CHAPTER 5

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE (SA)

Introduction

Sustainable agriculture is a subject of great interest and lively debate in many segments of
the world.

Sustainable agriculture is defined as a system that, “over the long term, enhances
environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends; provides for
basic human food and fibre needs; is economically viable; and enhances the quality of life for
farmers and society as a whole”

Also, sustainable agriculture is defined as a commitment to satisfy human

food and fibre needs and to enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as
a whole, now and into the future. Consequently, there is that no brief, universally
acceptable definition of sustainable agriculture has yet emerged. This is because
sustainable agriculture is viewed more often as a management philosophy rather
than a method of operation, and as such acceptance or rejection of any definition is linked to
one's value system. But regardless of its precise definition, most agriculturalists agree that

the concept of sustainable agriculture is of paramount importance to the sustainability of our

biosphere and its ever-increasing human population. Sustainability hinges on a combined
focus on environmental changes and their impact on society (people), the environment
(planet) and economic value (profit) known as the ‘Triple Bottom Line (TBL)’
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Agriculture has changed dramatically, especially since the end of World War II. Food and
fiber productivity raised due to new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use,
specialization and government policies that favored maximizing production.

Agriculture is highly susceptible to climate variability and its related effects. Food
security and maintenance of sustainable ecological balance are major challenges for thinkers,
researchers, conservationists and policy makers.

Sustainable agriculture should be taken as an eco-system approach, where soil-

waterplants- environment-living beings live in harmony with a well-balanced equilibrium of
food chains and their related energy balances. The goal is to address environmental issues of
natural resource management to sustain significant increases in farm productivity through
the efficient use of land and other resources and provide better economic returns to
individuals and contribute to the quality of life and economic development. It is essential
that innovative technologies are used to ensure sustainable agriculture and productivity
using, modern irrigation systems, improved varieties, improved soil quality and conserving
the environment using resource conservation technologies. Although these changes have had
many positive effects and reduced many risks in farming, there have also been significant
costs. Prominent among these are topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, the decline
of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm labourers,
increasing costs of production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in
rural communities. Sustainable agriculture emerged as part of a growing critique of the
negative environmental consequences of unquestioned modern farming methods.

Even thought, the concept of sustainable agriculture is still new, however, the issue
for sustainable agriculture is gathering increasing support and acceptance within
mainstream agriculture. Not only does sustainable agriculture address many environmental
and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for
farmers, consumers, policymakers.

THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development means different things to different people. In the past it was
wrongly characterized as an environmental issue. The World Commission on Environment
and Development's (WCED) definition of 'sustainable development' is "development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to
meet their own needs". At the heart of the concept is the belief that social, economic and
environmental objectives should be complementary and interdependent in the development
process.

Sustainable development has three principal dimensions: economic growth, social

equity and protection of the environment. Underlying the economic dimension is the
principle that society’s well-being would have to be maximized and poverty eradicated
through the optimal and efficient use of natural resources. The social aspect refers to the
relationship between nature and human beings, uplifting the welfare of people, improving
access to basic health and education services, fulfill food security needs and respect for
human rights. The environmental dimension, on the other hand, is concerned with the
conservation and enhancement of the physical and biological resource base and ecosystems.

Although sustainable development is a universal challenge, many practical responses

can only be defined nationally and locally. Nations are challenged with developing and
implementing strategies in sustainable development. All countries should promote
sustainable development at the national level by, inter alia, enacting and enforcing clear and

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effective laws that support sustainable development. The strategies on sustainable

development will be defined and limited by national needs, priorities and resources. Due to
the complexity and dynamism of challenges facing humanity, strategies towards sustainable
development need to evolve and improve with time.

BARRIERS TO ADOPTION OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE PRACTICES

Most researches on the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices have found several
barriers that impede its widespread adoption. Cary et al., (2001) point out that there is a
range of constraints that discourage adoption of natural resources management programs.

They also explain that these constraints can have four different backgrounds: “perspective of
individual landholders, the characteristics of desirable management practices, the
socioeconomic structure of adopters’ communities and the broader institutional settings”.

One of the reported reasons for non-adoption by Norman et al., (1997) is that sustainable
agriculture practices are management intensive and require a huge commitment to constant
learning. Sovedi et al., (2010) state that one reason for farmers being unable to adopt is their
inadequate managerial skills.

Lack of farmers’ information.

The lack of information about sustainable agriculture practices is often regarded as a barrier
to adoption (Bell et al., 2001; Edson et al., 2014; Norman et al., 1997). Nowak (1991) explains
that one of the reasons for farmers being unable to adopt residue management techniques is
the lack or scarce information regarding economic or technical issues of these technologies.
Lack of knowledge about the implementation and viability of these practices is an important
barrier to adoption (Bell et al., 2001; Norman et al., 1997; Presley, 2014).

Economic Factors.

Even for sustainable agriculture practices, economic factors are the important determinants
of adoption (Pannell, 1998). Economic factors are frequently mentioned as barriers to
adoption of sustainable agriculture practices by farmers and also by change agents. Some of
the commonly mentioned economic factors holding farmer from adoption are the cost of
adopting, the uncertainty of profitability, loss of productivity, labor demand, short term
economic necessity, and the economic policies (Presley, 2014). When environmental
problems are not being overcome, current and future productions are at risk, as well as
financial and time investments. Thus, farmers need to be sure that the new technology will
provide the expected environmental benefits and effect (Vanclay and Lawrence, 1994).
Another factor closely related to risk is the farmers’ economic ability. When the farmers’
economic situation is not economically solved, they may tend to overexploit natural
resources in order to maintain their operation. In such a case, the negative interactions
among the components of sustainability, especially environmental and economic, can also be
a barrier to adoption. This has been identified mainly in low-income countries where poverty
and ecological degradation are found to be closely related (Norman et al., 1997; Antle and
Diagana, 2003). Although it has been demonstrated that sustainable practices are as
economically viable as conventional practices, profitability of sustainable practices is a
concern among farmers and even change agents (Horrigan et al., 2002; Roling and Jiggins,
1994). Paulson (1995) found that many agricultural professionals consider sustainable
practices as not economically viable. Some of the factors that are frequently considered to
affect the profitability of sustainable practices include the crop yield reduction and an
increase in costs of inputs or quantity of inputs. Although many agricultural practices have

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been demonstrated to even increase yields, proof of such, results may not be available to
farmers, thus generating uncertainty about their outcomes. Labor demand is another
economic factor that negatively affects profitability and the farmers' decision to adopt.
Nowak (1991) cites that increase on labor requirement is one reason that farmer do not adopt
residue management systems. Northwest Area Foundation (2004) found that increased labor
demands represent a substantial barrier to adoption for many conventional farmers
(Horticulture). Conversely, for farmers who have already adopted sustainable practices,
labor concerns ceased. Reed (2004) explains that for organic farmers, labor demand
represents a constraint to the economic rationality of transition to such production systems.

Policies.

In addition to the specific reasons that prevent adoption at the farm level, external factors
such as policies may negatively influence farmers’ adoption decisions. Adoption of
sustainable agriculture practices is commonly affected by influences from higher levels (e.g.
National, regional, and watershed). National policies influence the economic environment
upon which farmers decide if whether adopting new agricultural practices is feasible or not
(Norman et al., 1997). Moreover, Pannell (1998) explains that farming systems are the result
of “farmers’ reaction to government policies and institutions in place”.

Farmers’ Personal Characteristics.

Some personal characteristics are barriers to adoption of sustainable agriculture. The

frequently mentioned personal and demographic farmers’ characteristics that act as barriers
are: reluctant to change, age, and other attitudes. Farmers’ perceptions of environmental
problems and media promotion are other barriers to adoption. Farmers are likely to adopt
environmental innovations when they perceive a risk of environmental degradation by using
traditional practices. However, the extensive literature that gives images of dramatic
environmental degradation may have contrary effects. Farmers may feel incapable of solving
these problems. In some cases, farmers may not perceive they have such dramatic damage
and thus take no action to solve the problem (Hailemariam et al., 2012; Vanclay and
Lawrence, 1994).

Incompatibility.

Compatibility of sustainable practices with the current agricultural systems in terms of

management style, farm size, physical setting, and production goals is often identified as a
barrier to adoption. Also, incompatibility with farm and personal objectives is a barrier to
adoption. When practices are complex and non-divisible, they tend to require substantial
changes in farm management (Vanclay and Lawrence, 1994). As Roling and Jiggins (1994)
explain “sustainable management requires profound changes in the activities which
constitute farm practices,” thus tend to be incompatible with current management strategies.

Land Tenure.

Land tenure issues are often found to be an important barrier to adoption of sustainable
practices in developing countries, and in developed countries such as the United States.
Antle and Diagana (2003) explain how insecure property rights would make very unclear
and thus difficult to establish contracts for carbon sequestration with farmers from
developing countries. Moreover, farmers with insecure property rights may degrade soil
unintentionally. Insecure property rights have existed in Honduras for a long period of time,
causing a conflict that affects many resource poor farmers. This has been demonstrated to

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have a deterrent effect on the adoption of sustainable practices. Plots that were owned by
farmers were four times more likely to employ minimum tillage and conservation tillage
(Arellanes and Lee, 2003).

Physical and social infrastructures may present other barriers to adoption. Physical
infrastructure such as marketing infrastructures may constrain the adoption of an
innovation. Social infrastructure is very important because farmers often refer their peers for
information. Therefore, most farmers wait until there is sufficient interest in the innovation
by their peers before adoption occurs.

Social Infrastructure.

One dimension of social infrastructure is the farming subculture or farming style. Meeting
the expectations of subcultural norms is a fundamental part of social behavior. In farming
subcultures there are norms about acceptable agricultural practices. The subculture concept
leads us to understand that “ideas that are different to the currently held in the subculture
are likely to be rejected… [thus] subcultures are a powerful force in resisting change” (Shaian
et al., 2012). For example, new environmental practices are often not part of the subculture.
Therefore, adoption of new environmental practices is less likely to occur. Vanclay and
Lawrence (1993) recognized that adoption decisions regarding sustainable agriculture are
based on precise factors such as risk, cost, and benefits. These types of decision are often
based on more imprecise factors such as “what is considered to be socially and culturally
acceptable by members of [potential adopters’] social group” (Vanclay and Lawrence, 1993).
According to a change agent “two drivers determine whether a farmer will adopt a new
technology: if he thinks it’s profitable and if his peers accept it” (Bearenklau, 2005).

Physical Infrastructure.

It is well known that infrastructure issues play an important role in farming decisions
(Ogunnowo and Oderinde, 2012). Khanna et al. (1999) find that drip irrigation did not reach
widespread adoption until a support infrastructure was established. Extension specialists,
dealers, support staff, and farmers understood its implementation and functioning.
Infrastructural problems have been identified in developing countries as a barrier to
adoption. After analyzing a large sample from 52 countries in Latin America, Africa, and
Asia, Pretty and Hine (2001) suggested that for a more widespread adoption of sustainable
practices, countries must invest in the options markets, transportation, and
communications. Papzan and Shiri (2012) study have shown that a deficiency or lack of
infrastructure (such as restrictions on access to the relevant market, the lack of adequate
stocks, and lack of appropriate inputs for organic products, etc.) on the adoption of
sustainable agricultural practices affects.

INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY ASPECTS OF SA

The Economic, Social & Political Context

In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices,
sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic
institutions, and social values. Strategies for change must take into account the complex,
reciprocal and ever-changing relationship between agricultural production and the broader
society.

The "food system" extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals
and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers,

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input suppliers, farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and
policymakers. Relationships among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn
economic, social and political changes.

A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food
system. These will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or
practices, to the longer-term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic
priorities, and challenging widely-held social values. Areas of concern where change is most
needed include the following:

Food and agricultural policy

Existing federal, state and local government policies often impede the goals of sustainable
agriculture. New policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental health,
economic profitability, and social and economic equity. For example, commodity and price
support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the
productivity gains made possible through alternative practices. Tax and credit policies could
be modified to encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than
corporate concentration and absentee ownership. Government and land grant university
research policies could be modified to emphasize the development of sustainable
alternatives. Marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage
reduced pesticide use. Coalitions must be created to address these policy concerns at the
local, regional, and national level.

Land use
Existing farmland conversion patterns often discourage farmers from adopting sustainable
practices and a long-term perspective on the value of land. At the same time, the close
proximity of newly developed residential areas to farms is increasing the public demand for
environmentally safe farming practices. Comprehensive new policies to protect prime soils
and regulate development are needed, particularly in California's Central Valley. By helping
farmers to adopt practices that reduce chemical use and conserve scarce resources,
sustainable agriculture research and education can play a key role in building public support
for agricultural land preservation. Educating land use planners and decision-makers about
sustainable agriculture is an important priority.

Labor
In California, the conditions of agricultural labor are generally far below accepted social
standards and legal protections in other forms of employment. Policies and programs are
needed to address this problem, working toward socially just and safe employment that
provides adequate wages, working conditions, health benefits, and chances for economic
stability. The needs of migrant labor for year-around employment and adequate housing are
a particularly crucial problem needing immediate attention. To be more sustainable over the
long-term, labor must be acknowledged and supported by government policies, recognized as
important constituents of land grant universities, and carefully considered when assessing
the impacts of new technologies and practices.

Rural Community Development

Many are among the poorest locations in the nation. The reasons for the decline are
complex, but changes in farm structure have played a significant role. Sustainable agriculture
presents an opportunity to rethink the importance of family farms and rural communities.

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Economic development policies are needed that encourage more diversified agricultural
production on family farms as a foundation for healthy economies in rural communities. In
combination with other strategies, sustainable agriculture practices and policies can help
foster community institutions that meet employment, educational, health, cultural and
spiritual needs.

Consumers and the Food System

Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food system. Through their
purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the system about
what they think is important. Food cost and nutritional quality have always influenced
consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that broaden consumer
perspectives, so that environmental quality, resource use, and social equity issues are also
considered in shopping decisions. At the same time, new policies and institutions must be
created to enable producers using sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider
public. Coalitions organized around improving the food system are one specific method of
creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers and others. These coalitions or
other public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues, suggesting new policies,
increasing mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food production, distribution
and consumption.

References

Abubakar, M S & Attanda, M.L. (2013). The Concept Sustainable Agriculture:

Challenges and Prospects. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and
Engineering.
53. 10.1088/1757-899X/53/1/012001.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261017470_The_Concept_Sustainable_
Agriculture_Challenges_and_Prospects/citation/download

Rodriguez, Joysee & Molnar, Joseph & Fazio, Robin & Sydnor, Emily & Lowe, Mecca.
(2009). Barriers to adoption of sustainable agriculture practices: Change agent
perspectives. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 24. 60 - 71.
10.1017/S1742170508002421.

Shaghayegh Kheiri (2015). Identifying the Barriers of Sustainable Agriculture Adoption by

Wheat Farmers in Takestan, Iran. International Journal of Agricultural Management and
Development (IJAMAD) ISSN: 2159-5852 (Print) ISSN:2159-5860 (Online) DOI:
10.5455/ijamd.175275. www.ijamad.com

Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program. What is Sustainable Agriculture?.

https://sarep.ucdavis.edu/sustainable-ag

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