DEGREE PROJECT IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT,

SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN 2021

Exploring the potential of Green

Infrastructure to enhance urban
resilience as part of the 2040
Development Plan La Paz, Bolivia

MARITZA CARLSSON

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
 Exploring the potential of
Green Infrastructure to enhance
urban resilience as part of the
2040 Development Plan La Paz,
Bolivia
Maritza Carlsson

Supervisor
Dr Joseph Mulligan

Examiner
Prof. Mattias Höjer

Supervisor at UN-Habitat Bolivia

Liset Revollo

Degree Project in Sustainable Technology

KTH Royal Institute of Technology
School of Architecture and Built Environment
Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engineering
SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
TRITA-ABE-MBT-21609

ii
Svensk Sammanfattning

I detta dokument diskuteras argumenten till förmån för urban grön infrastruktur för en plan för
anpassning till klimatförändringar för kommunen La Paz, Bolivia. Grön infrastruktur är en
naturbaserad lösning som använder vegetation för att skapa ett hållbart samhälle och lösa
samhällsutmaningar som utsläppsminskningar, klimatanpassning och förbättrad hälsa. Grön
infrastruktur i städer kan definieras som naturlig infrastruktur, såsom gatuträd, gräsmattor, parker,
stadsskogar, odlad mark och våtmarker; som förenar grönområden och öppna ytor inom och utanför
staden genom att bilda ett grönt stadsnät. Dessa nätverk tillhandahåller ekosystemtjänster som bidrar
till att upprätthålla och utveckla den biologiska mångfalden, skapar renare luft och vatten, förebygger
översvämningar, reducerar buller, tar hand om dagvatten, stärker grundvattenbildningen, kyler
städerna, renar avlopp samt möjliggör rekreations- och kulturvärden.

Därför undersöker denna avhandling potentialen i hur staden La Paz kan integrera gröna
infrastrukturlösningar för att svara på fyra huvudhot: översvämningar, vattenresursbrist, jordskred
och extrema händelser på grund av höga temperaturer inom den strategiska planeringen av La Paz,
plan 2040. Plan 2040 är den första kommunala strategiska utvecklingsplanen för
markanvändningsplanering i Bolivia. I enlighet med detta är kapitlet efter introduktionen inriktat på
den konceptuella översynen av grön infrastruktur och beskrivningen av några av dess viktigaste
egenskaper och de fördelar det medför. Det poängterar också vikten av att bygga mer socialt
inkluderande städer och nämner vissa utmaningar och behov för alla människor (män och kvinnor).
För att genomföra denna forskning genomförde författaren flera intervjuer för att ta reda på om det
finns någon implikation gällande könstillhörighet under genomförandet av grön infrastruktur.

Avhandlingen bygger på ett kvalitativt förhållningssätt och forskningsmetoden bygger på

litteraturgenomgång, skrivbordsarbete (eftersom det på grund av pandemin inte var möjligt att
besöka La Paz) och åtta intervjuer. Slutsatsen drogs att grön infrastruktur med återbeskogning och
beskogning bidrar positivt i bekämpningen av de fyra största hoten. Begreppet grön infrastruktur är
nytt på regeringens dagordningar, och även om det inte har någon homogen konceptuell ram, finns
det vissa principer som gör grön infrastruktur viktigt att inkludera i stadsutvecklingsplaneringen. Det
behövs dock en större förståelse för vilka typer av gröna infrastrukturåtgärder som är effektiva för att
öka motståndskraften i La Paz och hur dessa åtgärder bör utformas och genomföras. Slutligen kunde
utredningen påvisa att Plan 2040 skulle förbättras om den gröna infrastrukturplanen skulle inkludera
följande: 1) icke -invasiva främmande arter av växter i stadsmiljön; 2) en plan för finansiering av
genomförande; 3) en studie som fastställer hållbara och gröna utvecklingsområden; 4) en plan för
drift- och underhåll; 5) stärkt samordning mellan kommunens funktionella och operativa enheter
(miljöaktivister och stadsplanerare); och 6) eventuella konsekvenser av grön infrastruktur för att
förebygga brott och fostra positiva sociala interaktioner.

iii
Resumen en español

Actualmente las ciudades de Bolivia enfrentan un amplio espectro de desafíos para poder ser
efectivamente sustentables. Las ciudades se entienden como sustentables cuando identifican y
visibilizan las conexiones y dinámicas rurales-urbanas de forma integral, incluidos los ecosistemas y
los sistemas agropecuarios; adoptan métodos eficientes de uso de energía y recursos; mitigan la
contaminación de cuerpos de agua, suelo y atmósfera; reconocen las capacidades de regeneración
sustentación y las limitaciones de los sistemas naturales en los que se basan; priorizan la conservación
y generación de áreas verdes, biodiversas para mejorar la infiltración de agua, reducción de
escorrentía, promover evapotranspiración y protección de fuentes de agua; y valoran las funciones de
los ecosistemas por el papel que desempeñan en la salud urbana, la protección ambiental, el paisaje
y la habitabilidad.

Entre los principales desafíos para la sustentabilidad de las ciudades del país, destacan la reducción
de la contaminación del aire, agua, suelo y visual, degradación de lagunas y ríos urbanos, pérdida de
calidad y cantidad de agua en acuíferos, el ruido, islas de calor, escasas áreas verdes multifuncionales
y conectadas. El crecimiento de las manchas urbanas no planificadas reduce cada vez más a las tierras
agropecuarias, expulsándolas cada vez más lejos. Impactando también de forma alarmante a la
pérdida de cobertura vegetal, degradación de suelos, ocupación y avasallamiento de bosques, zonas
de alto valor ecológico y áreas protegidas aledañas a las ciudades.

El trabajo discute los argumentos a favor de la infraestructura verde urbana para un plan de
adaptación al cambio climático para el municipio de La Paz en Bolivia. La infraestructura verde es
una solución basada en la naturaleza que utiliza la vegetación para la conservación de la
biodiversidad, adaptación al cambio climático, como posible solución a disminución de inundaciones,
control de escorrentías y manejo de drenajes, aumento y mejoramiento de espacios verdes.

Por lo tanto, esta tesis investiga el potencial de cómo la ciudad de La Paz puede integrar soluciones
de infraestructura verde para responder a cuatro amenazas principales: inundaciones, escasez de
recurso hídrico, deslizamiento y eventos extremos por altas temperaturas para la planificación
estratégica de La Paz. Para lo cual se revisó el Plan 2040 que es el plan estratégico municipal de
ordenamiento territorial de La Paz.

En concordancia con ello, el capítulo después de la introducción se enfoca a la revisión conceptual de

la infraestructura verde y descripción de algunas de sus principales características y los beneficios que
aporta. También se plantea la importancia de construir ciudades más inclusivas, y menciona algunos
desafíos y necesidades de todas las personas (hombres y mujeres).

Para llevar a cabo esta investigación, la autora realizó varias entrevistas, para averiguar si hay alguna
implicación sobre el género durante la implementación de la infraestructura verde. La tesis se basa
en un enfoque cualitativo y el método de investigación se basa en la revisión de la literatura, trabajo
de escritorio (ya que por la pandemia visitar La paz no fue posible) y entrevistas.

Se concluyó que la infraestructura verde con reforestación y forestación responde positivamente a las
cuatro amenazas principales. El concepto de infraestructura verde es de reciente aparición en las
agendas gubernamentales y aunque no cuenta con un marco conceptual homogéneo, prevalecen
algunos principios que lo convierten en un hito para la planeación del desarrollo urbano. Por lo tanto,
se necesita una mayor comprensión sobre qué tipos de medidas de infraestructura verde son efectivas
para aumentar la resiliencia urbana en La Paz, y cómo estas medidas podrían diseñarse,
implementarse y mantenerse sin causar la percepción de miedo al acoso o al crimen en las mujeres.
Finalmente, se concluyó que el Plan 2040 se fortalecerá si se considera e incorpora lo siguiente: 1)
especies de plantas nativas y/o plantas no invasivas; 2) financiación para la ejecución; 3) un estudio
que determine las áreas de desarrollo sostenible para enverdecimiento urbano; 4) su mantenimiento
y medidas de cuidado; 5) coordinación entre la unidad funcional y operativa del municipio
(ambientalistas, urbanistas y especialistas en género); 6) y cualquier implicación de la infraestructura
verde para la equidad de género.

iv
Abstract

Cities continue to grow, and the rapid population growth, and overcrowding are increasing the
pressure on local governments to provide basic services (e.g., housing, clean water, sanitation, basic
health services, and education) and green space planning. Climate change and the human impact on
the environment are putting even more pressure on urban areas and their corresponding government.
Green infrastructure is a nature-based solution that uses vegetation to address both the challenge of
urban sprawl and threats caused by climate change. Thus, this thesis explores the potential of how
the city of La Paz can integrate green infrastructure solutions to respond to the four priority areas
(flooding, water scarcity, landslide, and urban heatwaves) of the city-region’s strategic planning
outlook, Plan 2040. The Plan 2040 is the first strategic municipal developing plan for land use
planning in Bolivia. To carry out this investigation the author undertook several interviews, to find if
there are any implications on gender during green infrastructure implementation. The thesis is based
on a case study qualitative approach and the research method draws on literature review, desk study
and eight interviews. It was concluded that green infrastructure with reforestation and afforestation
responds positively to the four priority areas. Additionally, green infrastructure has different
configurations to develop a resilient community at several scales from school grounds or a row of
trees to open park space or planting rain gardens. Moreover, poorly designed green landscaping can
increase the fear of crime. Thus, a greater understanding is needed about which types of green
infrastructure measures are effective in increasing urban resilience in La Paz, and how these measures
can be better designed, implemented, and maintained without causing the perception of fear of
harassment or crime. Finally, it was concluded that Plan 2040 will be strengthened if it was to
consider and incorporate the following: 1) non-invasive plant species; 2) financing for
implementation; 3) a study that determines the sustainable development areas for urban greening;
4) its maintenance, and care measures; 5) coordination between the functional and operational unit
of the municipality (environmentalists, urban planners, and gender specialists); 6) and how green
infrastructure planning, design and implementation could be more gender sensitive.

Keywords

Risks in La Paz, Urban Parks, Urban Forest, Urban Nature-Based Solutions, Gender in Planning

v
Special thanks to…

Dr Joseph Mulligan for the support and supervision of this work and for being available even
on weekends and summer holidays.

Dr Lena Karlsson Senior Policy Specialist Gender Equality at SIDA for opening doors and
introducing me to the Swedish Embassy in Bolivia.

Frida Rodhe and Dr Guido Meruvia Schween at the Swedish Embassy in Bolivia for
introducing me to United Nations Habitat- Bolivia.

Liset Revollo, Environment and Resilience Specialist UN-Habitat for always being there,
answering my questions, and helping with interview logistics and photos. Also, my eyes on
the ground during the COVID-19 pandemic, making travel nearly impossible.

Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza for taking photos and my eyes on the ground.

Nathalie Bergame for her initial supervision.

All the people interviewed by me.

Stefan Carlsson, my partner, for listening and inspiring throughout the thesis and for
encouraging me and making this study possible.

My children, Filippa, Coral, and Tindra, for supporting me with love and for making a
manageable experience to work from home during the pandemic.

And everybody who read and commented on my thesis.

Maritza Carlsson

Stockholm, August 2021

vi
Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 2
1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE AND URBANIZATION .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 THE CHALLENGE OF POPULATION GROWTH AND GENDER IN PLANNING ............................................. 2
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE .......................................................................................... 3
2.1 THE GUIDING RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................. 3
3. BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................... 3
3.1 WHY BOLIVIA? ............................................................................................................................. 3
3.1.1 Covid-19 ............................................................................................................................. 4
3.1.2 Urban growth in Bolivia ...................................................................................................... 4
3.1.3 Basic Services in Bolivia .................................................................................................... 5
3.1.4 Gender Issues in Bolivia .................................................................................................... 5
3.2. GREEN AREA PER CAPITA IN CITIES IN BOLIVIA ............................................................................. 5
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LA PAZ, BOLIVIA ......................................................................................... 6
3.4 URBAN PLANNING IN LA PAZ ......................................................................................................... 8
3.4.1 Accessibility and usability of green space in La Paz ....................................................... 10
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................... 11
4.1 WHAT IS GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE, AND HOW DO WE INCLUDE IT IN URBAN PLANNING? ................... 11
4.1.1 Green Infrastructure Definition .......................................................................................... 12
4.1.2 Ecosystem services........................................................................................................... 13
4.2 CONFLICT AND CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE .....................................14
4.3 POORLY DESIGNED PUBLIC SPACES CAN INCREASE THE NUMBER OF HARASSMENT AND THREATS .... 15
4.4 PLAN INTEGRAL LA PAZ 2040 ......................................................................................................16
5. DELIMITATIONS ........................................................................................................ 16
6. RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................................................17
6.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................................18
6.2 DESK STUDY ...............................................................................................................................18
6.3 INTERVIEWS ................................................................................................................................ 19
7. RESULTS ................................................................................................................. 21
7. 1 GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE SOLUTIONS APPROPRIATE TO RESPOND TO PLAN 2040 FOUR PRIORITIES
AREAS (FLOODING, WATER SCARCITY, LANDSLIDE, AND URBAN HEATWAVES) ........................................ 21
7.1.1 Flooding ............................................................................................................................. 21
7.1.2 Water scarcity ................................................................................................................... 23
7.1.3 Landslides ........................................................................................................................ 24
7.1.4 Urban heatwaves ............................................................................................................. 26
7.2 GENDER IMPLICATIONS WITH THE IMPLEMENTATION OF GI ............................................................ 28
8. DISCUSSION............................................................................................................. 29
9. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 30
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 32
OTHER REFERENCES................................................................................................ 36
INTERVIEWS ............................................................................................................. 37
APPENDIX I: GUIDING QUESTIONS USED IN INTERVIEW ................................................ 38
1. ACADEMIC .............................................................................................................................. 38
2. BILATERAL ORGANIZATION ...................................................................................................... 38
3. BILATERAL ORGANIZATION/ URBAN PLANNER .......................................................................... 38
4. POLITICIANS ........................................................................................................................... 39
5. GENDER SPECIALISTS .............................................................................................................. 40

vii
List of tables

Table 1 Landscape elements associated with green infrastructure ........................................... 12

Table 2 Summary of the effects of green infrastructure .............................................................. 12
Table 3 Ecosystem services ............................................................................................................ 13
Table 4 Code used for the different types of stakeholders to attribute the different interviews
referred in the results ...................................................................................................................... 20

List of Figures
Figure 1 Bolivia's green areas per inhabitant calculated in twenty cities .................................... 6
Figure 2 Paz. General view of La Paz. .............................................................................................. 7
Figure 3 The densest neighbourhood in La Paz: Max Paredes with a population of 14,763/km 2
.............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 4 La Paz. A house on the slope and several houses at the edge of a landslide-prone
zone ......................................................................................................................................................8
Figure 5 La Paz. See turquoise house at the slope on unstable land. .........................................8
Figure 6 La Paz. Landslide after intense rain on 19 February 2002. ............................................8
Figure 7 Illegal sewerage discharge in legal constructions of Sopocachi neighbourhood. But
the sewage has not been thought of. The pipes that come out are wild sewers, which
infiltrate the ground. There are housing areas downhill. ............................................................... 9
Figure 8 Max -The densest neighbourhood in La Paz: Max Paredes a population of
14,763/km2 ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 9 La Paz. See colourful houses on land prone to landslides ............................................ 9
Figure 10 Plaza Villarreal, La Paz. Few green areas are protected with fences; the rest is
cement. ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 11 Playground next to the road with some grass used as natural impact absorbing
surface to protect children when falling ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 12 Plaza Sucre, La Paz. A child on the other side of the fence. ....................................... 11
Figure 13 – Plaza Sucre, La Paz. Indigenous ladies with traditional clothing sharing food and
having a picnic on the plaza sitting outside of the green protected areas ................................. 11
Figure 14 Summary of research methods used in the investigation .......................................... 18
Figure 15 Flooding Risk Map in La Paz .......................................................................................... 22
Figure 16 Water Scarcity Risk Map in La Paz ................................................................................ 24
Figure 17 Landslide Prone Areas in La Paz Map .......................................................................... 25
Figure 18 Risk Index for Extreme High Temperature ................................................................... 27
Figure 2 Paz. General view of La Paz. .............................................................................................. 7
Figure 3 The densest neighborhood in La Paz: Max Paredes with a population of 14,763/km 2 7
Figure 4 La Paz. A house on the slope and several houses at the edge of a landslide-prone
zone ......................................................................................................................................................8
Figure 5 La Paz. See turquoise house at the slope on unstable land. .........................................8
Figure 6 La Paz. Landslide after intense rain on 19 February 2002. ............................................8
Figure 7 Illegal sewerage discharge in legal constructions of Sopocachi neighborhood. But
the sewage has not been thought of. The pipes that come out are wild sewers, which
infiltrate the ground. There are housing areas downhill. ............................................................... 9
Figure 8 Max -The densest neighborhood in La Paz: Barrio Max Paredes a population of
14,763/km2 ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 9 La Paz. See colorful houses on land prone to landslides .............................................. 9
Figure 10 Plaza Villarreal, La Paz. Few green areas are protected with fences; the rest is
cement. ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 11 Playground next to the road with some grass used as natural impact absorbing
surface to protect children when falling ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 12 Plaza Sucre, La Paz. A child on the other side of the fence. ....................................... 11
Figure 13 – Plaza Sucre, La Paz. Indigenous ladies with traditional clothing sharing food and
having a picnic on the plaza sitting outside of the green protected areas ................................. 11
Figure 14 Summary of research methods used in the investigation .......................................... 18
Figure 15 Flooding Risk Map in La Paz .......................................................................................... 22

viii
Figure 16 Water Scarcity Risk Map in La Paz ............................................................................... 24
Figure 17 Landslide Prone Areas in La Paz Map .......................................................................... 25
Figure 18 Risk Index for Extreme High Temperature ................................................................... 27

ix
Abbreviations (Arial bold 12)

AFD French Development Agency

°C Degree Celsius

CAF Development Bank of Latin America

CCAP Climate Change Action Plan

CO2 Carbon Dioxide

EJ Environmental Justice

ES Ecosystem Services

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

h/day hour a day

INE – by its acronym National Institute of Statistics (Instituto nacional de estadística)

in Spanish

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

GAMLP – by its Autonomous Municipal Government of La Paz (Gobierno Autónomo

acronym Municipal de La Paz)

GAP Gender Action Plan

GHGs Greenhouse gases

GI Green Infrastructure

GCMs General circulation models

m2 Square meters

MMAyA Ministry of Environment and Water

NBS Nature-Based Solutions

NGO Non-governmental Organization

OTB – by its acronym Grassroots Territorial Organizations (Organizaciones Territoriales de

in Spanish Base)

OSAGI Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of

Women

x
PTDI - by its Territorial Plan for Comprehensive Development
acronym in Spanish

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

SEI Stockholm Environment Institute

SIDA Swedish International Development Agency

SMGIR – by its Directorate of Prevention Risk

acronym in Spanish

SMW Stormwater Management

SROCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems

SW Shortwave radiation

TCPA Town and Country Planning Association

UHI Urban Heat Island Effect

UN United Nations

UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlement Program

xi
Preface

I would like to introduce myself by who I am, what I am doing, how I am doing it so that, I indicate to
you, the reader, when and where the process started and how it has continued.

I was born and raised in San Juan, Puerto Rico. My journey began when I decided to pursue
Environmental Engineering in Florida, following my passion for living abroad and exploring different
cultures. While studying Environmental Engineering at the University of Central Florida, I met an
inspiring Swedish friend. He encouraged me to move and continue my studies in Stockholm, Sweden,
the first country in the world to pass an environmental protection act in 1967.

This thesis is for my second master at KTH. My first was in the program Environmental Engineering
and Sustainable Infrastructure that I finished in 1999. After completing my studies, a new passion
was raised, and it was to address social inequalities, and I decided to work and live in what is labelled
today as low-income countries. My studies allowed me to live and work in Sweden, Uruguay,
Nicaragua, Uganda, Pakistan, Malaysia, The Philippines, and Indonesia. Every country is very
different in culture, norms, and manners, like bathing naked or having a picnic in the green garden
at cemeteries in Sweden. To eat a deep-fried pancake on a rainy day in Uruguay. Nicaraguans enjoy
using the lips to point instead of the finger. In Pakistan, it is acceptable for two men to walk together
holding hands, but it is not acceptable if a woman and a man walk holding hands. In Malaysia, it is
rude to touch the head of an adult. In the Philippines, it is not polite when receiving or presenting a
business card using one hand, but both hands. Indonesians prefer using the fork to shovel food onto
the spoon and the spoon for eating.

Each of these countries has its differences, yet they have one thing in common (except perhaps
Sweden), and it is denser communities lacking access to fundamental services such as trash collection,
sewage disposal, electricity, and green areas. Most of the greening recreation areas in the places I have
worked are in more affluent areas. Greening in cities is viewed as an environmental benefit to
contribute to climate change but there are still some social and economic impacts to explore. Green
areas in cities have unintended consequences such as increasing property values, where people get
displaced or forced to pay higher housing costs.

Moreover, the lack of access to fundamental services makes the less affluent communities more
vulnerable to climate change impacts. For example, extreme weather conditions are perceived to
produce crop losses, creating a lack of food security, and increasing food prices. The floods may cause
asset loss and loss of income, and contaminated water threatens health with waterborne diseases and
malaria. How to end poverty if climate change and its effects on poor people are not accounted for?

This thesis was undertaken in collaboration with the United Nations Habitat- Bolivia, based on their
interest in green infrastructure. The study was enhanced by regular meetings with the Environment
and Resilience Specialist at UN-Habitat, Bolivia, however, I was not employed as part of this
collaboration in any form and all the conclusions are my own and undertaken as an objective research
exercise for my master’s thesis at KTH.

1
1. Introduction
1.1 Climate Change and Urbanization
There is significant evidence that much of climate change is caused by anthropogenic activities, such
as GHG emissions and land-use and land cover changes. Climate change leads to natural disasters
(floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, storms). The poor are
more at risk because climate change for example indirectly affects their ability to produce food;
reduced food supply may cause deaths because of starvation (Boliko, 2019). Lack of food creates
insecurity and leads to higher food prices, making it less affordable for the poorer to fulfil their
nutritional needs (ibid). Other factors to vulnerability to climate are, health, ecosystem services,
human habitat, and infrastructure (Chen et al., 2015). Several academic literature and mainstream
media confirm that climate change is one of the greatest environmental threats of all time, being
women and girls more disadvantaged by the impacts because of their dependencies on natural
resources such as soil and water to grow food, wood to provide heat or cook, etc. (Adger et al., 2003).

Urbanization is projected to increase over the next 30 year, and more than two-thirds of the world
population will live in urban areas (UN Department of Public Information, 2018). In 1950, 30 percent
of the world’s population lived in cities, by 2014, 54 percent with a forecast to reach 66 percent by
2050 (ibid). The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, recognized cities as main stakeholders in
achieving sustainable development, and it is reflected in SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
(UNFCCC, 2015). The SDG goes more specific in 11.7 to say that by the year 2030, will provide
universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible, green, and public spaces, for women and children,
older persons, and persons with disabilities (UNDP, 2016). Other targets are affordable and
sustainable housing for all, protection of world cultural heritage, reduce the number of deaths by
natural disasters, and improve air quality and waste management (ibid).

Cities are complex systems whose inhabitants and functions are dependent on water, food, and energy
(UNFCCC, 2015). Urbanization is one of the main issues causing pollution (Wright, Richard T., 2019).
Urbanization, and the increase of built-up areas affect biodiversity, the ecosystems, the air quality,
and climate change (The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change,
2015). Urban planners and policymakers hold the answer to a more sustainable and resilient city
(Reckien et al., 2018). Several aspects of a sustainable city are the integration of sustainable urban
transport such as bicycling routes, nature-based solutions to protect flooding, droughts, and
heatwaves; green urban open spaces; building on community networks; smart technical solutions;
gender perspectives; integration approach; and international collaboration platforms, etc. (United
Nations, 2018).

If the city is not well planned, it can cause environmental issues such as more deforestation, loss of
biodiversity and habitat destruction, and greenhouse gas emissions (Wright, Richard T., 2019).
However, promoting nature-based solutions such as green infrastructure, an approach to
development of greening in urban planning, could play an essential role in enhancing the resilience
of cities (Dover, 2020).

1.2 The challenge of population growth and gender in planning

Cities are struggling to provide the needs of the growing population. Local governments and urban
planners are facing challenges to maintaining sufficient food, clean water, and air, energy, housing,
and green spaces and addressing conflicts of interest related to land use and climate change impacts.
Other difficulties the local governments are facing are how transport planning responds to women’s
travel needs; how urban settings can reduce gender-based violence; how income and societal gender
roles can influence women’s participation in decision-making (Tacoli and Satterthwaite, 2013).
Urbanization also brings risks of violence and limitations on employment and mobility, that reflect in
gender inequalities (Tacoli and Satterthwaite, 2013).

2
People have different adaptation needs, depending on where they live and the roles they play in their
families and communities (Dazé and Dekens, 2017). Patriarchal norms and gender stereotypes create
gender inequalities (Lambrou and Nelson, 2010). Other gender inequalities are driven by uneven
access to education, lack of employment equality, segregation, and lack of political representation
with not many seats represented by women (Carson et al., n.d.).

To ensure that infrastructure development supports equal access, a gender approach must be
included throughout the infrastructure planning, design, and implementation (Tacoli and
Satterthwaite, 2013). Urban planners and policymakers have the power to address gender inequalities
and empower women by responding to diverse needs in society and can accelerate the socio-economic
mobility of women and girls (Terraza et al., 2020).

2. Research Objective
Green infrastructure is held up as a potential strategy for making La Paz more resilient to issues such
as flooding, water scarcity, landslides, and urban heatwaves. However, there are limited analyses of
what green infrastructure solutions may be appropriate in this context. Also, it has been shown that
there are significant gender considerations when planning and implementing green infrastructure.
Hence, I seek to understand what those are if the government pursues the implementation of green
infrastructure. The thesis objective is to explore how the city of La Paz can integrate green
infrastructure solutions to respond to the four priority areas and to better embed gender
consideration in their urban planning and design for a sustainable city.

2.1 The guiding research questions

1) What green infrastructure solutions are appropriate to respond to Plan 2040 four priority
areas (flooding, water scarcity, landslide, and urban heatwaves)?

2) Are there any gender equity considerations of a green infrastructure development vision for
La Paz?

With the first question, the thesis aims to explain best practice approaches to urban green areas and
their services, linking the concepts of green infrastructure and ecosystem services, and provide an
adequate analytical framework to guide planning Plan Integral La Paz 2040. The second aims to
explore any gender equity implications of the implementation of green infrastructure in the context
of La Paz.

3. Background
3.1 Why Bolivia?
Bolivia is the second poorest country in South America after Venezuela in terms of GDP per capita of
$ 3752.51 (Absher et al., 2020). It has the highest percentages of indigenous people in the continent,
where poverty and inequality are more distinguished (Kilpatrick, 2011). More than half of the country
is Amazonian, with high deforestation, and has twenty percent of the world's tropical glaciers (ibid).
Due to climate change, local farmers are impacted by the unpredictability of rainfall, more extreme
weather events, and higher temperatures (Buxton et al., 2013). According to Kilpatrick (2011) women
are the most affected by climate change since they are left to tend to the families, and small farms,
having few alternatives when crops are lost. Climate change issues in Bolivia are impacting food
security; glacial retreat affecting water availability; more frequent natural disasters; an increase in
mosquito-borne diseases; and more forest fires (Kilpatrick, 2011). Farmers are migrating to urban
areas for temporary jobs when there is a smaller yield for their crops (ibid). Others have permanently
moved from the agricultural sector in rural areas in Bolivia and migrated to nearby towns for other
kinds of jobs (Boillat and Berkes, 2013).

In Bolivia, one-third of the labour force works in the agricultural sector (Aliaga Lordemann and
Aguilar Salas Tirza J., 2009). The agricultural sector in Bolivia is vulnerable to climate change, where
rain-fed agriculture is dominant (Aliaga Lordemann and Aguilar Salas Tirza J., 2009; The World

3
Bank, 2010). In the lowlands, a decrease of rainfall is projected by some general circulation models
(GCMs) to the partial loss of the Amazon Forest (Seiler et al., 2013). The data is extrapolated from the
years from 1961–90 to calculation for the years 2070–99. Models projected an increase in
temperature (2.5°–5.9°C) and shortwave (SW) radiation (1%–5%), and less rainfall (−19%) during
drier months (June–August and September–November). In the Andes, GCMs tended toward more
(+20%) rainfall during parts of the wet season (Seiler et al., 2013). The increase in temperature,
floods, droughts, affecting agriculture, in turn, affect the food supply, increases the vulnerability in
the biodiversity and the ecosystems, and human health issues such as infectious diseases such as the
pandemic COVID-19 (Rasul, 2021).

In 2016, Bolivia experienced its severest drought in 25 years, and the government declared an
emergency state where 125,000 families suffered from water shortages and 283,000 hectares of
agricultural land were affected (SEI 2021); La Paz was the most affected. Bolivia’s Ministry of
Environment and Water with SEI (Stockholm Environment Institute) is working on improving its
water planning and capacity building about water availability, current water uses, and potential future
developments with SEI) (ibid). The program is called Bolivia Wash, and it is ongoing from 2018-2021
(ibid).

3.1.1 Covid-19
The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed structural deficiencies in Bolivia’s spatial organization and
government (UN-Habitat and Ministerios de Obras Públicas, 2020). Although the virus does not
discriminate, it has impacted differently in cities. Factors affecting the spreading of the infection
include overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and lack of access to clean water (World Health
Organization, 2020). (United Nations Development Programme, 2020)(Cannon, 2020)(World
Health Organization, 2020)

The Secretary-General of the United Nations, António Guterres says that the plans from the recovery
from the COVID-19 economic crisis and the repair of our planet can be two sides of the same coin
since it presents opportunities to set the economy on a greener path to boost investment in green
infrastructure and creating new jobs during the COVID-19 recovery (United Nations Development
Programme, 2020). He also says that nature-based solutions such as green infrastructure is an
effective approach to address both the challenge of COVID-19 and threats induced by climate change
(ibid). Moreover, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate (IPCC) stresses the need to generate adaptation measures to
address the root cause of climate change with nature-based solutions (NBS) such as the green
infrastructure (FAO, 2018). Nature-based solutions have been defined as natural processes with
multiple benefits, designed to address climate change, adaptation, and risk reduction as well as
benefits to the economy, society (including food and water security, and ecological systems (European
Commission, 2019; Matsler et al., 2021).

3.1.2 Urban growth in Bolivia

The urban growth in Bolivia is producing difficulties for local governments to provide basic services
(Laredo and Mirtha, 2011; Trohanis et al., 2015). Population growth and migration to urban areas are
outpacing economic growth and the expanding cities have fallen behind in providing basic services
(ibid). Streets are congested, sanitation and drinking water are poor, and crime is rampant (ibid). By
year 2030 it is expected that about 75% of the Bolivian population will live in cities and that by 2050,
this proportion will reach around 84% (“Censo y políticas de población para el desarrollo y la
transformación productiva,” 2012). Also, with the changes in land use from green spaces to built-up
areas due to rapid and unplanned urban growth, transforming natural green spaces into impermeable
ones, the land becomes prone to pluvial floods when rainfall exceeds the capacity of an urban drainage
system (Kalantari and Sörensen, 2020).

The rapid growth will require an expansion of urban infrastructures such as adequate sanitation, safe
drinking water, roads, and transport and mobility systems (UN-Habitat and Ministerios de Obras
Públicas, 2020). Landslides and flooding in Bolivia occur during the wet season (Oct-March), where
flooding increases because of the lack of appropriate drainage and sewage system (O’Hare and Rivas,
2005).

4
3.1.3 Basic Services in Bolivia
According to the projections of the Ministry of Environment and Water (MMAyA), the water coverage
in 2016 is 93.80% for urban areas and 66.40% for rural areas (WHO/UNICEF, 2018). The latest
projections of MMAyA in 2016 for sewerage and basic sanitation services is 66% in urban areas and
43% in rural areas (ibid). Tarija municipality has the highest average for open defecation with 78.7%
reported by the MMAyA in 2016 (UN-Habitat, 2019). In 2016, electricity coverage for urban areas is
99% and 73% for rural areas; and 90% of the total population has mobile connections but only 4%
fixed internet accounts (ibid).

3.1.4 Gender Issues in Bolivia

In Bolivia, women receive lower incomes than men doing the same job and are centred on lower-paid
jobs (Urquidi et al., 2020). Research of gender in Bolivian suggests that the concentration of women
in particular sectors is the result of preferences or gender stereotypes (ibid). However, gender gaps
within sectors are related to women’s lower education (ibid). Data from 2013 indicate that 15 percent
of adult women in Bolivia have no schooling, and 31 percent of women had finished secondary school,
compared to 37 percent of men (ibid). Moreover, in urban and rural areas, women who belong to
indigenous groups have lower education than any other group (ibid). Only 26 percent of indigenous
women had secondary school as their highest level of education compared to 34 percent of non-
indigenous women. Indigenous workers in general, are paid less than non-indigenous workers, even
when they have the same level of education (ibid). Bolivian women spend on average four times more
on unpaid care work than men. Also, more women are self-employed in the informal sector (ibid).
There is still violence against women in Bolivia, and social norms on the acceptability of violence
continue to prevent victims from reporting it (ibid). Demographic and Health Survey of 2008, 36
percent of urban women between 25 and 49 years old had a child before turning 20, 47 percent in the
rural areas (ibid). Some barriers for girls achieving higher levels of schooling are the cost of studying,
marriage, domestic care work, trafficking, and gender-based violence. Improving women's education
in Bolivia may increase female employment opportunities and with it, economic opportunities,
autonomy, and women’s input decision-making (Heaton et al., 2005).

3.2. Green Area per Capita in Cities in Bolivia

(Gill et al., 2007)(Wright, Richard T., 2019)Bolivia's green area per capita calculated in twenty cities
is on average 7.9 m2 showing a deficit of m2 green per capita below the optimum of 15 m2 as
recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Figure 1, (UN-Habitat and Ministerios de
Obras Públicas, 2020). The urban expansion is shifting from communities with houses and gardens
to communities with buildings having no spaces for green areas (Laredo and Mirtha, 2011). Green
areas in cities are essential for maintaining urban biodiversity, cooling the air, filtration of pollutants,
and improving physical health and wellbeing (Dover, 2020; Newell et al., 2013).

5
 Green areas m2/capita 2019
26.1
Charagua 22.2
17.0
Riberalta 16.3
13.3
Santa Cruz de la Sierra 13.2
13.0
Montero 12.0
10.9
Warnes 10.9
10.7
Trinidad 10.0
9.0
Cochabamba 8.3
8.2
Total 20 ciudades 7.9
7.8
Vinto 7.2
7.1
Quillacollo 6.9 Optimun 15 m2/inhabitant by
6.1 WHO
La Paz 5.8
5.5
Sucre 5.2
4.6
Oruro 4.1
3.0
Potosí 1.5
0.7
El Alto 0.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 1 Bolivia's green areas per inhabitant calculated in twenty cities

Source: With permission of the author. UN-Habitat and Ministerios de Obras Públicas, 2020

This figure describes Bolivia's green area per inhabitant calculated in twenty cities where the green represents the 20
cities, yellow the metropolitan area, and grey are the municipalities intercepting the metropolitan areas. These 6
municipalities intercepted some of the metropolitan areas such as Achocalla in La Paz; Cotoca, El Torno and
Charagua in Santa Cruz; and Sipe and Vinto in Cochabamba. The Metropolitan Area of La Paz: La Paz, El Alto, Viacha
and Achocalla. Metropolitan area of Cochabamba: Cochabamba, Quillacollo, Tiquipaya, Colcapirhua, Sacaba, Sipe
and Vinto. Metropolitan area of Santa Cruz: Santa Cruz de la Sierra, La Guardia, Warnes, Montero, Cotoca and El
Torno. La Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz are the biggest cities in Bolivia

3.3 Characteristics of La Paz, Bolivia

The municipality of La Paz has an urban area of 149 km² and a rural area of 2,871 km² (PTDI, 2016).
The population in 2016 is 925,376 inhabitants, and around 93% of it resides in the metropolitan area
(ibid). The government of La Paz estimates that in the short term (5 years), the population of the city
of La Paz will increase by 36,000 inhabitants, in the medium term (10 years) 113,000 inhabitants and
in the long term (20-25 years) it could be close to 253,000 inhabitants (Actualización et al., 2007).
Between the years 2063 and 2064, the city could double its population (ibid).

The historical maximum temperature in La Paz varied between 15 to 18 ° C, currently reaching 22° C,
causing a decrease in relative humidity and the presence of the effect of heat islands in cities, as there
are many paved areas, which do not let the earth perspire (Laredo and Mirtha, 2011). Urban green
areas can help reduce the heat island effects (Dover, 2020).

La Paz, which lies between 3,250 and 4,100 meters above sea level, being the world’s highest
administrative capital, and it is located on the northeast edge of the Altiplano, at the bottom of the
Eastern Cordillera, and holds two important hydrographic basins, one to the South and the other to
the North, separated by the Cordillera Real (PTDI, 2016). The urban area consists of open basins and
plains, low valleys, high valleys, plateaus, corridors, and mountain ranges. It is located on the banks
of the Choqueyapu River and Choqueyapu Riverbanks and small rivers born on the high slope (ibid).
The rural area consists of mountains, glacial, and terraces, which reach up to 400 meters above the

6
rivers that cross the area, forming mountain ranges with steep slopes, with heights ranging between
400 and 3,600 meters above sea level (ibid).

Figure 2 serves as an illustration of mountain ranges in La Paz, and snow at the top of the mountains.
The Cordillera Real is the name of this mountain range, and it is densely glaciated. Figure 3 gives a
general view of how dense the city of La Paz is.

Figure 2 Paz. General view of La Paz. Figure 3 The densest neighbourhood in La Paz: Max
Paredes with a population1 of 14,763/km2

Photographer: H. Mazurek, winter 2019 Photographer: H.Mazurek Spring 2019

The city of La Paz is neighbouring high mountain areas. The cryosphere (snow cover, glaciers, and
permafrost) is an integral element of high mountain regions (Hock et al., 2019). The IPPC findings in
the report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate show a decline in the cryosphere due
to the increase in temperature, the growing population, and socioeconomic development in recent
decades (ibid). La Paz has a fragile ecosystem defined by its geological and hydrological
characteristics; moreover, the conservation and protected areas are surrounded by informal
settlements and uncontrolled expansion of citizens (PTDI, 2016). Figures 4 and 5 serve as an
illustration of informal settlements in landslides-prone zones in La Paz.

1
Source: Cartillas Macrodistritrales del Municipio de La Paz 2040, 2016. Max Paredes.
http://sitservicios.lapaz.bo/cartillas/max-paredes.html

7
 Figure 4 La Paz. A house on the slope and several Figure 5 La Paz. See turquoise house at the slope on
houses at the edge of a landslide-prone zone unstable land.

The Prolongación Junín 1 Avenue and is taken on Photographer: H.Mazurek 2020

June 11, 2021.
Photographer: Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza, 2021

During the rainy season (December through March), it rains in La Paz producing overflows in the
rivers and flooding, and infrastructure damage can cause limitations in terms of mobility and
accessibility to essential services (Diagnóstico Territorial, Municipality of La Paz, 2020). Figure 6 is a
group illustration that presents some of the landslides in the city of La Paz. The vulnerability
assessment carried out in the municipality of La Paz indicates that landslides are the most significant
risk in terms of surface damage and responsible for the greatest number of casualties in the city
(Municipal Development Plan for Land Management, 2015). Landslide is caused by three main
factors: (1) the nature of the soil of sandy alluvial formations, unstable, and sloping – about 160 slopes
in the city; (2) from heavy rains the overflowing of the rivers that cross the city -the number of water
flows with more than 300 rivers, and groundwater flows; (3) the anthropic factors such as
deforestation, agriculture, pasture, and urbanization (ibid).

Figure 6 La Paz. Landslide after intense rain on 19 February 2002.

The illustration is taken with permission from the Report Autonomous Municipal Government of La Paz: Special
Directorate for Comprehensive Risk Management, 2021
Source: Secretaria Municipal de gestión integral de riesgos https://www.lapaz.bo/gobierno/smgir/

3.4 Urban Planning in La Paz

The population growth in La Paz has over time also produced large areas of informal, self-built
housing, built on the steep unstable slopes of the city (O’Hare and Rivas, 2005).

O’Hare and Rivas, (2005) pointed out in the report that the landslides in La Paz are triggered when
slope materials become saturated with moisture from rainfall, water infiltration from high water

8
tables in groundwater, and domestic sources such as illegal sewage discharge. The growth of self-built
informal housing as Figure 7 illustrates illegal sewage discharge2.

Figure 7 Illegal sewerage discharge in legal constructions of Sopocachi neighbourhood. But the sewage has not been
thought of. The pipes that come out are wild sewers, which infiltrate the ground. There are housing areas downhill.

Source: H. Mazurek, 2019

The most vulnerable group exposed to the landslide hazard are informal housing areas in the northern
part of the city (O’Hare and Rivas, 2005). In the southern part of the city where the higher income is
settled, landslides are not on great impact, but they are impacted by flash flooding caused by
deforestation on the northern hill slopes where the poor people live (ibid).

In La Paz, a weak urban planning framework has allowed the expanding population to buy and build
properties on the city's treacherous slopes, without providing information on building design and the
risk of landslides (O’Hare and Rivas, 2005). Figures 8 and 9 serve as an illustration of houses built
with weak urban planning where unstable hills have been flattened for the development of houses
(Mazurek, 2021) 3.

Figure 8 Max -The densest neighbourhood in La Paz: Figure 9 La Paz. See colourful houses on land prone to
Max Paredes a population4 of 14,763/km2 landslides

Photographer: H.Mazurek 2020 Photographer: H.Mazurek 2020

2
H Mazurek. Researcher. (Email communication, 30 June 2021)
3
ibid
4
Source: Cartillas Macrodistritrales del Municipio de La Paz 2040, 2016. Max Paredes.
http://sitservicios.lapaz.bo/cartillas/max-paredes.html

9
The Ministry of Development Planning in Bolivia develops and designs policies of land use through
Law 777 (Ley del Sistema de Planificación Integral del Estado, 2016). The Ministry of Public Works,
Services, and Housing designs policies of urban planning, and the Ministry of Environment and Water
designs policies for the sustainable use of natural resources and the provision of water and sanitation
services (ibid). In sum, the responsibilities related to urban planning are shared among different
levels of the government. However, this may result in constraints at the municipalities and a lack of
coordination (Trohanis et al., 2015).

3.4.1 Accessibility and usability of green space in La Paz

Figure 1 illustrates green areas per capita in cities in Bolivia, showing the Metropolitan area of La Paz
has a 3,0 m2 of green area per capita less than suggested by WHO of 15 m2 (UN-Habitat and
Ministerios de Obras Públicas, 2020). Moreover, the few green areas are mostly covered by fences in
the city of La Paz, and this is because they want to protect the green grass and surrounding trees no
native to the city (Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza, 2021). Usually, green space interventions have been
used to improve environmental conditions; protect biodiversity; support outdoor activities; increase
social interaction, and good physical and mental wellbeing; discussed in the Green Infrastructure
Framework section.

“We need green areas in our city but not to look at them but to utilize them” 5
Many of the green parks are with sports fields and dominated by men and team-oriented groups and
less by women and the elderly because of the lack of facilities such as benches, playground equipment,
or social gathering sites (Yanaguaya Mendoza, 2021). Almost every neighbourhood has a recreational
area and urban green areas. However, some are not frequented by families because of the feeling of
being less safe (less lighting, fewer guards, fewer users), poorly maintained, and dominated by men
drinking or using drugs (ibid). The city’s main park is Parque Urbano Central, with some green and
protected natural areas (ibid). The Park has mostly soccer and basketball fields, amusement parks,
aerial walkways, jogging and bicycle paths, and street vendors. However, this park is no longer in use
during the pandemic (ibid). Some of the parks or plazas more frequented today are the ones
surrounding the city centre. One of the most popular parks is the Villarroel, with few green fields,
food stations, playgrounds, and easy access with public transportation such as the cable car (ibid).
Figure 10 illustrates Plaza Villarroel with a playground and green areas protected with fences. Figure
11 illustrates a playground with some grass used as a natural impact absorbing surface to protect
children when falling.

5
Discussion about gender in public spaces with Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza. Researcher. (Email
communication, 27 April 2021)

10
 Figure 10 Plaza Villarreal, La Paz. Few green areas
are protected with fences; the rest is cement.
The picture is taken on May 1, 2021. Photographer:
Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza
Figure 11 Playground next to the road with some grass
used as natural impact absorbing surface to protect
children when falling
Parque Del Ingeniero in Barrio Alto Obrajes, 17th Street, La
Paz Bolivia. 4 July 2021. Photographer Fabiola by Save the
children

Other parks in the city are Plaza Humboldt with craft and painting exhibitions on the weekends; Plaza
Murillo where visitors come to recreate from historical meaning and to feeding flocks of pigeons;
Plaza Alonso de Medoza with decorative green areas, next to a museum but the plaza is fenced, with
two entrances that usually close at night; and Plaza Abaroa with small space for children's games,
small green areas, more common visited when handicraft fairs. There are other parks with good
services and maintenance but with an entrance fee of $b5 to $b10 (USD 1 to USD 1.5), quite costly for
a big family, and these parks are mainly used for special events like birthday parties (Yanaguaya
Mendoza, 2021).

Figures 12 and 13 serve as an illustration of green areas protected by fences to avoid people resting on
stepping on them.

Figure 12 Plaza Sucre, La Paz. A child on the other
side of the fence.
The picture is taken on Plaza Sucre on April 26, 2019.
Photographer: Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza
Figure 13 – Plaza Sucre, La Paz. Indigenous ladies with
traditional clothing sharing food and having a picnic on the
plaza sitting outside of the green protected areas
The picture is taken on Plaza Sucre on May 1, 2019.
Photographer: Ximena Yanaguaya Mendoza

4. Theoretical Framework
4.1 What is green infrastructure, and how do we include it in urban planning?
Green infrastructure is a developing concept, and because of its multi-functional aspects, its meaning
varies depending on the context in which it is benefited (Matsler et al., 2021). Matsler et al. (2021)
refer to green infrastructure as a ‘green’ chameleon because its implementation depends on the
interest on who is using it; if it is for urban planning, stormwater management, or the value and
preservation of ecosystem services.

Green infrastructure are green areas that can help cope with climate change issues: helps reduce
greenhouse gases; reduces the risks of floods, landslides, and droughts; enhances biodiversity;
improves thermal comfort by reducing urban heat islands; and provides social, economic, and
environmental benefits (Laurian, 2008; MEA, 2005). Moreover, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the
role of green areas has played an important role by facilitating social distancing and allowing physical
activity fundamental for people's emotional and physical wellbeing (Slater et al., 2020; Venter et al.,
2020).

Table 1 shows the diversity of elements that can be considered as green infrastructure, many of them
linked to urban environments at neighbourhood, town, and regional scale.

11
Table 1 Landscape elements associated with green infrastructure

Local neighbourhood scale Town scale City Regional scale

Street trees; green roofs and walls, Floodplains; city/district parks; urban Forests, woodlands, and community
urban plazas; play areas; town and commons; forest parks; country forests; strategic and long-distance
village greens and commons; local parks; municipal plazas; community trails; designated greenbelt and
rights of way; pedestrian and cycle woodlands; (former) mineral strategic gaps; agricultural land; and
routes; cemeteries, burial grounds, extraction sites; and landfills open countryside;
and churchyards; institutional open
spaces; small woodlands; local nature
reserves; school grounds; sports
pitches; allotments; and vacant land

Source: (European Environment Agency, 2011; Landscape Institute, 2009)

4.1.1 Green Infrastructure Definition

USEPA (2017) defines green infrastructure as a tool to mimic the natural hydrologic cycle processes
by capturing rainwater when it falls thus reducing runoff with green roofs, trees, rain gardens, and
permeable pavements. Town and Country Planning Association defines green infrastructure as an
open space with parks, playing fields, woodlands and street trees, private gardens, green roofs and
walls, sustainable drainage systems, and soils (TCPA, 2008). Green infrastructure has been criticized
for a narrow focus on stormwater management ignoring multifunctionality opportunities (Dover,
2020). Dover states that green infrastructure is a resilient approach that as a term does not have a
single recognized definition. According to Dover (2020), green infrastructure can be defined as an
interconnected network of green areas that preserve the functions and values of the natural
ecosystems and provide benefits associated with the human population. The link between both GI
and ES is that green infrastructure supports the ecosystem services to grow and sustain biodiversity,
been delivered with their many services such as clean air and water, flood prevention, crop
pollination, carbon storage, (MEA, 2005). The characteristics of green infrastructure are summarized
in Table 2 and Table 3 describes the ecosystem services and their function.

Table 2 Summary of the effects of green infrastructure

Characteristics of the perceived positive Empirical evidence

effects of urban green infrastructure

Reduces heat-related mortality and heat island caused Urban trees have the potential to mitigate heat by providing
by man-made surfaces -lack of vegetation in urban cooling, as well as co-benefits such as reductions in energy
areas (Werbin et al., 2020) consumption (Doick et al., 2014).

Trees reduce air temperatures in parks and green areas by as

much as 2–8°C (Dover, 2020).
Environment & climate change adaptation

Reduces flood risk caused by replaced of vegetation
with buildings, making an impact on the hydrology
(Thomas and Nisbet, 2007)
Improve water quality: heavy rains can cause erosion
and flooding and it carries bacteria, heavy metals, and
pollutants from the urban landscape (Wise, 2008)
Vegetation, particularly trees, in the floodplain delay flows,
promote out-of-bank flows, and increase flood storage
(Wright, Richard T., 2019).
Vegetation allows rainfall infiltration into the soil and
reduces the rate of runoff (ibid).
Green infrastructure improves stormwater quality by
reducing the load of sediment (Dover, 2020).

Improve air circulation (Hewitt et al., 2020) Trees in urban green spaces absorb gaseous pollutants and
intercept particles onto leaf surfaces, by lowering air
temperatures through transpiration and the direct
production of oxygen during photosynthesis (Dover, 2020).

Sustainable urban drainage; by reducing runoff, flash The adoption of SUDS in urban planning reduces the risk of
flooding (Pappalardo et al., 2017) erosion (Dover, 2020).

12
 Provides breeding habitat, food, and other resources;
promotes dispersal; reduces extinction risks; increases
habitat area and species movement. (Hardy and
Dennis, 1999)
Improvements in levels of physical activity,
psychological health, and mental wellbeing (Dover,
2020)
Exercise (walking, running, green gym) reduces costs
to health and traffic congestion (Grahn and
Stigsdotter, 2003)
Social
Butterflies were found to be more abundant in urban areas
than rural areas if there were more nectar resources (Rudd et
al., 2002).
Green roofs are used by birds and invertebrates (beetles, ants,
bugs, flies, bees, spiders, and leafhoppers), (Schrader and
Böning, 2006)
Green infrastructure for urban drainage systems not only
improves water quality but as well as the diversity of species
such as dragonflies and molluscs (Funk et al., 2009)
In Madrid, Fernández-Juricic (2000) found that woody
streets have a higher diversity of birds.
Results from a study in nine Swedish cities suggest that the
more often a person visits green parks, the less he or she will
experience stress-related illnesses (Zlot and Schmid, 2005).
Communities closer to parks showed significantly higher
levels of walking and cycling for transportation (Forest
Research, 2010).

Green areas bring people together (Kim and Kaplan, An epidemiological study suggested that open spaces
2004) perceive a substantially greater sense of community; they
express stronger attachment to their community and sense of
identity with it (Forest Research, 2010).
Parks have become more popular to socialize with family and
friends while practicing physical distancing during Covid- 19
(Venter et al., 2020)
Green areas can make positive impacts on local Improving the aesthetics of the local landscape increases
Economic

economic regeneration such as job creation, business people’s enjoyment of an area, attracts businesses, which in
start-up, and increased land values (Venn and turn can attract businesses and customers (Dover, 2020; Gill
Niemelä, 2004) et al., 2007).

Source: Author’s own summary using data compiled from a variety of sources

4.1.2 Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are promoted as a concept that has the potential to improve environmental
planning in urban areas by providing services that can help people adapt to climate change (Hansen
and Pauleit, 2014). An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-
living components of their environment, interacting as a system (MEA, 2005). Ecosystem services are
the benefits that people receive from the ecosystems (ibid). They are classified into four different
groups: provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services (ibid).
The summary of the groups and services is presented in Table 3. The replacement of vegetated
surfaces by buildings and other impervious surfaces affect the biodiversity which in turn affect the
supply of the ecosystem services reducing its capacity for, for example, (1) purify air through carbon
fixation, retention of atmospheric particulate matter, and oxygen production, (2) serve as a habitat
for wildlife species, (3) control over-runoff and consequent erosion and flooding problems, (4)
moderate air temperatures through vegetation-associated evapotranspiration and shading, and (5)
the ability to maintain ecological cycles (MEA, 2005).

Table 3 Ecosystem services

Provision Regulating Cultural Supportive (necessary

to produce all
ecosystems services)

Food, water, Climate regulation, Spiritual and religion, Soil formation,

fuelwood, fibre, disease regulation6, recreation and nutrient cycling, and
biochemical and water regulation, ecotourism, aesthetic, primary production
genetic resources water purification and inspirational,
pollination educational, sense of

6
The degradation of ecosystems and their services increases the risks of zoonotic diseases such as the Covid-
19 pandemic (Everard et al., 2020).

13
 place and cultural
heritage

Source: (MEA, 2005)

4.2 Conflict and Challenges in implementing Green Infrastructure

Although there are initiatives from the private sector, institutions, and communities to incorporate
green infrastructures in Bolivian cities, the government continues to invest in the development of grey
infrastructure as a solution to improve cities (Revollo, L., 2021). Some of the barriers to the
implementation of green infrastructure are the lack of political support, limited capacities of local
governments, rigid structure, lack of funding, and social inequalities (Dobbs et al., 2019; Zuniga-
Teran et al., 2020)

This could be addressed by improving governance in the city planning and capacity building at the
local level to increase the awareness of the benefits of green infrastructure, and its importance in the
health and wellbeing of people including the most vulnerable groups7 (Laredo and Mirtha, 2011). Grey
infrastructure may have a reliable performance at reducing the risk of flooding contributing to a single
solution using pipes to dispose of the rainwater (Alves et al., 2019). They do not give ecological
processes space to occur and turn out to be less beneficial in the medium and long term (ibid). On the
contrary green infrastructure by using vegetation brings additional benefits that grey infrastructure
cannot offer (ibid). These additional benefits are linked to the ecosystems that biodiversity delivers
such as removing pollutants, acting as air conditioning, insulation, shading, removal and pre-
treatment of rainwater, pollination services, increasing values of adjacent property, reducing
healthcare costs (Dover, 2020; Newell et al., 2013).

In general, the merits of green infrastructure are that it contributes to a better environment providing
environmental benefits such as clean water; climate change adaptation and disaster prevention and
strengthening the ecosystems; biodiversity benefits improving the habitat for the wildlife; as well as
social benefits such as physical activities and mental health. The drawback is that it may also
contribute to more expensive land and home prices, unintentionally excluding socially vulnerable
residents attracting the wealthier producing green gentrification (Anguelovski et al., 2020). Green
infrastructure has been criticized for having embedded environmental injustice8 with a more focus on
environmental concerns than on equity identified through distributional, recognitional, and
procedural justice lenses (ibid).

Several studies by researchers show that green areas such as green corridors, parks, gardens as well
as bicycle roots are better accessible in the middle to upper classes and ethnically privileged residents
(Anguelovski et al., 2020; Bunce, 2017; Cooke, 2020; Plüschke-Altof and Sooväli-Sepping, 2020;
Verheij and Corrêa Nunes, 2021). Neighbourhoods with a high share of green infrastructure might be
more exposed to gentrification (Raymond et al., 2017). Gentrification is a concern in urban areas
where existing lower-income residents are likely to be displaced after their community is
environmentally improved (Bunce, 2017). However, if measuring the supply and demand of the
ecosystem services we cannot say that what happens in one location can have effects elsewhere. For
example, a private park could be fenced allowing recreation access to a smaller group but at the same
a bigger group benefiting from the improved air quality that the park generates (Ernstson, 2013).

The use of green areas is essential for many people to destress from their daily burden (Dover, 2020).
However, COVID-19 has highlighted the unequal access to green areas where low-income
neighbourhoods, having less access to private gardens and relying more on their local parks, have

7 Vulnerable groups are the informal settlement dwellers, women, children and the disabled. Informal
settlement dwellers lack access to at least one of the following amenities: durable housing, improved water,
improved sanitation, and sufficient living space (UN Habitat, 2016).
8 Environmental Justice (EJ) aims to improve a healthy environment where we live, work, play and eat.
Agyeman (2008) argues that four conditions are equally necessary for achieving EJ; (1) improving our quality
of life and wellbeing; (2) meeting the needs of today and future generations; (3) justice and equity in terms of
recognition, distribution, and procedural; (4) and living within ecosystem limits.

14
been difficult for them to access during lockdown restrictions (Dushkova et al., 2021; Plummer et al.,
2020); (Rayman and Goodier, 2020; Gray, 2020).

Moreover, Green infrastructure solutions are criticized as being predominantly shaped by the
knowledge of high-income countries (Nagendra et al., 2018), but Escobedo et al., (2019) indicate that
these concepts are adjustable concerning the context in lower-income countries.

4.3 Poorly designed public spaces can increase the number of harassment and threats
Research has shown that green areas promote healthy physical activity as well as psychological and
spiritual aspects, such as bringing people into nature for feelings of peace and relaxation (Dover,
2020; Laurian, 2008; MEA, 2005). However, it appears to assume that public areas are safe and
equally enjoyable for men, women, and children and forgetting that spaces are experienced differently
by different people and their design can either facilitate or impede its usage (Terraza et al., 2020).
Gender is defined by Plan International (2011) as socially constructed roles, responsibilities, and
behaviours that society considers appropriate and expected for men and women and girls and boys.

Urban planners, community members, and engineers can play a vital role in designing green areas
with sustainable mobility, equal access, and safety for women and girls, men, and boys (Hudson and
Sandberg, 2019) and Plan International 2011. Subsequently, improve girls' and women’s access to
education and health care. This statement can be proven with examples from the case studies below.

Most households in the informal settlements in Madhya Pradesh, India, lacked water supply and
sanitation facilities. Women in these settlements spend a great time traveling to collect water for
cooking and cleaning. Because of the lack of sanitation facilities and open defecation, women and girls
prefer to wait until after dark to relieve themselves since they fear harassment or sexual assaults. In
2003, Madhya Pradesh’s Department of Urban Administration and Development implemented the
Urban Water Supply and Environmental Improvement Project. The project aimed to develop the
living conditions of women by reducing the time spent fetching water; access to toilets; employing
female workers in the design and maintenance of the project and increased the participation of
women in leadership and decision-making. The water supply extended into informal settlements, and
women and men experienced a reduction in workloads due to improved access to water services.
Moreover, it improved the health and safety of women by allowing them to bathe, use the toilet, and
wash clothes frequently and in privacy. Sources: UN-Habitat, 2006; Asian Development Bank 2015

Following a series of violent assaults by a serial rapist in 2012, an 80-meter-long pedestrian and
bicycle tunnel opened connecting the city centre in Umeå, Sweden (Hudson and Sandberg, 2019). The
tunnel has wide entrances to allow passage for people walking in groups and women or men with
children and strollers; and natural lighting, welcoming artwork, and soundscapes to create a peaceful
atmosphere. The tunnel aims to raise awareness on issues of gender and safety Sandberg and
Rönnblom, 2016.

90% of Mexico City’s female transit riders reported being sexually harassed while traveling by
groping, sensual looks, and comments about their bodies. This kind of discomfort on public
transportation leaves women afraid to travel, often preventing them from educational and economic
opportunities. In response to that with women’s involvement, in the year 2000, Mexico City’s
Department of Transportation designated two cars within each metro train exclusively to women,
children under 12, and elders, as a short-term solution to address gender issues. In 2010, Mexico City
launched a pink taxi program consisting of bubble-gum pink cabs driven by women and stopping
exclusively for women. Women report feeling safer using Pink Transportation options. Source:
Dunckel-Graglia, 2013

The plaza at the centre of Mendoza, Argentina includes paths, planting, lights, bins, water fountains,
and playground equipment added over the years. The plaza dominated by men who use the space for
drink or drugs has left the women feeling unsafe. Also, there is a playground too close to the road,
putting the children at risk of running into traffic and being hit. In response to that, in 2018, the
Municipality of Mendoza, the Argentine Ministry of Interior, Public Works, and Housing, and
students from Harvard and the women residing in this town redesigned the city. The plan consisted

15
of a multiuse structure for various uses, including Zumba classes; a field hockey pitch; a soccer field;
a playground surrounded by seating for women and other caregivers to watch their kids; a protected
bus shelter where women can wait for the bus safely; an amphitheatre with stepped seating for
community events; and a library. These characteristics created gender-inclusive spaces for women.
Source: Kounkuey Design Initiative, 2018

In Karlskoga, Sweden, the municipal snowploughs prioritized cleaning roads mainly male travelled
than streets and sidewalks used more frequently by women (Criado Perez, 2019). Since women
initially were not involved in the planning, the men decided concerning their needs and did not
consider that others' needs might be different (bid). As a result, pedestrian accidents after snowstorms
declined, and fewer emergency room visits and fewer healthcare costs (ibid).

4.4 Plan Integral La Paz 2040

Between the years 2007 and 2011, the Municipal Development Plan of La Paz developed a guiding
tool called Jayma, a participatory decision-making governance model, with a transparent relationship
between the Municipal Government, public and private institutions, and its residents (Municipal
Development Plan for Land Management, 2015). Jayma is an Aymara word meaning working
together in community land. This tool then created “The Plan Integral La Paz 2040 or La Paz WE
WANT”, hereafter referred to as Plan 2040, to face the weak current urban planning and is the first
municipal territorial planning (ibid). As of today, there are no land use management plans with a
long-range strategic climate-related vision for the Municipality of La Paz and other cities in Bolivia
(Municipal Development Plan for Land Management, 2015; Municipio de La Paz, 2021). Although La
Paz green infrastructure approach is not part of the technical and political process in urban planning,
(Municipal Development Plan for Land Management, 2015), La Paz, as well as other cities in Bolivia,
has few elements of green infrastructure such as street trees, urban plazas, play areas, town greens
commons, etc. mentioned in Table 1.

The Plan 2040 is a strategic framework (under development) for the city of La Paz with a vision to
revitalize its urban-rural territorial units on issues of water treatment, mobility, economic
development, modernization, and technological innovation, among others, incorporating risk
management and land use planning (Municipal Development Plan for Land Management, 2015). This
plan gives the municipality the responsibility for its environmental management, to monitor and
control pollution levels, to conserve and protect the ecosystems, and advise for production of
renewable natural resources, to achieve a healthy and equitable community (ibid).

The Plan 2040 aims to find answers to three questions: (1) What are the main challenges of the
municipality?; (2)What would a Sustainable Municipality look like?; (3) How could the vision be
achieved?. Moreover, the plan intends to identify mechanisms of adaptation and resilience to
anticipate the possible effects of climate change, population growth, accelerated and unbalanced
urban growth, the tending scarcity of water, citizen insecurity, and the growing difficulty in
guaranteeing the supply of food to the population, among others.

In addition, the government of La Paz changed in April 2021, and Plan 2040 continues to develop to
adjust to the new government vision9.

5. Delimitations
The thesis focuses on two important aspects for the planning of a sustainable city: gender perspectives
and green infrastructure as a nature-based solution.

Gender inequality exists in many forms through sex discrimination in employment, pay gap, sexual
assault, gender opportunity to education, gender differences in degree choices. Women in Bolivia
suffer discrimination in several aspects. According to the Bolivia World Bank Document, men receive
a better education than women, better health assistance than women, and can generate greater
income while working fewer hours (The World Bank, 2015). Also, women carry the main

9
This information was gained during the interviews.

16
responsibility for domestic work (ibid). According to the Pan American Health Organization study
conducted in twelve Latin American countries, Bolivia has the highest incident of domestic violence
(Bott S, Guedes A, Goodwin M, 2012). To enlighten women and men’s differences the study
investigates any gender implications green infrastructure implementations might have.

Green infrastructure is one concept having many definitions depending on a specific function and
location (Matsler et al., 2021), for example, the USA might focus on stormwater control plans, while
China might be the aesthetic value, whereas Europe is on ecosystem services. GI can be understood
in three different terminologies that focus on (1) greenspace planning (garden cities, greenbelts, or
green rings of open space so that nature is available in urban cities), (2) ecosystem services (benefits
that people receive from the ecosystems), and 3) stormwater management (Matsler et al., 2021). This
thesis focuses on green space planning and ecosystem services to respond to the climate change action
plan in the Plan Integral 2040 for the city. Less focus on stormwater management is given however
there are strategies discussed in this thesis having some SWM benefits.

This study responds to the environmental vision of the territorial plan 2040 for the city of La Paz and
it is limited to the urban areas of the city. Investigating how green infrastructure might be
implemented in other cities in Bolivia would have made the purpose of the study too large. However,
it is meant to be replicated within the context in other cities across the country and worldwide.

Also, the environmental policy in Plan Integral 2040 is not fully resolved as the plan is under
development, and there is no clear definition of competencies in matters of climate change. Plan 2040
does not mention a priority action for its vulnerability areas. Vulnerability defined by Adger (2006)
is the capacity of an individual, group or an area to anticipate, cope with, and recover from the impact
of a natural or anthropogenic threat. The four priority vulnerability areas of (1) flooding, (2) water
scarcity, (3) landslides, and (4) urban heatwaves are a product of an online workshop (Vulnerability
Index to Climate Change online workshop) with 80 participants then translated into a report
Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz produced by French Development Agency
(Municipio de La Paz, 2021).

Thus, the thesis is elaborated using the Vulnerability Index to Climate Change Report results meant
to complement Plan 2040. Other vulnerabilities in La Paz but not considered are the fires (on a minor
impact); frost (affecting the flora and fauna of the place, causing economic damage in summer crops
like potato, broad bean, barley, losses of up to 100%); and earthquakes (felt several times but on minor
impact in La Paz) (Municipal Development Plan for Land Management, 2015).

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, being physically present in the country for data collection was not
possible; the research delimited to exploring La Paz through remote interviews; review of green
coverage using satellite images of Google Earth; photos provided by shareholders in La Paz.

6. Research Method
This thesis is based on a case study qualitative approach and the research method is developed
through: (1) literature review; (2) desk study; (3) interviews. The research method is summarized in
Figure 14 and each technique is explained in more detail below.

17
Figure 14 Summary of research methods used in the investigation

6.1 Literature Review

Literature review according to Bryman (2015) helps to understand what is already known about the
topic, what concepts and theories have been applied and any controversies. The literature review
helped the thesis with a general understanding of Bolivia and La Paz's characteristics; an essential
element to motivate the aim of the study and justify the research questions. The literature review
focused on topics related to the aims and objectives of the thesis. The topics are nature-based
solutions, green infrastructure, climate change adaptation, ecosystem services, urban green space
management, and gender in planning. Then it was narrowed down to more specific on La Paz looking
at the characteristics and its municipal urban planning and were included in the literature studies.
The data was collected with an electronic search of academic databases and the Internet. The Internet
was used to search references of the articles that were retrieved. The academic search was done using
three electronic journal databases (Google Scholar, KTH Primo tool, and Scopus). The search is done
in English and Spanish-language from February 2021 to June 202 and using keywords and phrases:
Bolivia green spaces; Bolivia/La Paz climate change; Bolivia/La Paz flooding; Bolivia/La Paz gender
issues; Bolivia/La Paz landslides; vulnerability in Bolivia/La Paz; urban parks; green space; public
space; gender in planning; environmental justice. The search was then refined to studies looking at
green infrastructure in urban planning, using the following terms: urban green infrastructure; urban
forest; urban nature-based solutions and gender in flooding, water scarcity, landslides, and urban
heatwaves. However electronic searches lead to a fraction of about thirty percent of the thesis. For
specific articles based on Bolivia and La Paz, not found on electronic databases, were provided in pdf
form by the UN-Habitat Bolivia and the municipality of La Paz. The type of data selected was
determined by the focus and goal of the thesis. Moreover, the literature was used throughout the
thesis when introducing the context and background, in the theoretical framework, the results.

6.2 Desk study

Because the pandemic visiting La Paz, Bolivia was not possible, thus the research depends on
information gained from reports provided by the municipality of La Paz, and representatives from the
UN-Habitat Bolivia.

The municipality of La Paz is the first municipality in Bolivia to develop a strategic vision of long-term
development "La Paz We Want" with Plan 2040. However, Plan 2040 does not mention a priority
action for its vulnerability areas. The four priority vulnerability areas 10 of (1) flooding, (2) water

10
Evaluation of extreme threats to the municipality of La Paz workshop and presentation of results of
Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz with the participation of groups experts from the
Development Bank of Latin America, French Development Agency and Hydraulic Institute of Cantabria on

18
scarcity, (3) landslides, and (4) urban heatwaves are a product of an online workshop (Índice de
Vulnerabilidad Climática de La Paz online workshop) with 80 participants then translated into a
report Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz produced by French Development
Agency (Municipio de La Paz, 2021).

With that said, this thesis makes use of the results of the report "Vulnerability Index to Climate
Change in the city of La Paz y Tarija”11 in Bolivia carried out initially for the municipality of La Paz
(Municipio de La Paz, 2021). The results obtained from the index are in the process of technical review
by the municipality of La Paz. Meanwhile, work is undertaken by the municipality on defining the
measures needed for adaptation, and the generation of resilience measures to climate change.
Consequently, this thesis investigates if green infrastructure solutions are appropriate to respond to
Plan 2040 four priority areas. Moreover, the thesis makes use of photos provided by shareholders,
satellite pictures using google earth, and remote interviews and governmental reports publicly
available.

The governmental reports consist of La Paz’s risk management reports related to climate change;
municipal development plans for land management; topography characteristics of drainage basins
for urban areas of La Paz; La Paz maps of vulnerable areas prone to flooding, water scarcity,
landslides, and extreme heatwaves. All the reports are written in the Spanish language.

6.3 Interviews
The investigation also relies on remote semi-structured open-ended interviews. Interviews in
qualitative analysis help the researcher to better understand the local situation through the opinions
and experiences of the interviewees (Rosenthal, 2016). Also, the study includes information obtained
from unstructured weekly conversations with the Environmental Specialist for Climate Change UN-
Habitat Bolivia with respect to historical information and a general understanding of Bolivia.

The semi-structured qualitative interviews were a total of eight and conducted online for one hour on
zoom and recorded. The interviews were conducted in Spanish and translated by the author. The
interviewees were contacted by e-mail and WhatsApp and took place in June and July 2021. The
questions are about twenty in total, variating with the person interviewed. The variation of questions
is targeted to capture the responses from the types of stakeholders that are considered. Table 4 shows
the different types of stakeholders’ interviews. Each stakeholder is categorized by its profession using
letters and numbers as codes. The organized codes are given to increase the validity and transparency
of the investigation (Stuckey, 2015) and they are referred more specifically in the results section.

The questions were defined and planned before the meetings, and questions are found in Appendix I.
The questions were defined using Table 2 “Summary of the effects of green infrastructure” keeping in
mind the four vulnerabilities outlined by the report Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city
of La Paz, as well as information gathered in section 3.4.

The term “green infrastructure” is not part of the technical nomenclature and planning processes in
La Paz or Bolivia yet. The term used is reforestation12 (instead of green infrastructure) since
reforestation is better recognized by the interviewees with the exception when interviewing the
academic and the urban planner working for a bilateral organization.

April 25, 2021. The workshop was to present and discuss the considered main threats (flooding, droughts,
landslides, and urban heatwaves) for the city of La Paz.
11
This report is being promoted within the framework of the Investment Facility for Latin America -LAIF,
financed by the European Union - EU, managed by the French Development Agency (AFD) and executed by
Development Bank of Latin America (CAF). The report covers two municipalities: La Paz; Tarija; and only the
results of La Paz are the ones used in this thesis; shown in the results section of this report. The vulnerability
index seeks to strengthen local capacities to face the new emerging challenges of climate change and it is
assessed with three workshops, which brought together about 80 people from various institutions and civil
society.
12
This information was gained during the interviews.

19
Table 4 Code used for the different types of stakeholders to attribute the different interviews referred in the results
No Stakeholder type
1 Academic
2 Bilateral Organization:
AFD
3 Bilateral Organization:
SIDA
4 Governmental Official
Municipality of La Paz
5 Governmental Official
Municipality of Tarija
6 Gender Specialist with
NGO Save the children
7 Gender Specialist with
NGO UN-Habitat
Bolivia
8 Gender Specialist
Description Code Location
A researcher that has written A1 La Paz, Bolivia
various books about urban
forestry in Bolivia and
currently works as a teacher
and researcher at the faculty of
urban planning and the
metropolitan region at Mayor
de San Andres University in
Bolivia.
An urban planner and B1 Marseilles,
researcher working assessing France
the Plan 2040 and co-author of
the Vulnerability Index to
Climate Change Report in the
city of La Paz and Tarija in
Bolivia.
A finance entity, working on B2 La Paz, Bolivia
strategies to maintain a
sustainable Bolivia
A government official working G1 La Paz, Bolivia
for the municipality of La Paz
A government official working G2 Tarija, Bolivia
for the municipality of Tarija
oversees reforestation in Tarija
(a greener city than La Paz, and
La Paz is trying to replicate
some of the local solutions).
A researcher at Save the F1 La Paz, Bolivia
Children in Bolivia, the idea of
the interview is to understand
any implication green
infrastructure might have on
gender equality, how green
spaces are used by children,
also whether they have any
reforestation programs
A gender specialist at UN- F2 La Paz, Bolivia
habitat, the idea is to
understand any implication
green infrastructure might
have on gender equality.
A gender specialist newly F3 La Paz, Bolivia
graduated student at Mayor de
San Andres University in
Bolivia. Thesis: Model of Urban
20
 Indicators for Intervention in
the Public Space.

7. Results
7. 1 Green infrastructure solutions appropriate to respond to Plan 2040 four priorities areas
(flooding, water scarcity, landslide, and urban heatwaves)

7.1.1 Flooding
In the city of La Paz, the flooding is caused by the overflow of the rivers that cross the city, being
especially affected the sectors located along the Choqueyapu River due to the poorly drained areas
that occurs when intense rains (Municipio de La Paz, 2021).

The flood risk assessment carried out in the municipality of La Paz reveals that multiple sectors of the
city of La Paz (Figure 15) are threatened by flooding (Municipio de La Paz, 2021). A1, B1, G1, and G2,
highlighted that afforestation and reforestation activities would reduce the occurrence and intensity
of floods. They pointed out that urban forest and grassland in urban areas located at the river basin
can help retain water and stabilize slopes, reducing, thus, risks and damages derived from extreme
precipitation events. A1 and B1 stated that these measures are based on the implementation of green
infrastructures and the establishment of buffer areas. B1 pointed out that during flood events:
“Riparian vegetation strips can slow down the speed of runoff and absorb excess water, reducing flow
peaks and mitigating the effects of flooding. An important consideration on the implementation of
such measures is the time limit for implantation as forests take time to mature” (B1).

The reduction of exposure of the flooding could be achieved by carrying out both structural and
normative actions, for the management of river spaces and the conditioning of drainage channels and
networks; measures that restore the natural hydrological cycle and adopting policies to establish river
protection zones (O’Hare and Rivas, 2005). Also, through capacity building, through the
implementation of awareness, information, and awareness campaigns on the risk of flooding for the
population, contingency plans for floods and the implementation of technologies for flood
management (Barrera, C. 2012).

River corridors, in addition to their intrinsic ecological value, fulfil two fundamental functions: as
ecological connectors and as hydrological regulators (Hack et al., 2020). In their role as hydrological
regulators, they act as controllers of the flow and sediment that the river drags in periods of flooding,
dissipating part of its energy, reducing the associated damage, and recharging the aquifers (ibid). The
rivers of the municipality of La Paz, do not present an adequate environmental status, due to the
intensive use and exploitation of their resources without considering the integrity of their functioning
as ecosystems (Municipio de La Paz, 2021). The Choqueyapu River has the largest amount of
wastewater, treated and untreated, from the sewage system and industries of the city of La Paz
(General Contralory of the State, 2013).

In 2016, the Inter-American Development Bank financed the third phase of the "Storm Drainage
Program," which sought to reduce the damage and climate vulnerability caused by extreme
geodynamic and hydrometeorological events in the cities of La Paz and El Alto13 (GAMLP, 2007). The
initial plan was carried out by the Mayor's Office in 2007 (ibid). This plan intended to contribute to
the reduction of the risks associated with flooding and landslide events, through adequate
management of the rainwater outfalls of El Alto and the water basins of La Paz. A small part of the

13
El Alto is located adjacent to La Paz on the Altiplano highlands, where La Paz airport is located. Also, El
Alto is one of Bolivia's fastest-growing urban centres, with an estimated population of 943,558 in 2020.

21
financing (8%) was destined for institutional development and environmental management (ibid).
However, the currently storm drainage system of the city of La Paz, is still unable to manage urban
runoff due to the poor state of the network and the little maintenance it receives (Municipio de La
Paz, 2021).

Figure 15 Flooding Risk Map in La Paz

Source: With permission of authors of the Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz (Municipio de
La Paz, 2021). Indice de riesgo de inundaciones by its Spanish words or Flooding Risk Index in English. The red
colours are the zones with a higher risk of flooding, the orange high, yellow average, light blue low, and darker blue
lowest. The straight blue line marks the coastal zone, and the intermittent in black are the different districts within
La Paz.

A1, B1, B2, and G2 stated that reduce flood risks in areas in informal settlements, the municipality of
La Paz is working with a project since 20o5 called ‘Barrios de Verdad’ (Rightful Neighbourhood)
funded by the World Bank14. The project provides basic services (water, sanitation, waste collection,
among other basic services) to the informal settlers intending to improve their quality of life to be
more equitably; informed A1, B1, B2, and G2. A1 responded: “Affordable housing in safer places, and
with all the basic services for its most vulnerable inhabitants [referring to the informal settlers] is also
a solution the government should consider”. Moreover, B1 stated about flooding-prone areas: “Public
spaces such as flood parks, fluvial corridors, and pilot actions based on Sustainable Urban Drainage
Systems could be designed as a flood control infrastructure to help reduce flooding”.

Regarding the implementation of reforestation and afforestation [green infrastructure] versus

impermeable surfaces [grey infrastructure]: all eight interviewees agreed that a decrease of
unnecessary impermeable surfaces such as tunnels and pipe networks and an increase of the use of
vegetation to mitigate flooding areas. Reforestation provides a wide variety of benefits in addition to

14
Building Sustainable Cities, 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/23/building-sustainable-
cities-in-bolivia

22
reducing the impact of floods, it increases the ecological value of the riverbeds, improves the quality
of water, air, climate regulation, and increases landscape value confirmed A1 and B1.

Moreover, A1, B1 and G2 stated: The government must prioritize native vegetation for rainwater
percolation and native soil restoration. A1 mentioned avoiding foreign species, such as eucalyptus and
cypresses, introduced by the Swiss government in the Andean zone, Cochabamba, Bolivia in 1998. A1:
“It was a reforestation program ignoring to acknowledge the role of native tree species for erosion
control and preservation of ecosystems and water catchments as these trees are a threat to the
biodiversity of the Bolivian Andes. Moreover, it has been ignored the value of the native trees gives to
the indigenous population, for medicinal purposes”. G2: “The Eucalyptus tree's roots cause other
problems such as grow into ditches, houses and sidewalks damaging and cracking them”.

Additionally, G2 suggested that these actions should be complemented by monitoring plans from the
government to prevent the loss of native green species in urban areas. Additionally, B1 mentioned
that reforestation with native vegetation might have a better acceptance by its residents since they are
easy to implement and are at a low cost.

Regarding other preventing actions: B1 pointed out the lack of coordination between the secretariats
in the municipality and other institutions, on issues related to the Early Warning System. B1
suggested information campaigns to inform and give directions to citizens about the preventive
measures to reduce the damage that may result from floods and give self-protection measures in the
event of an emergency.

7.1.2 Water scarcity

In the analysis of the effect of climate change on the availability of water resources in the municipality
of La Paz, it is concluded that there will be a decrease in the drinking water supply system of the city
of La Paz (Lorini, H., 2012). The drinking water system of the city of La Paz is supplied by a series of
small basins located in the Cordillera Real, in which the glacial contribution is significant (Lorini, H.,
2012). If glaciers, important reservoirs of freshwater are lost, and the foreseeable population growth
in the city of La Paz, means that the risk of water scarcity increases considerably (ibid).

The sectors in La Paz prone to water scarcity are in Figure 16 where the red colours are the zones with
a higher risk of water scarcity, the orange high, yellow average, light blue low, and darker blue lowest
(Municipio de La Paz, 2021).

B1: “Glaciers are one source of drinking water supply for the city of La Paz and these glaciers helped
to create high Andean wetlands called bofedales. The bofedales are both centres of biodiversity and
the basis of life for livestock and mountain biodiversity and are producers of fodder for camelid cattle
[llama, guanaco, alpaca, and vicuña] breeding. The bofedales are threatened by the effect of climate
change since the glacial retreat in the Cordillera Real reduces drastically the water on which they
feed”. Given the importance of these ecosystems, B1 said that the Vulnerability Index to Climate
Change Report suggests carrying out a plan for the conservation and rational use of the Cordillera
Real wetlands.

B1 suggested three main measures to respond to water scarcity: (1) a plan for the conservation and
rational use of the wetlands of the Cordillera Real, (2) investments in technology for the supervision
and control of the supply system and water resources, and (3) development of a water-saving and
responsible consumption plan in the city. Also, B1 suggested the decontamination of river waters and
better use of stormwater which could be used in activities that do not need drinking water, such as
irrigation, washing, toilet water, etc.

23
Figure 16 Water Scarcity Risk Map in La Paz

Source: With permission of authors of the Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz (Municipio de
La Paz, 2021). Indice de riesgo de escases de recurso hidrico by its Spanish words or Water Scarcity Risk Index in
English. The straight blue line marks the coastal zone, and the intermittent in black are the different districts within
La Paz.

7.1.3 Landslides
Figure 17 shows the landslide-prone areas in La Paz with the red colour having the highest risk
(Municipio de La Paz, 2021).

The vulnerability assessment carried out in the municipality of La Paz indicates that landslide is the
most notable risk, in terms of surface area and damage caused in the city of La Paz. They are caused
by three main factors: the nature of the soil (soil of alluvial origin, unstable and steep slope); the
number of water flows (more than 300 rivers, slopes, and underground flows); and the anthropic
factor (construction density, soil waterproofing and informal sewerage) (Municipio de La Paz, 2021).
According to data from Public Social Water and Sanitation Company from years, 2012 and 201715,
the city of La Paz had 101,780 sanitary sewer connections, which represents 44% of the homes, thus
there must be a large number of informal sewage connections with water infiltration on the slopes.
The infiltration of water into sandy alluvial formation soils creates micro-channels that erode the
terrain or causes alluvial fans (Ramos Sánchez, 2017). The most damaging alluvial fan floods happen
when heavy rains fall on saturated soil causing landslides (ibid).

15
Medium-term Strategic Planning for all relevant aspects, associated with adequate attention to the demand
for drinking water and sanitary sewerage services for the five-year period 2013-2017, in the cities of La Paz
and Tarija https://docplayer.es/6998803-Empresa-publica-social-de-agua-y-saneamiento-epsas.html

24
Figure 17 Landslide Prone Areas in La Paz Map

Source: With permission of authors of the Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz (Municipio de
La Paz 2021). Indice de riesgo de deslizamiento by its Spanish words or Landslide Risk Index in English. The red
colours are the zones with a higher risk of landslide, the orange high, yellow average, light blue low, and darker
blue lowest. The straight blue line marks the coastal zone, and the intermittent in black are the different districts
within La Paz.

A1, B1, G1, and G2 expressed their concern that the threat of landslides will increase because of climate
change, associated with an increase in prolonged periods of rain, both in intensity and frequency and
the urbanization expansion. A1 and B1 commented that the growth of self-built informal housing as
Figures 4, and 5, and illegal sewage discharge as Figure 8, (Fig. in the background), and impermeable
constructions like unnecessary asphalting on rural roads and lack of education on risk issues are other
issues putting even more pressure on landslides threats; government intervention with policies and
regulation can put a stop to this.

B1 mentioned that the city of La Paz has a Directorate of Prevention Risk (SMGIR – by its acronym
in Spanish) that monitors the watersheds and issues periodic hydrogeological reports, to preserve and
improve the quality of water and it has developed some groundwater harvesting projects, such as
those of Huayllani or Charapaya neighbourhoods, but there is no management plan for the
watersheds that control the water quality, nor a study that relates them to soil stability problems.
Moreover, B1 suggested that the municipality should coordinate to develop a management plan for
the watersheds with a diagnosis of current situations, identifying the problems and risks, and
proposing measurements aimed at mitigating pollution and controlling the water quality.

A1, B1, and G2 pointed out that the presence of vegetation such as reforestation and the creation of
urban green areas helps stabilize steep slopes and reduces erosion and landslides through tree roots.
A1 and G2 proposed the strengthening of the afforestation with green areas, urban forests, and urban
woodlands in areas of high risk of landslides by: (1) carrying out studies to determine the potential of
risk areas for the establishment of forests and green areas, including choice of species more suitable
and the location of the land with the greatest biological potential; (2) construction of on-site nurseries
for the planting of native trees and plants; (3) implementation of urban gardens, managed by
neighbourhood families and farmers' associations in the area.

25
A1, B1 G1, and G2 highlighted the great importance of reforestation, expansion, and creation of green
and urban forest areas, including reforestation in the upper part of the river basins. They also stressed
the importance of the fight against impermeable infrastructures such as asphalt and concrete, and
how green areas can generate benefits for environmental, social, and economic terms. Furthermore,
B1 proposed the need for a landslide risk management plan in several priority areas, including (1)
regulation and reconstruction of sewerage systems, particularly in areas of high risk like the slopes;
(2) reengineering of catchment and use of water from springs to stabilize and make better use of the
waters; (3) to limit water leaks in the network of distribution.

7.1.4 Urban heatwaves

The reduction of urban pollution is an indispensable element to regulate temperature and improve
the quality of life. The combination of heavy pollution with high temperatures can lead to a significant
increase in respiratory diseases and increased mortality (D’Amato et al., 2014). According to the most
recent assessment report of the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change, the continued emissions
of greenhouse gases will cause further warming, and there will be more frequent hot temperature
extremes during the next fifty years with a global temperature reaching or exceeding 1.5°C (United
Nations, 2021)

B1: “An increase in high temperature can impact a city like La Paz, located over 3,500 meters above
sea level with high solar radiation, a particularly dry climate [around 25% humidity], and few green
areas, can foresee impacts on health and quality of life, on biodiversity due to the change of fauna and
flora, droughts, and increase of use of electrical energy [growth in the use of air conditioning, fans].
Moreover, the combination of heavy pollution with high temperatures can cause a significant increase
in respiratory diseases and increased mortality. B1: “The densest area of the city (Max Paredes,
Cotahuma, Centro and part of Periferica), (Fig. 18) also the most polluted, with few green spaces and
where houses are generally built with materials that are very sensitive to high temperatures, thus not
allowing the necessary thermal insulation”.

Air pollution: B1 suggested that the government should encourage a shift from transit in cars to
cycling, or walking, and sustainable buses using other alternatives to petrol like biogas, ethanol, or
electrical. B1: “The improvement of traffic will take several decades, but it is possible to restructure
routes. Banking services, administrative, large shopping centres, universities, etc., are all found in the
city centre thus the vast transport movements are carried out on a north-south axis. The Municipal
Secretariat of Public Infrastructures, the Municipal Secretariat of Planning for Development, the
Municipal Secretary for Economic Development, the Municipal Secretary for Mobility, and the
Municipal Secretariat for Environmental Management, and the economic organizations of transport
and commerce, can perhaps determine a new distribution map of businesses and public services that
allow a better spatial distribution for transport services in all districts of the municipality. The
expected result is a decrease in road traffic and air pollution and an increase in proximity stores”.
Moreover, A1, B2, and G1 stated that the government is having a pilot project on cycle paths that
promote sustainable urban mobility. However, F1 suggested that the use of a bicycle as a mode of
transport is not so suitable because La Paz has a hilly landscape, and bicycling is more of a sport done
by affluent social groups.

In the city of La Paz, air pollution originates mainly from transport with a high concentration in the
densest neighbourhoods (Municipio de La Paz, 2021). However, in less dense areas such as at Glacier
Zongo, Bolivia where heat island is not an issue, the extreme temperature events can impact on the
recurrence of droughts, and on the change in the biodiversity of ecosystems (Wagnon et al., 2001).

26
Figure 18 Risk Index for Extreme High Temperature

Source: With permission of authors of the Vulnerability Index to Climate Change in the city of La Paz (Municipio de
La Paz, 2021). Indice de riesgo de eventos extremos de altas temperaturas by its Spanish words or Risk Index for
Extreme High Temperature in English. The red colours are the zones with extreme higher temperatures, the orange
high, yellow average, light blue low, and darker blue lowest. The straight blue line marks the coastal zone, and the
intermittent in black are the different districts within La Paz.

All eight interviewees promoted the growth of green spaces for the reduction of urban heatwaves in
the city, where asphalt and concrete surface are the norms as seen in figures of parks and plazas in
the literature review section.

B1 suggested that the government should not only work on urban forests and urban trees, urban green
corridors but should also reinforce Law 350 (Protección y Conservación de los arboles en actividades,
obras y proyectos de construcción, 2013) based on the protection and conservation of trees activities,
during works and constructions projects: “The government should only grant projects that
incorporate the preservation of green spaces into their design and construction” (B1).

A1, B1, and G2 mentioned that an NGO is looking to pilot urban gardens in some parts of the city.
Urban gardens are small plots with containers, old tires, barrels, unused buckets, shoes, watering
cans, or boxes used to grow food crops, fruits, plants, or flowers in urban environments. A1 and B1
remarked that the purpose is that it is a social activity that stimulates the local economy and family
food security, since these areas have a dual-use function, as an orchard; and as a green area acting as
local temperature regulators. B1 also mentioned that this program should be an initiative of the
municipality, which has already enacted Law No. 321 (Fomento a los huertos hurbanos, 2014) based
on the development of urban gardens and its regulations. B1: “The orchards through municipal
programs should be public land awarded to the participants for a certain period, and these
assignments are associated with previous training activities”. Moreover, B1 mentioned that several
areas in the city are unsuitable for buildings; those areas could start as urban gardening pots by the
residents.

B1 and G2 stated that to guarantee the success of urban gardening, the residents have an essential
role in the control of the management of orchards for the sharing of the cultivation and its
maintenance. B1: “From an educational point of view, it will be essential to build environmental
awareness in schools giving students the ecological values, the importance of plants, and boost a

27
healthy diet. Introducing orchards in schools is a way to understand and promote a model of
production, distribution, and consumption of food, respect for the environment, and a "green culture"
to future generations”.

B1: “Creating green areas in a city is not about growing gardens and flowers to beautify it, but in social
terms is about bringing health and well-being to the human being, creating a social bond and a local
identity. In environmental terms, plants in cities play an important role in biodiversity, thermal
regulation, air quality, water flow, and soil protection. In economic terms, the benefits are radiated
through the development of buildings and the attractiveness of the territory. The "nature in the city"
allows creating a new chain of ecosystem services, directly generating economic activity, with the
creation of nurseries, the development of horticulture, etc., and indirectly, related to leisure-related
activities (sport)”.

B1 mentioned concerning the creation of urban reforestation for reducing heatwaves: “The
practitioners and professionals managing urban planning can receive intensive training in the
conception of a green city”.

7.2 Gender implications with the implementation of GI

It is difficult to respond what are the considerations of a green infrastructure development vision for
La Paz for gender equity. This is because there is a lack of detailed research on flood, water scarcity,
landslides, and urban heatwaves effects on gender and how green infrastructure planning, design,
and implementation could be more gender sensitive. Moreover, women are typically absent in
disaster risk reduction when planning is made (Ahmad Bukhari and Hassan Rizvi, 2015; Carson et
al., n.d.; Othman et al., 2017). For example, there are many studies on flooding and landslides, been
the most common hazards affecting many communities, but not specifically on how women-headed
households are disproportionately affected by these floods and landslides (Salvati et al., 2021; UN,
2013). Also, when priorities in adaptation planning are established, the interests of women are often
poorly represented (Ahmad Bukhari and Hassan Rizvi, 2015; Othman et al., 2017).

There are many studies on flooding, water scarcity, landslides, and urban heatwaves, been the most
common hazards affecting many communities, but not specifically on how these hazards affect
women differentially from men (Ashraf and Azad, 2015). Thus, the research aimed is redefined to
what implication green infrastructure implementation might have on gender equity; and the results
show that fear of crime is the most significant when adopting urban reforestation in the cities of La
Paz.

Fear of crime has been a social problem in urban areas, particularly in urban green spaces (Burgess
et al., 1988; Jansson et al., 2013). Dense vegetation and trees that are not maintained give a perception
of fear, especially urban forests, and urban green spaces (Jansson et al., 2013). Moreover, Sreetheran
and van den Bosch, (2014) identify in the finding of the report that the time of the day (night) season
(winter) and parks in certain neighbourhoods are associated with fear of crime. There are studies of
public spaces associated with sexual harassment and other forms of sexual violence, but few studies
explored the social dangers in urban green spaces, especially studies on perceived safety, perceived
risk, perceived threats (Sreetheran and van den Bosch, 2014).

F3: “I have seen women and girls getting assaulted by men, we still have machismo in this country".
F1, F2, and F3 pointed out that women alone, in general, avoid traveling at dusk hours. F2: “If a
woman needs to be outside at night hours, there is a fear perception, and they prefer to go with the
company of a male but sometimes with a female if going to a similar area, but never alone. This is
because most women [and girls] are told for their safety to stay at home after dark, avoid some streets,
and not travel alone in public transportation”.

F3: “There is a perception if women need to take the bus, they will not ride it if there are non-women
inside that bus because they fear harassment. Also, even if two or more women are walking together
in dark places, if they see men on the streets, they will avoid that street and look for alternative routes”.

28
(Burgess et al., 1988; Jansson et al., 2013)(Jansson et al., 2013)Sreetheran and van den Bosch,
(2014)(Sreetheran and van den Bosch, 2014)F1, F2, and F3 mentioned that the best to guarantee
personal safety is that when implementing reforestation in green infrastructure, planners must have
in mind that trees’ branches should be kept cleaned without blocking any visibility and meets the
needs of its users, such as including benches and other activities that involve more women since now
must parks are mainly soccer and basketball fields, activities that are less preferred by women.

F1: “Women's representation is fundamental in the democratic process in decision-making. When a

decision is taken in a community, there is insufficient women representation, and decisions are made
in favour of the majority”. F3: “Some perceived reasons are 1) society's beliefs of women's and men's
roles; 2) home obligations; 3) machismo prejudices”.

8. Discussion
The results revealed that green infrastructure solutions are appropriate for responding to Plan 2040
four priority areas. It may reduce the impacts caused by the scarcity of water, decrease heat islands
caused by man-made surfaces by the lack of vegetation, control water flows by absorbing rainfall
consequently flooding, and landslides. The results also showed that afforestation contributes to
biodiversity conservation and provides some income and food to local urban communities.

Reforestation and afforestation using non-invasive species and coordination between the functional
and operational units of the municipality received the most attention during the interviews. Whereas
maintenance, financing for implementation, a study that determines the suitable development areas
for reforestation/afforestation, and any gender implications from implementation, received less
attention.

It was learned from results that eucalyptus was the tree preferred for reforestation. The introduction
of eucalyptus can be a good source of firewood and perhaps an income to the local community’s
firewood and construction timber, moreover, the roots are great for water retention and stop soil
erosions (Liu and Li, 2010). However, the results pointed out that eucalyptus is an invasive plant and
is a threat to the native biodiversity. Ignoring the value of some native medicinal plants, as per in
results, used by the locals might not be the best way, thus the participation of a range of stakeholders
in decision-making such as the type of vegetation to used is key for developing a more resilient city.

Green infrastructure programs may reduce their effectiveness if the local government has budget
limitations for its implementation. The local governments need to have the possibility to propose
funding sources and financing strategies to support green infrastructure programs. Funding in green
infrastructure implementation is a cost-effective tool as it not only responds to the four priority areas
it also offers significant gains (improvements in air quality and public health, increased climate
resilience, opportunities for community recreation, and enhanced community aesthetics) for
residents.

Urban area surface required per inhabitant for sustainable development: La Paz is a high-density city;
thus, it is crucial to map or determine the green infrastructure urban area surface required per
inhabitant for sustainable development. The implementation of green infrastructure will gain if it is
prioritized in municipal planning to create a more resilient city. Moreover, to combat inequality and
gentrification, the redistribution of the sustainable development areas for urban greening should be
just. It is understood that an equitable distribution is difficult as green infrastructure is by nature
large areas (i.e., forests and wetlands) and so won’t be equidistant to all residents. Experience in other
cities and confirmed during the interviews is that low-income and informal areas are often forming
in the most hazardous areas (e.g., floodplains and steep hillsides). These areas might also be suitable
for green infrastructure development and protection/restoration of the ecosystem services.

The interviews pointed out that the maintenance of green infrastructure is to be done by the residents.
If so, green infrastructure implementation needs to be understood by the local neighbourhoods, and
factors such as acceptance of the public's willingness to implement green infrastructure. Would there
be a cost to its residents, would they be in charge of its maintenance? If green infrastructure projects

29
are implemented by local governments, private landowners, or non-profit organizations, it is
important to consider who will rely on its maintenance; (private residents or volunteers to conduct
the project?). Moreover, for an effective operation training programs for the residents, employees,
and volunteers are important about vegetation can be kept healthy and pruned, and watering during
extended droughts with a hose, or irrigation system.

Coordination between the functional and operational units of the municipality: As mentioned in the
background section, the municipality of La Paz has three organization units in planning its city (1)
develops and designs policies of land use (2) designs policies of urban planning, (3) designs policies
for the sustainable use of natural resources and the provision of water and sanitation services. These
three organizations share the responsibilities in urban planning, and if there is a lack of coordination
it may result in constraints and overlapping of functions, unclear vertical and horizontal relationships
between urban planners and ministries.

With regards to gender implications, safety was the main concern of the respondents. Thus, it is
important to have awareness of personal safety in the implementation of green infrastructure.
Personal safety meaning on how comfortable or safe a woman or man feels in any given situation.
Some reports look at crime statistics, but this will not apply to the context of La Paz (or Bolivia). This
it is because as learned from the interviews, many victims are afraid to report the crime, and many
crimes, particularly sexual assault, go unreported. The results mentioned that there is a lack of women
representation when a common decision is taken in a community. Society's beliefs give different roles
to women and men, and machismo prejudiced thereby, women feel that they do not belong to these
meetings, other women fear rejection or acceptance by the neighbourhood, and their opinion
regarding implications of green infrastructure might go unnoticed.

However, the research does not intend to investigate how floods, water scarcity, landslide or urban
heat waves affect women differentially from men, or what are the most significant problems that
women face during and after a disaster; neither to make recommendations on how to integrate gender
analysis into disaster planning, but mainly on how green infrastructure planning, design and
implementation could be more gender sensitive.

Moreover, the study does recommend that women should be involved in green infrastructure
planning by ensuring their active participation. The inclusion of a greater number of women in urban
planning could help in the long term to address disaster risks.

To summarise, based on the analysis of the results, the author recommends that Plan 2040 would be
significantly strengthened if it was to consider and incorporate the following in their green
infrastructure implementation: 1) non-invasive plant species; 2) financing for implementation;
economic resources; 3) a study that determines the urban area surface required per inhabitant for
sustainable development; 4) its maintenance, and care measures; 5) coordination between the
functional and operational unit of the municipality (government officials, environmentalists, urban
planners, and gender specialists; 6) and any gender implications.

9. Conclusion
Rapid urbanization in Bolivian cities is making people more vulnerable to issues caused by climate
change. The literature review and interviews have highlighted how the urban areas of La Paz are
threatened by heavy rains, causing floods, and landslides either associated with the overflowing of
rivers or poor stormwater management. Moreover, shrinking glaciers and extreme droughts threaten
La Paz's water supply, and the deficit of green areas is elevating urban temperatures. There is evidence
that global warming continues to rise causing heavy precipitations, droughts, flooding, which
presents challenges to communities in Bolivia.

30
This thesis aims to explore how the city of La Paz can integrate green infrastructure solutions to
respond to four priority areas (flooding, water scarcity, landslides, and urban heatwaves) of Plan 2040
and to better embed gender consideration in their urban planning and design for a more resilient city.
However, the term “green infrastructure” is not currently part of the technical nomenclature and
planning processes in La Paz or Bolivia, and the term best recognized in a Bolivian context is urban
reforestation.

Findings suggest that green infrastructure [or urban reforestation] has the potential to make La Paz
more resilient to the four priority areas. This is because green infrastructure provides cooling effects
that help stabilize urban heatwaves; act as sponges that absorb or release gradually water, help to
lessen floods and landslides; decrease water scarcity. Moreover, green infrastructure provides
opportunities for people to socialize with others, participate in physical activity, and engage with
nature.

While the benefits of green infrastructure in La Paz favour urban reforestation as an adaptive strategy
to protect La Paz from natural disasters, particular attention needs to be given to minimizing the fear
of crime perceived from out-of-control vegetation, and whether the green infrastructure practices will
contribute to other benefits such as the social and economic ones in achieving inclusive participation
and elimination of gentrification.

Finally, it was concluded that the green infrastructure planning, in the Plan 2040 will be strengthened
if it was to consider and incorporate the following: 1) non-invasive plant species; 2) financing for
implementation; 3) a study that determines the sustainable development areas for urban greening;
4) its maintenance, and care measures; 5) coordination between the functional and operational unit
of the municipality (environmentalists, urban planners, and gender specialists); 6) and how green
infrastructure planning, design and implementation could be more gender sensitive.

31
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36
Interviews

Academic (A1), 2021-06-22

Bilateral Organization: AFD (B1), 2021-06-28

Bilateral Organization: SIDA, (B2), 2021-06-23

Governmental Official Municipality of La Paz (G1), 2021-06-28

Governmental Official Municipality of Tarija (G2), 2021-06-28

Gender Specialist with NGO Save the children (F1), 2021-07-01

Gender Specialist with NGO UN-Habitat Bolivia (F2), 2021-06-29

Gender Specialist newly graduated student at Mayor de San Andres University (F3), 2021-
04-27

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Appendix I: Guiding Questions used in interview

1. Academic
• How to Bridge the Urban Infrastructure Gap in a Time of Rapid Urbanization?
• What are the factors that facilitate the implementation of green infrastructure?
• And what are the barriers it can faced?
• Are green infrastructure choices more expensive than non-green choices?
• Do green infrastructure choices require more state involvement than non-green
choices?
• Do green infrastructure choices reduce poverty/provides employment opportunities
than non-green choices?
• Are there any other co-benefits, costs, or risks associated with green infrastructure
investments?
• Are green alternatives considered for infrastructure projects in vulnerable areas?
• How can one ensure green infrastructure practices remain functional?
• How to convey the need for others to maintain green infrastructure?
• Would reforestation reduce heat-island caused by man-made surfaces -lack of
vegetation in urban areas?
• Any suggestion to sustainable urban drainage -reducing flooding/landslides?
• Mention ecological values green infrastructure might bring to La Paz

2. Bilateral Organization
• Describe your role as an X.
• What kind of tasks do you perform in urban development?
• What is prioritized?
• Describe your contact with residents, Politician’s, what they usually comment on
flooding, water scarcity, urban heatwaves, and landslides.
• How to Bridge the Urban Infrastructure Gap in a Time of Rapid Urbanization?
• What are the factors that facilitate the implementation of green infrastructure? And
what are the barriers you are facing?
• Are green infrastructure choices more expensive than non-green choices?
• Do green infrastructure choices require more state involvement than non-green
choices?
• Do green infrastructure choices reduce poverty/provides employment opportunities
than non-green choices?
• Are there any other co-benefits, costs, or risks associated with green infrastructure
investments?
• Are green alternatives considered for infrastructure projects in vulnerable areas?
• Who will be taking basic strategies to maintain green infrastructure over time?
• How can one ensure green infrastructure practices remain functional?
• How to convey the need for others to maintain green infrastructure?
• How well practices we put in the ground?
• How you build green neighbourhoods?
• Mention some of the effects of green areas will bring to La Paz
• Does the government of La Paz have measures to respond to water scarcity issues?
• What are the concerns re landslides and low-income and informal areas are often
forming in the most hazardous areas (e.g., floodplains and steep hillsides)?
• If you would get extra resources for the maintenance of reforestation, what would
you prioritize?

3. Bilateral organization/ Urban Planner

● How you build green neighbourhoods?
● What do you do with green infrastructure?
● What is the Vision 2040 for La Paz?

38
 ● How can one ensure green infrastructure practices remain functional?
● What are the factors that facilitate the implementation of green infrastructure? And
what are the barriers you are facing?
● Are green infrastructure choices more expensive than non-green choices?
● Do green infrastructure choices require more state involvement than non-green
choices?
● Do green infrastructure choices reduce poverty/provides employment opportunities
than non-green choices?
● Are there any other co-benefits, costs, or risks associated with green infrastructure
investments?
● Are green alternatives considered or appraised for infrastructure projects in
vulnerable areas?
● Who will be taking basic strategies to maintain green infrastructure over time?
● How can one ensure green infrastructure practices remain functional?
● How to convey the need for others to maintain green infrastructure?
● Mention some of the effects of green areas will bring to La Paz
● Does the government of La Paz have measures to respond to water scarcity?
● What are the concerns re landslides and t low-income and informal areas are often
forming in the most hazardous areas (e.g., floodplains and steep hillsides)?
● How is land reclaimed?
● If you would get extra resources for the maintenance of reforestation, what would
you prioritize?

4. Politicians
• Describe your role as an X.
• What kind of decisions do you take about the green spaces and the maintenance?
• What do you think is important to priorities when it comes to the gardens in the
city? -e.g., gender consideration like the fear of violence can present as a barrier to
accessing them?
• How is gender equality and advocacy implemented in decision-making?
• What do you think about the gardens in city? Are there any gender implications?
• How is the maintenance carried out?
• What would be the policy and regulative capacities to preserve green spaces in
urban areas?
● How to Bridge the Rural-Urban Infrastructure Gap in a Time of Rapid
Urbanization?
● How important is the green infrastructure to solve urban flooding and improve
aesthetics?
● Or is grey infrastructure preferred and why?
● What are the factors that facilitate the implementation of green infrastructure? And
what are the barriers you are facing?
● Are green infrastructure choices more expensive than non-green choices?
● What type of green infrastructure would La Paz benefit? (Rain Gardens, Planter
Boxes, Permeable Pavements, Green Streets and Alleys, Green Parking)
● Do green infrastructure choices require more state involvement than non-green
choices?
● Do green infrastructure choices reduce poverty/provides employment opportunities
than non-green choices?
● Are there any other co-benefits, costs, or risks associated with green infrastructure
investments?
● Are green alternatives considered for infrastructure projects in vulnerable areas?
● Who will maintain green infrastructure on private property?
● How do I know when it is reached economies of scale in maintenance and
operations costs?
● What do you do with green infrastructure?
● What is the Vision 2040 for La Paz?

39
 ● Is the Plan still developing?
● Does the plan propose green infrastructure for the conservation and protection of
ecosystems intending to provide adaptation measures for the city of La Paz to
respond to four priority areas of (1) flooding, (2) water scarcity, (3) landslides, and
(4) urban heatwaves (Índice de Vulnerabilidad Climática de La Paz online
workshop)?
● How can one ensure green infrastructure practices remain functional?
● Is La Paz the only city in Bolivia with a climate action plan?
● Does the government of La Paz have measures to respond to water scarcity issues?
● If you would get extra resources for the maintenance of reforestation, what would
you prioritize?

5. Gender Specialists
● Explain your general view of the green areas and personal ‘liking’.
● What do you think is important to priorities when it comes to the gardens in the
city? -e.g., gender consideration like the fear of violence can present as a barrier to
accessing them?
● How do you use of the green areas with tree?
● Do you visit parks/plazas? How are there been used?
● Describe safety in the housing area.
● How do you travel? Walk/Bus/Bicycle
● Do you use public transport?
● Do you feel safe here in the parks/housing/traveling area?
● How do you experience the green areas with trees at night?
● Is there anything you think should be done more often there?
● If you compare the parks/plazas, do you find them similarly well-kept?
● How do you think new gardens (reforestation areas) would look in 5-10 years?
● What is your opinion re reforestation versus impermeable surfaces such as the
cement and asphalt used in parks?

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TRITA TRITA-ABE-MBT-21609

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