −t .
(b) y′′′ − y′ = sin 2 t . We cannot use undertermined coefficients on sin2 t, so we use variation
of parameters to seek a particular solution of the form yp(t) = v1 + v2et + v3e−t, with the
derivatives of v1, v2, and v3 determined from the equations
t −t
1v1′ + e v2′ + e v3′ = 0

t −t
0v1′ + e v2′ − e v3′ = 0
0v′1 + et v′2 + e −t v′3 = sin 2 t .
Discussion continues on next page.

Using Cramer’s rule (as outlined in Problem 18), we obtain

1 −t 2 1
v1′ = −sin 2 t v2′ = e sin t v3′ = et sin 2 t .
2 2
The antiderivative of υ1′ is easy to find; the other two must be left as integrals
1 1 −t 1
v1 =
2
( sin t cos t − t ) v2 = ∫ e sin 2 t dt v3 = ∫ et sin 2 t dt .
2 2

1 1 1
y ( t ) = c + c et + c e −t + ( sin t cos t − t ) + et e −t sin 2 t dt + e −t et sin 2 t dt .
1 2 3
2 ∫2 ∫2
(c) y ′′′ − y ′ = tan t . As in Part (b) , we must use variation of parameters to find yp, with
1v1′ + et v2′ + e −t v3′ = 0

0v1′ + et v2′ − e −t v3′ = 0
0v1′ + et v2′ + e −t v3′ = tan t .
Using Cramer’s rule (as outlined in Problem 18), to solve these equations we find
1 1
v1′ = tan t v2′ = e −t tan t v3′ = et tan t .
2 2
The antiderivative of υ1′ is easy to find; the other two must be left as integrals
1 1
v1 = ln cost v2 = ∫ e −t tan t dt v3 = ∫ et tan t dt .
2 2

1 1 1
y t = c + c et + c e −t + ln cos t + et e −t tan t dt + e −t et tan t dt.
() 1 2
2 ∫ 2 ∫
3
2
Parts (b) and (c) demonstrate the power of graphical methods because the algebraic
expressions for y(t) are pretty meaningless. It is easier and more informative to use DE
software to approximate solutions of this equation in ty space than it is to pursue the
analytical formula for the solution. The figures show curves for several initial conditions to
show the variety that can occur. For any IVP there would be only one solution.
Note: We used a 3D graphc DE solver with the following equations for y′′′ − y′ = f (t) :
y′ = x x′ = y
y′′ = x′ = z relisted as y′ = x
y′′′ = z′ = x + f (t) z′ = x + f (t)
(b) f(t) = sin2 t.
The expression for y(t) on the previous page can be further

evaluated using the identity
1
sin2 t = (1 − cos 2t),
2
but solution behavior is more easily seen on a graph of y(t).
(c) f(t) = tan t
The expression for y(t) on the previous page is even more

complicated than that for part (b); again, solution behavior is
more readily understood with a graph of y(t).
 Green’s Function Representation

22. y′′ + y = f (t)
We know that y1 = cost and y2 = sin t are the solutions of the corresponding homogeneous
equation. Their Wronksian is
cost sin t
a f
W y1, y2 (t) =
− sin t cost
= 1.
which is makes it easy to use the suggested variation of parameters formulas

− y 2 ( t )f ( t ) y1 ( t )f ( t )
v1′ = = −sin(t) f (t), v2′ = = cos(t) f (t).
W ( y1 , y2 )( t ) W ( y1 , y2 )( t )
Integrating yields
v1 = − ∫ sin ( s ) f ( s ) ds v2 = ∫ cos ( s ) f ( s ) ds.
t t
0 0
Hence, y p ( t ) = y1v1′ + y2 v2′
t t
= − cos(t) ∫ 0 sin(s) f (s)ds + sin(t) ∫ 0 cos(s) f (s)ds
t
= ∫ [ − cos(t)sin(s) + sin(t) cos(s) ] f (s)ds

0
t
= ∫ sin(t − s) f (s)ds.
0
 Green Variation
23. The homogeneous solutions are y1 = et and y2 = e−t . We seek a particular solution of the form
y p = v1 y1 + v1 y2 , where v1′ and v2′ satisfy
et v1′ + e −t v2′ = 0
e v1′ − e v2′ = f ( t ) .
t −t
Adding and subtracting the equations and solving yields

1 −t 1
v1′ = e f ( t ) v′2 = − et f ( t )
2 2
1 t −s 1 t s
e f ( s ) ds e f ( s ) ds .
2 ∫0 2 ∫0
Integrating gives v1 = v2 = −
Hence, y p = v1 y1 + v2 y2
1 t t −s 1 t
= e ∫ e f ( s ) − e −t ∫ e s f ( s ) ds
2 0 2 0
t−s −t +s
⎛e −e ⎞
= ∫0 f ( s ) ⎜
t
⎟ ds
⎝ 2 ⎠
= ∫ sinh ( t − s ) f ( s ) ds.
t
0
 Green’s Follow-Up
24. From the Leibniz Rule in multivariable calculus we have the following result:
For a continuous function g(t,s),
d ⎡ ∂g ⎤
g ( t, s ) ds = lim g(r, r) +
t r
(t, s)ds ⎥ .
∂
dt ∫ 0 ∫0
r →t
⎢⎣
t ⎦
In Problem 22, the solution of the equation y′′ + y = f (t) is

y(t) = z0
t
sin(t − s) f (s)ds
Differentiating yields
y ′ = sin ( t − t ) f ( t ) + ∫ cos ( t − s ) f ( s ) ds = ∫ cos ( t − s ) f ( s ) ds
t t
0 0
and
y ′′ = cos ( t − t ) f ( t ) − ∫ sin ( t − s ) f ( s ) ds = f ( t ) − ∫ sin ( t − s ) f ( s ) ds.

t t
0 0
Hence,
y′′ + y = f (t) − z
0
t
z t
sin(t − s) f (s)ds + 0 sin(t − s) f (s)ds = f (t) .
 Suggested Journal Entry I

25. Student Project
 Suggested Journal Entry II
26. Student Project
409 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.6 Forced Oscillations 409
4.6 Forced Oscillations
 Mass-Spring Problems
1. x′′ + 2x′ + x = 6cost
Find xh: r2 + 2n + 1 = 0 ⇒ (r + 1)2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1
xh = c1e−t + c2te−t.
Find xp: xp = A cos t + B sin t, x′p = − Asin t + B cost, x′p′ = − Acost − B sin t
x′p′ + 2x′p + x p = − Acos t − B sin t
+ 2(B cost − Asin t)

+ Acost + B sin t
2B cost − 2 Asin t = 6cost
⇒ 2B = 6, −2A = 0 ⇒ A = 0, B = 3
xp = 3 sin t
x(t) = xh + xp = c1e−t + c2te−t + 3 sin t

⎛ π⎞
xss = 3 sin t = 3cos ⎜ t − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
δ π radians
Amplitude C = 3; phase shift =
β 2
2. x′′ + 2x′ + 3x = cos3t
Find xh: r2 + 2r + 3 = 0 ⇒ r = −1 ± 2i
(
xh = e −t c1 cos 2t + c2 sin 2t )
Find xp: xp = A cos 3t + B sin 3t, x′p = −3Asin 3t + 3B cos3t, x′p′ = −9Acos3t − 9B sin 3t
− 9A cos 3t − 9B sin 3t)

x′p′ + 2x′p + 3x p =
+ 2(3B cos 3t − 3Asin 3t)
+ 3( Acos 3t + B sin 3t)
(−6 A + 6B) cos 3t + ( − 6 A − 6B)sin 3t = cos 3t
⇒ −6A + 6B = 1, −6A − 6B = 0
1 1
⇒ A= − , B = , so
12 12
1 1
xp = − cos3t + sin 3t
12 12
−t 1 1
x(t) = xh + xp = e ( c cos
1 )
2t + c2 sin 2t −
12
cos3t +
12
sin 3t
1 1 2 ⎛ 3π ⎞
xss = − cos3t + sin 3t = cos ⎜ 3t − ⎟
12 12 12 ⎝ 4 ⎠
; phase shift δ = π radians

2
Amplitude C =
12 β 4
3. 2x′′ + 3x = 4cos8t
3 3
Find xh: 2r2 + 3 = 0 ⇒ r2 − ⇒ r= ± i
2 2
3 3
⇒ xh = c1 cos t + c2 sin t
2 2
Find xp: xp = A cos 8t, x′p = −8Asin 8t, x′p′ = −64Acos8t
2x′p′ + 3x p = 2(−64 Acos8t)

+3( Acos8t)
−125Acos8t = 4 cos8t
⇒ −125A = 4
4
⇒A= −
125
4
⇒ xp = − cos8t
125
3 3 4
x(t) = xh + xp = c1 cos t + c2 sin t − cos8t
2 2 125
4 4
xss = − cos8t = cos(8t − π )
125 125
; phase shift δ = π radians

4
Amplitude C =
125 β 8
1 5
4. 2x′′ + 2x′ + x = cost
2 2
Find xh: 2r2 + 2r + 1 = 0 ⇒ r = − 1

2 2
xh = c1e −(1/ 2)t + c2te −(1/ 2)t

Find xp: xp = A cos t + B sin t, x′p = − Asin t + B cost , x′p′ = − Acost − B sin t
1
2x′′ + 2x′ + x = 2(− Acos t − B sin t)
p p p
2
+ 2(B cos t − Asin t)
1
+ ( Acos t + B sin t)
2
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ 5
⎜ − 2 A + 2B ⎟ cost + ⎜ −2 A − 2 B ⎟ sin t = 2 cost
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3 5 3
⇒ − A + 2B = , − 2A − B=0
2 2 2
3 4
⇒ A= − , B=
5 5
3 4
xp = − cost + sin t
5 5
3 4
ce + c te − cost + sin t
−(1/ 2)t −(1/ 2)t
x(t) = xh + xp = 1 2
5 5
3 4
xss = − cost + sin t = cos(t − 2.2)
5 5
δ
Amplitude C = 1; phase shift ≈ 2.2 radians
β
5. x′′ + 2x′ + 2x = 2 cost
Find xh: r2 + 2r + 2 = 0 ⇒ r = −1 ± i
xh = e −t ( c1 cos t + c2 sin t )
Find xp: xp = A cos t + B sin t, x′p = − Asin t + B cost x′p′ = − Acost − B sin t
x′p′ + x′p + 2x p = − Acost − B sin t

+2(B cost − Asin t)
+2( Acost + B sin t)
( A +2B) cost + (−2 A + B)sin t = 2 cos t
⇒ A + 2B = 2, −2A + B = 0
2 4
⇒ A= , B=
5 5
2 4
xp = cos t + sin t
5 5
−t 2 4
x(t) = xh + xp = e (c1 cos t + c2 sin t) + cos t + sin t
5 5
2 4 2
xss = cost + sin t = cos(t −1.1)

5 5 5
2 δ
Amplitude C = ; phase shift ≈ 1.1 radians
5 β
6. x′′ + 4x′ + 5x = 2cos 2t
Find xh: r2 + 4r + 5 = 0 ⇒ r = −2 ± i
xh = e −2t (c1 cos t + c2 sin t)
Find xp: xp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t, x′p = −2 Asin 2t + 2B cos 2t, x′p′ = −4Acos 2t − 4B sin 2t
x′p′ + 4x′p + 5x p = − 4 Acos 2t − 4B sin 2t)

+ 4(2B cos 2t − 2 Asin 2t)
+ 5( Acos 2t + B sin 2t)
( A + 8B)cos 2t + (−8A + B)sin 2t = 2cos 2t
⇒ A + 8B = 2, −8A + B = 0
2 16
⇒ A= , B=
65 65
2 16
xp = cos 2t + sin 2t
65 65
2 16
x(t) = xh + xp = e −2t (c1 cost + c 2 sin t) + cos 2t + sin 2t
65 65
2 16 2
xss = cos 2t + sin 2t = cos(2t −1.4)
65 65 65
2 δ
Amplitude C = ; phase shift ≈ 0.73 radians
65 β
 Pushing Up
1
7. m= , b = 2.5, k = 6
4
1
x + 2.5x + 6x = 2cos 2t
4
The IVP is x + 10x + 24x = 8cos 2t, x(0) = −2, x(0) = 0.
Find xh: r2 + 10r + 24 = 0
(r + 4)(r + 6) = 0 r = −4, −6
xh = c1e−4t + c2e−6t
Find xp: xp = A cos 2t + B sin 2t

x p = −2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t
x p = −4 Acos 2t − 4B sin 2t
x p +10x p + 24x p = −4 Acos 2t − 4B sin 2t +10(−2 Asin 2t + 2B cos 2t) + 24( Acos 2t + B sin 2t)
coeff. of cos 2t: −4A + 24A + 20B = 8 20A + 20 B = 8

coeff. of sin 2t: −4B + 24B − 20A = 0 −20A + 20B = 0
1
∴A=B=
5
1 1
5 5
Therefore
1 1
x(t) = xh + xp = c1e −4t + c2e −6t + cos 2t + sin 2t
5 5
2 2
x = −4c1e −4t − 6c2e −6t − sin 2t + cos 2t
5 5
Substituting initial conditions gives
1 ⎫
x(0) = −2 = c1 + c2 +
5 ⎪ 34 23
⎬ ⇒ c1 = − , c2 =
2 5 5
x0 (0) = 0 = −4c − 6c2 + ⎪
5⎭⎪
34 −4t 23 −6t 1 1
Thus x(t) = − e + e + cos 2t + sin 2t .
5 5 5 5
 Pulling Down
16 1
8. m= = , b = 6, k = 16
32 2
1
x + 6x +16x = 4cos 4t
2
The IVP is x +12x + 32x = 8cos 4t, x(0) = 1, x(0) = 0 .
Find xh: r2 + 12r + 32 = 0
(r + 4)(r + 8) = 0 r = −4, −8
xh = c1e−4t + c2e−8t
Find xp: xp = A cos 4t + B sin 4t

x p = −4A sin 4t + 4B cos 4t
x p = −16 Acos 4t −16B sin 4t
x p +12x p + 32x = −16 Acos 4t −16B sin 4t + 12(−4 Asin 4t + 4B cos 4t) + 32( Acos 4t + B sin 4t)
= 8cos 4t
Coeff. of cos 4t:−16A + 32A + 48B = 8 16A + 48B = 8
Coeff. of sin 4t: −16B + 32B − 48A = 0 −48A + 16B = 0
1 3
∴A= B=
20 20
1 3
20 20
Therefore
1 3
x(t) = xh + xp = c1e −4t + c2 e −8t + cos 4t + sin 4t
20 20
1 3
x = 4c1e −4t − 8c2 e −8t − sin 4t + cos 4t
5 5
Substituting intial conditions,
1 19 ⎫
1= c +c + c +c =
1 2 1 2
20 20 ⎪ 7 4
⎬ ⇒ c1 = , c2 = −
3 3⎪ 4 5
0 = −4c − 8c + c + 2c =
1 2 1 2
5 20
7 4 1 3
Thus x(t) = − e −4t − e −8t + cos 4t + sin 4t .
4 5 20 20
 Mass-Spring Again
9. (a) The mass is m = 100 kg ; gravitational force (weight) acting on the spring is
mg = 100 ( 9.8 ) = 980 newtons. Because the weight stretches the spring by
20 cm = 0.2 m , we have
980
k= = 4900 nt m .
0.20
(b) The initial-value problem for this mass is
x + 49x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 0.40 , x ( 0 ) = 0 .
Solving we write the transient solution in polar form

x ( t ) = C cos (ω0 t − δ ) = C cos ( 7t − δ )
where the circular frequency is ω0 = 7 radians per second. Using the initial conditions
gives
x ( 0 ) = C cos δ = 0.4
x ( 0 ) = −7C sin δ = 0
or δ = 0 , C = 0.4 . Hence,
x ( t ) = 0.4cos ( 7t ) .
2π
(c) Amplitude: C = 0.4 meter; period: T = seconds .
7
(d) If b = 500 , then

b 2 − 4mk = 250,000 − 4 (100 )( 4900 ) < 0 .
The system is underdamped.

(e) 100 x + 500x + 4900x = 0 has characteristic equation
r 2 + 5r + 49 = 0 ,
5 1
x1,2 = − ± . Hence, the general solution is
which has roots i 171
2 2
⎡ ⎛ 171 ⎞ ⎛ 171 ⎞ ⎤
x (t ) = e −5t 2
c cos t +c sin t .
⎢ 1 ⎜ ⎟ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎥
2 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Using the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 0.4 , x ( 0 ) = 0 gives
x ( 0 ) = c1 = 0.4
171 5
x ( 0 ) = c2 − c1 = 0
2 2
2 171
which implies c1 = 0.4 , c2 = . Hence, the solution is
171
⎛ 171 2 171 171 ⎞

x ( t ) = e −5t 2 0.4cos t+ sin t .
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 171 2 ⎠
 Adding Forcing
10. We change the unforced equation in Problem 9 to the forced equation

100 x + 500x + 4900x = 100 cos ω f t .
(a) b 2 − 4mk = 5002 − 4 (100 )( 4900 ) < 0 , so the system is underdamped. From Equation (21)
in the text, the amplitude is a maximum when the forcing frequency is
k b2 4900 5002
ωf = − = − = 6.04 rad sec .
2 (100 )
2
m 2m2 100
(b) Given ω f = 7 , we have seen that ω0 = 7 , m = 100 , b = 500 , and hence tan δ becomes
π
infinite, so that δ = radians. Hence, by Equation (17)
2
x
ss
(t ) =
F0
(
cos ω t − δ
f
)
( 2 2
) + (bω )
2
m2 ω02 − ω f f
100 ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
= cos ⎜ 7t − ⎟ ≈ 0.029cos ⎜ 7t − ⎟.
(100 ) ( 49 − 49 )
2 2
+ ( 500 ⋅ 7 )
2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
See the graph for the solution of the IVP

problem. You can see that the steady
state appears to be
⎛ π⎞
xss ( t ) ≈ 0.029cos ⎜ 7t − ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠
(c) The undamped equation is

100 x + 4900x = 100cos 7t .
The particular solution now has the form
xss ( t ) = Ct cos ( 7t − δ )
or
xss ( t ) = t ( Acos 7t + B sin 7t ) .
 Electric Analog
11. From Problem 10 we found the differential equation for the mechanical system to be
100 x + 500x + 4900x = 100 cos ω f t
or
x + 5x + 49x = cos ω f t .
So if R = 4 ohms , then the equivalent electrical equation (making one equation a constant multi-
ple of the other equation)

1
LQ + RQ + Q = V cos ω t
0 f
C
would be:
4 4 4 4
Q + ( 5 ) Q + ( 49 ) Q = cos ωf t .
5 5 5 5
This means we have

L = 0.80 henries
1 1
= 39.2 ⇒ C = ≈ 0.025 farads
C 39.2
V ( t ) = 0.80cos ω f t .
 Damped Forced Motion I

12. x + 8x + 36x = 72cos 6t
The given characteristic equation has roots −4 ± 2i 5 , hence in the long run the homogeneous
equation solution always decays to zero. We are only interested in a particular solution, and in
this case that solution is
x = Acos 6t + B sin 6t .
x
Differentiating and substituting into the differen-
2
tial equation gives
3 1
A= 0, B = .
2
t
Hence, the steady-state solution is given by 1 2 3
3 –1
xss ( t ) = sin 6t .
2
–2
The graph of the steady-state solution is shown.
 Damped Forced Motion II

13. The initial-value problem
x + 4x + 20x = 20 cos 2t , x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 ,
has
xh ( t ) = e −2t ( c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t ) ,
and
x p ( t ) = Acos 2t + B sin 2t .
1
Substituting x p into the differential equation we find A = 1, B = , so
2
1
x p = cos 2t + sin 2t .
2
Substituting the general solution into the initial x(t)
conditions x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 , we find
1.5
⎛ 3 ⎞ 1
x ( t ) = −e −2t cos 4t + sin 4t + cos 2t + sin 2t . 0.5
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠ 2 t
1 2 3 4 5 6
Š0.5
The steady-state portion of the solution is shown.
(See figure.)
Š1.5
 Calculating Charge
14. 4Q +100Q = 10 cos 4t, Q(0) = 0, Q′(0) = 0
Find Qh : 4Q +100Q = 0 ⇒ Q + 25Q = 0 ⇒ Qh = c1 cos5t + c2 sin 5t
Find Qp : Qp has the form A cos 4t + B sin 4t.

5 5
Substitution in 4Qp +100Q p = 10 cos 4t leads to A = , B = 0 and so Qp = cos 4t.
18 18
5
Thus Q = Qh + Qp = c1 cos 5t + c2 sin 5t + cos 4t .
18
5
The initial conditions Q(0) = 0 and Q′(0) = 0 give us c1 = − , c2 = 0
18
5 5
and the solution of the IVP is Q(t) = − cos 5t + cos 4t .
18 18
 Charge and Current

15. Q +12Q +100Q = 12cos10t, Q(0) = 0, Q′(0) = 0
(a) Find Qh: r 2 +12r +100 = 0 ⇒ r = −6 ± 8i ⇒ Q h = e −6t (c cos8t + c sin 8t).

1 2
Find Qp: Qp has the form A cos 10t + B sin 10t.

1
Substitution in 4Qp +12Qp +100Q p = 12cos10t leads to A = 0, B =
10
1
and so Qp = sin10t.
10
1
Thus Q = Qh + Qp = e −6t (c1 cos8t + c 2 sin 8t) + sin10t.
10
1
The initial conditions Q(0) = 0 and Q(0) = 0 give us c1 = 0 c2 = −
8
1 1
and the solution of the IVP is Q(t) = − e −6t sin 8t + sin10t .
8 10
⎛3 ⎞
(b) I(t) = Q(t) = e −6t ⎜ sin 8t − cos8t ⎟ + cos10t.
⎝4 ⎠
 True/False Questions
16. True
The steady-state solution, being a particular solution, has the form A cos ωf t + B sin ωf t, where
the forcing function is Fo cos ωf t. The steady-state solution can be written in the form
xss = C cos(ωf t − δ).
Hence, the frequency of the steady-state is the same as that of the forcing function.
17. False
The amplitude of the steady-state is a function of the frequency of the forcing function.
F0
In fact, A(ω f ) = .
m2 (ω02 − ω 2f ) 2 + (bω f ) 2
We can see that A(ωf) → 0 as ωf → ∞ and that

F0
as ωf → 0.
k
 Beats
18. The identity

cos ( A + B ) − cos ( A − B ) = −2sin Asin B
may be used here. In this case, if A = 2t , B = t ,
and we have A + B = 3t , A − B = t . Hence,
cos3t − cost = −2sin 2t sin t .
 The Beat Goes On
19. The trigonometric identity

sin ( A + B ) − sin ( A − B ) = 2sin B cos A
may be used here. Let A = 3t and B = t . From
this we get A + B = 3t and A − B = 2 . Hence,
⎛ 3t −t ⎞ ⎛ 3t +t ⎞
sin 3t − sin t = 2sin ⎜ ⎟cos ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
= 2sin t cos 2t.
 Steady State
Note: We must be careful in finding the phase angle using the formula
B
δ = tan −1
A
B
because we don’t know in which quadrant δ lies using δ = tan −1 . The value of δ you get
A
might be π units different from the correct value. Unless you know by some other means in
which quadrant δ lies, it is best to use the two equations
C cos δ = A , C sin δ = B .
A good rule of thumb is to think of the AB plane; when both A, B are positive δ will be in the first
π
quadrant (i.e., δ between 0 and ), but when both A and B are negative δ will be in the third
2
quadrant, and so on.
20. x + 4x + 4x = cos t
The homogeneous solution to the equation is

() −2t −2t
xh t = c1e + c2 te .
We use the method of undetermined coefficients to find

x p ( t ) = Acos t + B sin t .
Differentiating, we get
x′p ( t ) = − Asin t + B cost
x′p′ ( t ) = − Acost − B sin t .
Substituting into the equation gives the equation

x′p′ + 4x′p + 4x p = ( − A + 4B + 4A ) cos t + ( −B − 4 A + 4B ) sin t = cos t .
3 4
Hence A = , B= with the particular solution
25 25
3 4
xp ( t ) = cos t + sin t .
25 25
Nothing in xp dies off with time; this is our
steady-state solution. Putting this in polar form
2 2
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ 5 1
C = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = =
⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝ 25 ⎠ 25 5
4
δ = tan −1 ≈ 0.93 radians.
3
Hence, the steady-state solution is
x p (t) = xss ( t ) = 0.20cos ( t − 0.93) .
21. x + 2x + 2x = 2cost
The roots of the characteristic equation are −1± i . We use for the particular solution:
x p ( t ) = Acost + B sin t = C cos ( t − δ ) .
Another approach to x p is to note that F0 = 2 ,
ω0 = 2 , ω f = 1, m = 1, b = 2 and simply
substitute these numbers into the text solution to

find
2
xss ( t ) = cos ( t − δ )
5
where the phase angle is δ = tan −1 ( 2 ) ≈ 1.1 radi-

ans.
22. x + x + x = 4cos 3t
1 i 3
The roots of the characteristic equation are − ± . Notice that, as in previous problems, there
2 2
will be an e −t 2 involved in all of the terms in the homogeneous equation, so xh is transient, and
none of these terms will be involved in x p . We move on to find a particular solution, using the
method of undetermined coefficients. Let
x p ( t ) = Acos3t + B sin 3t .
Then we have
x′p = −3Asin 3t + 3B cos 3t , x′p′ ( t ) = −9Acos3t − 9B sin 3t .
Hence,
x′p′ + x′p + x p = ( −8A + 3B ) cos3t + ( −3A − 8B ) sin 3t = 4cos 3t .
Solving we get
32 12
A=− , B= .
73 73
In polar coordinates we have

1168 4
C = A2 + B 2 = =
73 73
⎛ 12 ⎞
δ = arctan ⎜ ⎟ ≈ 2.78 radians.
⎝ −32 ⎠
Hence, the steady-state solution is

4
x p (t) = xss ( t ) = cos ( 3t − 2.78 ) .
73
 Resonance
23. The differential equation is given by
x + 12x = 16cos ω t .
The circular frequency is

k
ω0 = = 12 = 2 3 radians per second,
m
the frequency is
1
f0 = 3 oscillations per second,
π
and the period of oscillations is

π
T= seconds.
3
24. If resonance exists, the input frequency ω f is the same as the natural frequency ω0 = 2 3 (see
Problem 23). Hence, we have the initial-value problem
( )
x +12x = 16cos 2 3t , x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 .
This equation has homogeneous solution
( )
xh ( t ) = c1 cos 2 3t + c2 sin 2 3t . ( )
To find a particular solution we seek a function of the form
( )
x p = At cos 2 3t + Bt sin 2 3t . ( )
Differentiating and substituting into the differential equation yields
16 3
A= 0, B = =4 ,
4 3 3
so the general solution is
4 3
x t = c cos 2 3t + c sin 2 3t + t sin 2 3t .
() 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( )
Substituting this into x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 yields c1 = 0 , c2 = 0 . Hence, the solution to the IVP is
x (t ) =
4 3
3
(
t sin 2 3t . )
 Ed’s Buoy
25. (a) Simple harmonic motion with
2000 125
m= = = 62.5 slugs
32 2
2π = 5 seconds ,
T=
ω0
hence
2π k
ω0 = =
5 m
or
125 4π 2
k = mω02 = × = 10π 2 .
2 25
We measure the displacement of the buoy x ( t ) from the water level with x ( t ) = 0
4 +2
corresponding to the position of the buoy with = 3 feet being above water.
2
Because the forced equation in rough seas has an amplitude of 3 feet and a period
2π
of 7 seconds, the frequency of the forced response is . We therefore get the equation
7
2πt
62.5 x +10π 2 x = 3cos .
7
We are interested in the steady-state solution of this equation, hence we use the
method of undetermined coefficients to find a particular solution. In this case we let
2πt 2πt
xp = Acos + B sin .
7 7
49
We now differentiate and substitute into the equation yielding A = , B = 0 . Hence,
80π 2
we have
49 2π t 2π t
x p (t) = xss ( t ) = cos ≈ 0.06cos .
80π 2 7 7
[Although no friction term has been included in the preceding DE, there will in reality be
such a term, so the homogeneous solution would go to zero leaving only the oscillation
xss ( t ) .]
49
(b) The steady-state solution never varies more than ≈ 0.06 feet from its equilibrium
80π 2
position 3 feet above the level water line. The steady-state solution has the buoy moving
in phase with the waves so when a 3-foot wave crest hits, the buoy’s height above sea level
is approximately 3.06 feet. Thus the buoy is always at least 0.06 feet above the water
and is never submerged.
 General Solution of the Damped Forced System
26. (a) We know the form of the particular solution is

xss ( t ) = Acos ω f t + B sin ω f t .
Substituting this into the equation

mx + bx + kx = F0 cos ω f t
and simplifying, we find

( ) ( )
⎡ k − mω 2f A + bω f B ⎤ cos ω f t + ⎡ k − mω f2 B − bω f A⎤ sin ω f t = F0 cos ω f t .
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Setting the coefficients of the sine and cosine terms equal, yields the two equations
( k − mω ) A + bω
2
f f B = F0
( k − mω ) B − bω
2
f f
A = 0.
Solving, we obtain
A=
(
F0 k − mω f2 )
( k − mω ) 2 2
f + b ωf2 2
F0bωf
B= .
( k − mω ) 2 2
f + b 2ωf2
(b) From part (a) we have
x (t ) =
F0
(
⎡ k − mω 2 cos ω t + bω sin ω t ⎤ .)
( k − mω ) 2 ⎣
ss f f f f ⎦
2 2
f + b 2ωf
Rewriting this in polar form, yields
x
ss
(t ) =
F0
( )
cos ω t − δ ,
f
( k − mω )
2
2
f +b ω 2 2
f
bω f
with tan δ = . From this equation it can be seen that the long-term response
(
m ω02 − ω f2 )
of the system is oscillatory with the same frequency ω f as the forcing term, but with a
phase lag.
 Phase Portrait Recognition

27. x + 0.3x + x = cost
(C) We have damping but we also have a sinusoidal forcing term. Hence, the homogeneous
solution goes to zero and particular solutions consist of sines and cosines, which give rise to
circles in the phase plane. Therefore, starting from the origin x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 we get a curve that
approaches a circle from the inside.
28. x+x=0
(A) The equation models the undamped harmonic oscillator, which has circular trajectories.
29. x + x = cos t
(D) This equation has resonance so the trajectories in phase space spiral to infinity.
30. x + 0.3x + x = 0
(B) The system is unforced but damped, and hence trajectories must approach x ( 0 ) = x ( 0 ) = 0 .
 Matching 3D Graphs
31. (a) E (b) B (c) C, D (d) A, C

(e) B, D, E (f) C, D (g) A
 Mass-Spring Analysis I
32. (a) xh = 4cos 4t − 3sin 4t (b) The amplitude of xh = 5 .
(c) The amplitude (time-varying) of x p is 5t .
(d) x p = 5t sin 4t ; x p will be unchanged.
k
(e) Because ω f = ω0 , ω0 = 4 = = k , k = 16 .
m
(f) The system is in a state of pure resonance because ω0 = ω f . The mass will oscillate with
increasing amplitude.
 Electrical Version
33. (a) Qh = 4cos 4t − 5sin 4t
(b) The amplitude of the transient solution is A = 42 + 52 = 41
(c) Qs = Q p = 6t cos 4t (d) Q p = 6t cos 4t
1 1 1
(e) 4= = , C=
LC C 16
(f) The charge on the capacitor will oscillate with ever-increasing amplitude due to pure
resonance.
 Mass-Spring Analysis II
34. (a) xh = 3e −2t cos t − 2e −2t sin t
−b
(b) From the exponential function e −2t we see that = −2. Hence if m = 1, b = 4 .
2m
(c) Underdamped
(d) The amplitude (time-varying) of xh = 13e −2t .
(e) xss = x p = 2 cos ( 5t − δ )

4k −16
(f) ω f = 5 rad sec , β = 1 = so k = 5 Nt m , and ω0 = 5 rad sec . From For-
2
F0 F0
mula (19), we obtain 2= = . Therefore F = 40 Nt .
(5 − 5 )
2
+ ( 4 ⋅ 5) 800
2 2
0
 Perfect Aim
35. (a) The dart is fired straight at the target with initial velocity vo.
Let yD denote the vertical position of the dart at time t.
y D′′ = −g y D′ = −gt + c
d = x02 + y02
y D′ (0) = vo sin θ so y D′ = −gt + v0 sin θ
1
Integrating: yD = − gt 2 + (v0 sin θ )t + c
2
1
y D (0) = 0 so yD = − gt 2 + (v0 sin θ )t
2
Now consider the target. Let yT denote the vertical position of the target at time T. The
1
initial conditions are yT(0) = y0 and yT′ (0) = 0. By similar calculations, yT = y0 − gt2.
2
(b) To find the time t1 when the heights of dart and target are equal, set yT(t) = yD(t).
1 1 y 0 ⎛ y ⎞ y
Then yo − gt = v sin t −
2 2
gt so that T1 = 0
and x1 = (v cos θ ) ⎜ 0
⎟=
0
2
0
2 v0 sin t ⎝ v0 sin θ ⎠ tan θ
y0 y0
However, tan θ = = so that x 1 = x0 (i.e., the dart hits the target).
x0 x1
(c) Substituting t1 into either equation for the height of the dart or the target at impact yields yT.
gy 02
yT = y0 −
2(v0 sin θ ) 2
y
Simplifying by using the diagram so that sin θ = 0 , we obtain
d
2
1 ⎛d ⎞
yT = y0 − g ⎜ ⎟ .
2 ⎝ v0 ⎠
428 CHAPTER 4 Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations SECTION 4.7 Conservation and Conversion 428
 Extrema of the Amplitude Response

36. We write
A ωf = ( ) F0
=
F0 / m
.
( k − mω )
2 2
2
+ b 2ω 2 ⎡⎛ k ⎞ ⎤
2
+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ω2f
f f
b
2
⎢⎜ m ⎟ − ω f ⎥ ⎝ ⎠ m
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦
Differentiating A with respect to ω f , we find
−
⎛ 2ωf ⎞ ⎡ 2
⎜ m ⎟ f
ω − k − b ⎤
m 2m2
2
( )
( )
A′ ω f = ⎝ ⎠
32
× F0
(
⎡ k
) + ( mb ) ω ⎤⎥
2 2
ω2 2
⎢ − f f
⎣ m ⎦
( )
from which it follows that A′ ω f = 0 if and only if ω f = 0 or
k b2
ωf = − .
m 2m2
( )
When b 2 > 2mk , ω f is not real. Hence A′ ω f = 0 only when ω f = 0 . In this case
( )
A ωf damps to zero as ω f goes from 0 to ∞. It is clear then that the maximum of A ω f ( )
occurs when ω f = 0 and has the value
1
A(0) = .
k
When b 2 < 2mk , then ω f is real and positive. It is easy using the sign of the derivative to see
that the maximum of A ω f ( ) occurs at

k b2
ωf = − .
m 2m2
Evaluating the amplitude response at this value of ω f yields the expression
F0
Amax = .
2
b k − b
m 4m2
37. Student Project

4.7 Conservation and Conversion
 Total Energy of a Mass-Spring

1. x + x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = −4
1 2 1 2
The total energy of the system is E = mx + kx . Here m = 1, k = 1 , so
2 2
1 2 1 2
E= x + x .
2 2
Because the system is conservative it does not change over time. Initially we have x ( 0 ) = 1 ,
x ( 0 ) = −4 , so the initial energy of this system is
1 1 17
E=
2
( −4 ) + (1) = ,
2
2 2
which remains constant in time.
 Nonconservative Mass-Spring System

2. x + 2x + 26x = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 4
(a) The solution of the IVP is

x ( t ) = e −t ⎡⎣sin ( 5t ) + cos ( 5t ) ⎤⎦ .
π
At time t = we have
5
⎛π⎞
x ⎜ ⎟ = −e −π 5 .
⎝5⎠
Also
x ( t ) = −e −t ⎡sin
⎣ ( 5t ) + cos ( 5t ) + e ⎡⎣5cos ( 5t ) − 5sin ( 5t ) ,
−t
so
⎛π⎞
x ⎜ ⎟ = e −π 5 − 5e −π 5 = −4e−π 5 .
⎝5⎠
(b) Because m = 1, k = 26 , we have

2 2
⎛π⎞ ⎡ ⎛ π ⎞⎤ 1 ⎡ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
E
1
= m x + k x
1
= 16e −2π ( 5
) + 1 ( 26e −2π 5
) = 21e −2π 5
.
⎜ 5 ⎟ 2 ⎢ ⎜ 5 ⎟⎥ 2 ⎢ ⎜ 5 ⎟⎥ 2 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
(c) Because the initial energy of the system was
E (0) =
1
2
1 1 1
( ) (
m ⎣⎡ x ( 0 )⎦⎤ + k ⎣⎡ x ( 0 )⎦⎤ = 1⋅ 42 + 26 ⋅12 = 21 ( joules or ergs )
2
2
2
2 2
)
the energy loss = 21− 21e −2π 5 = 21 1− e −2π 5 . ( )

 General Formula for Total Energy in an LC-Circuit
1
3. LQ + Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = Q0 , I ( 0 ) = I 0
C
The total energy of this LC system is the constant value

1 1 1 1
()
E t = LQ +
2 2
Q =
2
LI 0 +
2
Q0 .
2 2C 2 2C
 Energy in an LC-Circuit
1
4. LQ + Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = Q0 , I ( 0 ) = I 0
C
The total energy of this LC system is the constant value
E (t ) =
1
2
LQ 2 +
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2C
Q = LI0 +
2 2C
Q0 = 4 12 +
2
16 2
2
4 = 130 . ( ) ( )
 Energy Loss in LRC-Circuit

5. LQ + RQ + CQ = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = Q0 , I ( 0 ) = I 0
We are given L = 1 henry, R = 1 ohm, C = 4 farads, Q0 = 0 coulomb, I 0 = 2 amps. Hence, the
IVP is
Q + Q + 0.25Q = 0 , Q ( 0 ) = 0 , I ( 0 ) = 2 ,
whose solution is given by
Q ( t ) = 2te −t 2
I ( t ) = Q ( t ) = 2e −t 2 − te −t 2 = −e −t 2 ( t − 2 ) .
Hence, the initial energy is
E (0) =
1 2 1 2 1
LI +
1
Q = (1) 22 + ( 0 ) = 2 joules.
2 0 2C 0 2 8
( )
At time t the energy is
E (t ) =
1 2
2
LI ( t ) +
1 2
2C
1 1 1
( )
Q ( t ) = e −t ( t − 2 ) + 4t 2 e −t = e −t ⎡( t − 2 ) + t 2 ⎤ = e −t t 2 − 2t + 2 .
2
2
8 2 ⎣
2
⎦ ( )
(
Hence, after time t the energy loss is 2 − e −t t 2 − 2t + 2 joules. )
 Questions of Energy
6. x − x + x3 = 0
(a) KE =
1
( ) 1 1
x 2 , V = ∫ −x + x 3 dx = − x 2 + x 4
2 2 4
1 2 1 2 1 4
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x − x + x
2 2 4
(b) To find the equilibrium points, we seek the solutions of

∂E ∂E
= −x + x3 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, we find three equilibrium points at ( −1, 0 ) , (0, 0) and (1, 0).
Because x = 0 for all these points, we determine which points are stable (local maxima)
by simply drawing the graph of V ( x ) (shown in part (c)).
(c) Graph of the potential energy V ( x ) is V (x)
shown. Note that V ( x ) has local minima 3

at x = ±1 and a local maxima at x = 0 .
Hence, 2
( −1, 0 ) and (1, 0 )

1
are stable points, and

( 0, 0 ) –2 –1
–0.5
1 2
x
is an unstable point.
Potential energy of x − x + x3 = 0
7. x − x − x3 = 0
(a) KE =
1
( ) 1 1
x 2 , V = ∫ −x − x3 dx = − x 2 − x 4
2 2 4
1 2 1 2 1 4
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x − x − x
2 2 4
(b) To find the equilibrium points, we seek the solutions of the two equations
∂E ∂E
= −x − x3 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, we find one equilibrium point at ( 0, 0 ) . Because x = 0 we

determine if it is a stable point (local minima) or unstable point (local maxima) by simply
drawing the graph of V ( x ) shown in part (c).
The graph of potential energy V ( x ) is V (x)
shown. Note that V ( x ) has local maxima 1

at x = 0 , and hence ( 0, 0 ) is an unstable
equilibrium point. x
–2 –1 1 2
(c) See the figure to the right. –1
–2
Potential energy of x − x − x3 = 0
8. x − x + x2 = 0
(a) KE =
1
( 1
) 1
x 2 , V = ∫ −x + x 2 dx = − x 2 + x 3
2 2 3
1 2 1 2 1 3
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x − x + x
2 2 3
∂E ∂E
= −x + x 2 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, we find two equilibrium points at ( 0, 0 ) , (1, 0 ) . Because x = 0
for both these points, we determine which points are stable (local minima) and which are
unstable (local maxima) by simply drawing the graph of V ( x ) shown in part (c).
The graph of potential energy V ( x ) is V (x)
shown. Note that V ( x ) has local minima 1

at x = +1 and a local maxima at x = 0 .
Hence, ( 0, 0 ) is an unstable point and x
–2 –1 1 2
(1, 0 ) is a stable point.

–1
(c) See figure.
–2
Potential energy of x − x + x 2 = 0
9. x + x2 = 0
1 1
(a) KE = x 2 , V = ∫ x 2 dx = x3
2 3
1 2 1 3
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x + x
2 3
(b) To find the equilibrium points, we seek the solutions of the equations
∂E ∂E
= x2 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, we find one equilibrium point at

( 0, 0 ) .
To determine if the point is stable, we V (x)
note that the potential energy 3

1 3
V ( x) = x 2
3
does not have a local maxima or minima –2 –1 1 2 x
at ( 0, 0 ) , so ( 0, 0 ) is an unstable (or –1
semistable) equilibrium point.

–2
(c) The graph of V ( x ) is a simple cubic.
Potential energy of x + x 2 = 0
10. x − e x −1 = 0
(a) KE =
1 2
2
( )
x , V = ∫ −e x −1 dx = −e x − x
1
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x 2 − e x − x
2
∂E ∂E
= −e x −1 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
It is clear that the first of these equations V (x)
has no root, so the equation has no equi- 2

librium points.
1
(c) Note that the graph of the potential energy
V ( x ) does not have any local maxima or –2 –1 1 2 x
minima points, which corresponds to the –1

lack of equilibrium points found in part
–2
(b).
Potential energy of x − e x −1 = 0
x + ( x −1) = 0
2
11.
1 1
x 2 , V = ∫ ( x −1) dx =
2
(a) KE = x3 − x 2 + x
2 3
1 2 1 3
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x + x − x2 + x
2 3
∂E ∂E
= x 2 − 2x +1 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, yields only one real equilibrium point (1, 0 ) . Because x = 0 ,
we determine if it is stable (local minima) or unstable (local maxima) by simply drawing

the graph of V ( x ) show in part (c). Thus, we find that (1, 0 ) is an unstable (or
semistable) equilibrium point.

(c) The graph of the potential energy V ( x ) V (x)
is shown. Note that V ( x ) has neither a 2
maximum nor a minimum at x = 1 , and

1
hence (1, 0 ) is an unstable (or semista-
ble) equilibrium point. x

–2 –1 1 2
–1
–2
Potential energy of x + ( x −1) = 0

2
1
12. x=
x2
1 1 1
(a) KE = x2 , V = −∫ dx =
2 x2 x
1 2 1
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x +
2 x
∂E −1 ∂E
= 2 =0, = x =0.
∂x x ∂x
Because the first equation does not have a solution, there is no equilibrium point.
is shown. Note that V ( x ) does not have 4
any local maxima or minima, which cor-

2
responds to the absence of equilibrium
points noted in part (b). –2 –1 1 2 x
–2
–4
Potential energy of x = 1 x 2
13. x = ( x −1)( x − 2 )
1 1 3
(a) KE = x 2 , V = − ∫ ( x −1)( x − 2 ) dx = x3 + x 2 − 2x
2 3 2
1 2 1 3 3 2
E ( x, x ) = KE + V = x − x + x − 2x
2 3 2
∂E ∂E
= −x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0 , = x =0.
∂x ∂x
Solving these equations, we find two equilibrium points at (1, 0 ) and ( 2, 0 ) . Because
x = 0 , we determine which points are stable (local minima) and which are unstable (local
maxima) by simply drawing the graph of V ( x ) show in part (c).
is shown. Note that V ( x ) has local 2
minima at x = 1 and a local maxima at

1
x = 2 . Hence, (1, 0 ) is a stable point and
( 2, 0 ) is an unstable point.
–4 –2 2 4 x
–1
–2
Potential energy of x = ( x −1)( x − 2 )

 Conservative or Nonconservative?
14. x + x2 = 0 x
4
Conservative because it is of the form
2
mx + F ( x ) = 0 .
–4 –2 2 4 x
The total energy of this conservative system is
–2
1 1 1
E ( x, x ) = mx + ∫ F ( x ) dx = x 2 + x3 .
2 2 3 –4
We draw contour curves for this surface over the xx -plane to view the trajectories of the
differential equation in the xx plane.
15. x + kx = 0 x
Conservative because it has the form 4
mx + F ( x ) = 0 . 2
The total energy of this conservative system is –4 –2 2 4 x

–2
1 1 1
E ( x, x ) = mx + ∫ F ( x ) dx = x 2 + kx 2 .
2 2 2 –4
We draw contour curves for this surface over the xx -plane to view the trajectories of the differen-
tial equation in the xx plane. The trajectories of x + kx = 0 are ellipses each with height k
times its width.
16. x + x + x2 = 1 x
5
Not conservative due to the x term. The spiral
trajectories in its phase plane cannot be level
curves of any surface. x

–5 5
–5
17. θ + sin θ = 0 θ
4
Conservative because it is of the form
mθ + F (θ ) = 0 . 2
The total energy of this nonconservative system −π π θ

is –2
( )1 1
E θ , θ = mθ + ∫ F (θ ) dθ = θ 2 − cos θ .
2 2 –4
We can draw contour curves for this surface over the θθ -plane to view the trajectories of the
differential equation in the θθ plane.
18. θ + sin θ = 1 θ
2
Conservative because it can be written in the
form 1
mθ + F (θ ) = 0 , θ
–8 –4 4 8
where F (θ ) = sin θ −1 . The total energy is
–1
( )
1
E θ , θ = θ 2 − cosθ − θ .
2 –2
We can draw contour curves for this surface over the θθ -plane to view the trajectories of the
differential equation in the θθ plane.
19. θ + θ + sin θ = 1 θ
4
Not conservative due to the θ term. The
following phase plane portrait shows equilibria 2
along the axis. Trajectory cannot be level curves
θ
for any surface. −2π −π π 2π
–2
–4
Trajectories of a nonconservative system

 Time-Reversible Systems
20. (a) mx = F ( x ) . If we introduce backwards time τ = −t , then taking the derivatives, yields
dx dx dτ dx
= =−
dt dτ dt dτ
d 2x d d ⎛ dx ⎞ dτ d2x d 2x
= ( x) = − = − 2 ( −1) = 2
dt 2 dt dτ ⎜⎝ dτ ⎟⎠ dt dτ dτ
The conservative system x + F ( x ) = 0 is transformed into exactly the same equation
d2x
+ F ( x) = 0
dτ 2
in backwards time τ .
(b) The solution of the IVP
x + x = 0 , x (0) = 1 , x (0) = 0
is x ( t ) = cost . If we replace t by –t, it yields the solution x ( −t ) = cos ( −t ) = cost . Hence,
running the system backwards looks exactly like running the system forward.
(c) The solution of the IVP x = −mg , x ( 0 ) = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 100 is
1
x (t ) mgt 2 + 100t .
=−
2
1
If we replace t by –t, we get x ( −t ) = − 2 mgt −100t . Hence, the solution is not the same,
2
and the system is not time reversible.
(d) If we think of a time-reversible system as a system where equations of motion are the
same when we replace t by –t, we might make the following conclusions.
(i) yes (ii) no (iii) no
(iv) no (v) yes
 Computer Lab: Undamped Spring
21. IDE Lab
 Computer Lab: Damped Spring
22. IDE Lab

 Conversion of Equations
23. x + ω02 x = f ( t )
Letting x1 = x , x2 = x , we have
x1 = x2
x2 = −ω02 x1 + f ( t ) .
In matrix form, this becomes

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
= + .
⎢x ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢f t ⎥
⎣ 2⎦
−ω 0 x2 ()
⎣ 0 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
g
24. θ+ sin θ = 0
L
Letting x1 = θ , x2 = θ , we have
x1 = x2
g
x2 = − sin x1 .
L
This system is not linear, so there is no matrix form.
25. ay′′ + by′ + cy = 0
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ , we have
x1 = x2
b
x2 = − c cx − x2 .
1 a
a
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢⎡
0 1⎤ x
⎡ 1⎤
=
⎢x ⎥ ⎢ c b ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ .
− − x
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
a a
1
26. LQ + RQ + Q=0
C
dQ
Letting x1 = Q , x2 = , we have
dt
x1 = x2
1 R
x =− x − x .
2 1 2
LC L
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢⎡
0 1⎤
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥ = ⎢ 1 R ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ .
− − x
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
LC L
27. ( )
t 2 x + tx + t 2 − n 2 x = 0
x1 = x2
x2 =−
(t 2
− n2 ) x − 1x .
2 1 2
t t

⎡ 0 1⎤
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = t −n 2
1 ⎢ ⎥.
⎢
⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎢ − − ⎣ x2 ⎦
⎣ t2 t⎦
28. x + (1+ sin ω t ) x = 0
x1 = x2
x2 = − (1+ sin ω t ) x1 .

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
= .
⎢x ⎥ ⎢ − 1+ sin ω t 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ( ) ⎦ ⎣ x2 ⎦
29. (1− t ) y′′ − 2ty′ + n ( n +1) y = 0
2
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ , we have
x1 = x2
n ( n +1) 2t
x2 = − 2
x1 + x2 .
1− t 1− t2

⎡ 0 1 ⎤
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ n +1 2t ⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥ .
x −n x
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
1− t 2 1− t 2

d4y d3y d 2 y dy
30. 4 +3 3 +2 + + 4y =1
dt dt dt 2 dt
If we introduce
x1 = y
dy
x2 =
dt
d2y
x3 = 2
dt
d3y
x4 = 3
dt
we have the differential equations

x1 = x2
x2 = x3
x3 = x4
x4 = −4x1 − x2 − 2x3 − 3x4 +1
or in matrix form
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1
0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 + .
1⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣ −4 −1 −2 −3⎦ ⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
 Conversion of IVPs
31. y′′ − y′ + 2 y = sin t , y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 1
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ yields
x1′ = x2 x1 ( 0 ) = 1
.
x2′ = −2x1 + x2 + sin t x2 ( 0 ) = 1
In matrix form this becomes
⎡ x1′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ( 0 ) ⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎡
= + ; = .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ x2′ ⎦ ⎣ −2 1⎦ ⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎣sin t ⎦ ⎣ x2 ( 0 ) ⎦ ⎣1⎦
32. y′′′ + ty′ + y = 1, y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1 , y ′′ ( 0 ) = 2
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ , x3 = y ′ yields x1′ = x2

x2′ = x3
In matrixx3′form,
= −x1this becomes
− tx2
x1 ( 0 )
+1
=1
x2 ( 0 )
=1 .
x3 ( 0 )
=2

⎡ x1′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ( 0 ) ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2′ ⎥ = ⎢ 0 0 1⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ , ⎢⎣ x2 ( 0 ) ⎥⎦ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ .
x3′ ⎢⎣ −1 −t 0 x3 ⎢⎣1 ⎢ x3 ( 0 ) ⎥ ⎢⎣ 2
33. y′′ + 3y′ + 2z = e −t , y ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′ ( 0 ) = 1
z′′ + y + 2z = 1, z ( 0 ) = 1, z ′ ( 0 ) = 0
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ , x3 = z , x4 = z′ yields
x1′ = x2 x1 ( 0 ) = 0
x2′ = −3x2 − 2x3 + e−t x2 ( 0 ) = 1

.
x3′ = x4 x3 ( 0 ) = 1
x4′ = −x1 − 2x3 + 1 x4 ( 0 ) = 0
⎡ x1′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ( 0 ) ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ′⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −t ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥⎢ 0 −3 −2 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢ e ⎥ ⎢ x2 ( 0 ) ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥
= + , = .
⎢ ′⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ x (0)⎥ ⎢1 ⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 0 0 0 1 x3 0 3 (0)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0
′ 0 −2 0 ⎦ ⎣ x4 ⎦ x
⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣ −1 1 4 ⎣ ⎦
34. y′′′ + y′ + 2z = 1, y ( 0 ) = 1, y ′ ( 0 ) = 0 , y ′′ ( 0 ) = 1
z ′ + y + 2z = sin t , z ( 0 ) = 1
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y ′ , x3 = y ′′ , x4 = z yields
x1′ = x2 x1 ( 0 ) = 0
x2′ = x3 x2 ( 0 ) = 0
.
x3′ = −x2 − 2x4 +1 x3 ( 0 ) = 1
x4′ = −x1 − 2x4 + sin t x4 ( 0 ) = 1

⎡ x1′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤ ⎡ x1 ( 0 ) ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ′⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ x2 ⎥ = ⎢
In matrix form, this becomes 0 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ( 0 ) ⎥ 0
+⎢ =⎢ ⎥.
⎢ x3′ ⎥ ⎢ 0 −1 0 −2⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ x3 ( 0 ) ⎥ ⎢1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
′
⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣ −1 0 0 −2 ⎦ ⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣sin t ⎦ x4 ( 0 ) ⎣1⎦

 Conversion of Systems
35. x1 + x1 + 2x2 = e−t
x2 + 2x2 = 0
Letting z1 = x1 , z2 = x1 , z3 = x2 , z4 = x2 yields the system
z1 = z2
z2 = −z1 − 2z3 + e−t
z3 = z 4
z4 = −2z3 .
⎡ z1′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ z1 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎢ ′⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −t ⎥
⎢ z2 ⎥ ⎢ −1 0 −2 0 ⎥ ⎢ z2 ⎥ ⎢ e ⎥
= + .
⎢ ′⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
z3 0 0 0 1 z3 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
′
⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 −2 0 ⎦ ⎣ z4 ⎦
z 0
36. y ′′′ = f ( t, y, y′, y ′′, z, z ′ )

z ′′ = f ( t, y, y′, y ′′, z, z ′ )
Letting x1 = y , x2 = y′ , x3 = y ′ , x4 = z , x5 = z′ yields
x1′ = x2
x2′ = x3
x3′ = f ( t, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 )
x4′ = x5
x5′ = g ( t, x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) .
37. x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3

x2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3
x3 = a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3
If we let z1 = x1 , z2 = x1 , z3 = x2 , z4 = x2 , z5 = x3 , z6 = x3 , we get
z1 = z2
z2 = a11 z1 + a12 z3 + a13 z5

z3 = z 4
z4 = a21 z1 + a22 z3 + a23 z5
z5 = z 6
z6 = a31 z1 + a32 z3 + a33 z5 .
In matrix form z = Az , this becomes

⎡ z1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0 0 0⎤ ⎡ z1 ⎤
⎢z ⎥ ⎢a 0 a12 0 a13 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ z2 ⎥⎥
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 11
⎢ z3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ z3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥.
⎢ z 4 ⎥ ⎢ a21 0 a22 0 a23 0 ⎥ ⎢ z4 ⎥
⎢ z5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ z5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
z6 ⎢⎣ a31 0 a32 0 a33 0 z6
 Solving Linear Systems

38. x1′ = x2
x2′ = −2x1 − 3x2
From first DE: x2 = x1′ . Substituting in second DE gives
( x1′ )′ = −2x1 − 3 ( x1′ )

or the second order DE
x1′ + 3x1′ + 2x1 = 0 .
Solving the second order DE gives

x1 = c1e −2t + c2 e−t .
Substituting this result in first DE gives
x2 = x1′ = −2c1e−2t − c2 e −t .
39. x1′ = 3x1 − 2x2

x2′ = 2x1 − 2x2
1 3
From first DE: x2 = − x′1 + x1 . Substituting in second DE yields a second order DE to solve for
2 2
x1 .
⎛ 1 3 ⎞′ ⎛ 1 3 ⎞
− x′ + x = 2x − 2 − x′ + x
⎜ 2 1 2 1⎟ 1 ⎜ 2 1 2 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3
− x′′ + x′ = 2x + x′ − 3x
1
2 2 1 1 1 1
x1′′ − x1′ − 2x1 = 0

x1 = c1e 2t + c2 e −t
To find x2 , substitute the solution for x1 back into the first DE.
x =−
1
x′ +
3
x =−
1
( 2c e 2t
) 3 (c e
− c e −t + 2t
+ c e −t = ) 1
c e 2t + 2c e −t .
2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
40. x1′ = x1 + x2
x2′ = 4x1 + x2
From first DE: x2 = x1′ − x1 . Substituting in second DE yields a second order DE to solve for x1 .
( x1′ − x1 )′ = 4x1 + ( x1′ − x1 )

x1′′ − x1′ = 4x1 + x1′ − x1
x1′′ − 2x1′ − 3x1 = 0
x1 = c1e3t + c2 e −t
( ) ( )
From first calculation, x2 = x1′ − x1 , so x2 = 3c1e3t − c2 e −t − c1e3t + c2 e −t = 2c1e3t − 2c2 e−t .
41. x1′ = x2 + t
x2′ = −2x1 + 3x2 + 5
From first DE: x2 = x1′ − t . Substituting in second DE yields a second order DE to solve for x1 .
( x1′ − t )′ = −2x1 + 3 ( x1′ − t ) + 5

x1′′ −1 = −2x1 + 3x1′ − 3t + 5
x1′′ − 3x1′ + 2x1 = −3t + 6.

x = c e 2t + c et
1h 1 2
To find x1 p by the method of undetermined coefficients, substitute x1 p = at + b , x1′ p = a , x1′p = 0
to obtain
0 − 3a + 2at + 2b = −3t + 6 .
Comparing like terms,
3
Coefficients of t: 2a = −3 so a = − .
2
3 3 3
Constants: −3a + 2b = 6 so b = . Hence x1 p = − t + . Therefore,
4 2 4
3 3
x1 = c1e 2t + c2et − t + .
2 4
From first calculation x2 = x1′ − t , so
3
x2 = 2c1e 2t + c2 et − −t .
2
 Solving IVPs for Systems

42. x1′ = 6x1 − 3x2
x2′ = 2x1 + x2
1
From first DE: x2 = 2x1 − x′1 . Substituting in second DE yields a second order DE to solve for x1 .
3
⎛ 1 ⎞′ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2x − x′ = 2x + 2x − x′
⎜ 1 3 1⎟ 1 ⎜ 1 3 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
x1′′ − 7x1′ +12x1 = 0
x1 = c1e3t + c2 e 4t .
1
From first calculation, x2 = 2x1 − x′1 , so
3
(
x2 = 2 c1e3t + c2 e4t − ) 31 (3c e1
3t
)
+ 4c2 e 4t = c1 e3t +
2 4t
3
c2 e .
Applying initial conditions:

x1 ( 0 ) = 2 ⇒ c1 + c2 = 2
2
x 0 =3 ⇒ c + c =3
2( ) 1 2
3
so
c2 = −3 and c1 = 5 .
The solution to the IVP is x1 = 5e3t − 3e 4t , x2 = 5e3t − 2e 4t .

43. x1′ = 3x1 + 4x2
x2′ = 2x1 + x2
1 3
From first DE: x2 = x′1 − x1 . Substituting in second DE yields a second order DE to solve for
4 4
x1 .
⎛1 3 ⎞′ ⎛1 3 ⎞
x′ − x = 2x + x′ − x
⎜ 4 1 4 1⎟ 1 ⎜ 4 1 4 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
x1′′ − 3x1′ = 8x1 + x1′ − 3x1
x1′′ − 4x1′ − 5x1 = 0
x1 = c1e5t + c2 e −t
1 3
From first calculation, x2 = x′1 − x1 , so
4 4
x2 =
1
4
( ) (3
4
) 1
5c1e5t − c2 e −t − c1 e5t + c2 e −t = c1 e5t − c2 e −t
2
Applying initial conditions:

x1 ( 0 ) = 1 ⇒ c1 + c2 = 1
1
x 0 = −1 ⇒ c − c = −1
2( ) 1 2
2
so
c1 = 0 and c2 = 1.
The solution to the IVP is x1 = e−t , x2 = −e−t .
 Counterexample
44. An example: The degenerate system
x1 + x2 + x1 = 0
x1 + x2 + x1 = 0
where both equations are exactly the same clearly cannot be written as a second-order equation in
either x1 or x2 . The reader might contemplate finding all the solutions of such an undetermined
system.
Another approach: Note that when we write an nth-order equation such as

ay ′ + by′ + cy = 0
as a system of first-order equations by letting x1 = y , x2 = y ′ , the system has the form
⎡ 0 1⎤
⎡x ⎤ ⎡x ⎤
⎢ b⎥
⎢x ⎥ =⎢ − c
1 1
.
− ⎥⎢ x⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
a a
This shows we cannot obtain a second-order equation in x1 with x2 = x1 unless the coefficient
matrix has the preceding form in which the first row contains a 0 and 1. Hence, a system such as
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ x ⎥ = ⎢ 4 1⎥ ⎢ x ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
cannot be transformed into a second-order equation in x1 with x2 = x1 .
 Coupled Mass-Spring System

45. Given the linear system
mx1 = −k1 x1 + k2 ( x2 − x1 ) = − ( k1 + k 2 ) x1 + k 2 x2
mx2 = −k2 ( x2 − x1 ) = k2 x1 − k2 x2 ,
we let
z1 = x1 z 3 = x2
z2 = x1 z4 = x2 .
We then have the first-order system

z1 = z2
k1 +k 2 k2
z z z
2 =− 1 + 3
m m
z3 = z4
⎛k ⎞ ⎛k ⎞
z4 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ z1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ z3 .
⎝m⎠ ⎝m⎠
⎡ 0 1 0 0⎤
⎡z ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡z ⎤
1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ − ( k1 +k2 ) 0
k2 ⎥
0 ⎢ ⎥
1
⎢ z2 ⎥ = ⎢ m m ⎥ ⎢ z2 ⎥
.
⎢ z3 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 0 0 1 ⎢ z3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ z4 ⎦ ⎢ k2 k2 ⎥ ⎣ z4 ⎦
0 − 0
⎢ ⎥
⎣ m m ⎦
 Satellite Problem
k
46. r = r ( t )θ 2 ( t ) − + u1 ( t )
r 2 (t )
2θ ( t ) r ( t ) 1
()
r (t ) r (t )
2
θ= + u t
Letting
x1 = r x3 = θ
x2 = r x4 = θ ,
we have the system

x1 = x2
k
x2 = x1 x42 − + u1 ( t )
x12
x3 = x4
2 x2 x4 1
x4 = + u2 ( t ) .
x1 x1
SECTION 4.7 Conservation and Conversion 449
 Two Inverted Pendulums
47. θ1 = ( mg +1)θ1 + mgθ 2 − u ( t )

θ2 = mgθ1 + ( mg +1)θ 2 − u ( t )
Letting
x1 = θ1
x2 = 1θ
x3 = θ 2
x4 = θ 2
we have first-order linear system

x1 = x2
x2 = ( mg +1) x1 + mgx3 − u ( t )
x3 = x4
x4 = mgx1 + ( mg +1) x3 − u ( t ) .

⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0⎤
⎢x ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ mg +1 0 mg 0⎥⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⎢⎢ −u(t) ⎥⎥
+ .
⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x3 ⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣ mg 0 mg +1 0 ⎦ ⎣ x4 ⎦ ⎣ −u(t) ⎦
48. Student Project

Differential Equations and Linear Algebra 2nd Edition Farlow Solutions Manual 1

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Differential Equations and Linear Algebra

2nd Edition Farlow

4.1 The Harmonic Oscillator

 The Undamped Oscillator

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 , gives

so c1 =1, c2 = 0 . Hence, the IVP has the solution x ( t ) = cost .

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , gives

or c1 = c2 = 1. Hence, the IVP has the solution

In polar form, this would be

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + 9x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = 1 , gives

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + 4x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 1 , x ( 0 ) = −2 , gives

so c1 = 1, c2 = −1 . Hence, the IVP has the solution

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + 16x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = −1 , x ( 0 ) = 0 , gives

so c1 = −1, c2 = 0 . Hence, the IVP has the solution

6. x + 16x = 0 , x (0) = 0 , x (0) = 4

The general solution of the harmonic oscillator equation x + 16x = 0 is given by

Substituting the initial conditions x ( 0 ) = 0 , x ( 0 ) = 4 , we get

so c1 = 0 , c2 = 1. The IVP has the solution

7. x + 16π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 0, x (0) = π

x = −4π c1 sin 4π t + 4π c2 cos 4π t

measured directly giving A ≈ 1.4 . Hence,

10. y = 2cost + sin t y

measured directly giving A ≈ 2.2 . Hence, Š2.5

2cost + sin t ≈ 2.2cos ( t − 0.5 ) .

11. y = 5cos3t + sin 3t yδ

phase angle δ ≈ 3 ( 0.05 ) = 0.15 . The amplitude A

5cos3t + sin 3t ≈ 5.1cos ( 3t − 0.15 ) .

12. y = cos 3t + 5sin 3t y δ

phase angle δ ≈ 0.5 ( 3) = 1.5 . The amplitude A

cos3t + 5sin 3t ≈ 5.1cos ( 3t −1.5 ) .

13. y = − cos 5t + 2sin 5t yδ

− cos 5t + 2sin t ≈ 2.2cos ( 5t − 2 ) .

 Alternate Forms for Sinusoidal Oscillations

where c1 = Acos δ , c2 = Asin δ .

 Single-Wave Forms of Simple Harmonic Motion

15. cost + sin t

(Compare with solution to Problem 9.)

16. cost − sin t

18. − cost − sin t

 Component Form of Harmonic Motion

19. 2cos ( 2t − π ) = 2 {cos 2t cos ( −π ) − sin 2t sin ( −π )} = −2 cos 2t

the initial conditions, we find the solution (see Problem 1)

which tells us the amplitude is 1 and the phase angle δ = 0 radians.

29. x + 16π 2 x = 0 , x (0) = 0, x ( 0 ) = π

31. (a) See graph, next page.

From (4) x = c1 cos 0.5t + c2 sin 0.5t

x(0) = 0 ⇒ c1 = 0 so x(t) = c2 sin ⎜ ⎟ and x(t) = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ .

Alternatively, you could use (5)

(c) See graph

Graph for b) and d) Graph for a)

Other observations include:

From Problem 1 x(t) = cos(t),

From Problem 2 x(t) = cos(t) + sin(t),

From Problem 4, x(t) = cos 2t − sin 2t,

From Problem 5, x(t) = −cos 4t,

From Problem 6, x(t) = sin 4t,

quency (fewest humps); ω0 = 2 gives the

highest frequency (most humps). 2

plane trajectory; as ω0 increases, the t