REVIEWS OF MODERN Puvsrcs NUMBER 2 APRIL, 1958 Isotope Shift Studies of Nuclei Peren Busx, Jn fr Technische Kernphysit, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, Germony ax Hans Kovrnaaav, Hrsts Pipsikalicies Fst, Universitat Heidelberg, Gomany 1, SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ‘HE, information about size and angular shape of atomic nuclei that is available from isotope shifts in the optical spectra of heavy elements can be con- ddensed into one experimental number for each pair of isotopes. This is due to the fact that the shifts at- tributable to the field effec of valence s electrons are— within the theoretical framework and experimental accuracy available at present—proportional to the charge densities of these electrons at the nucleus. An isotope shift constant?* Crap can be defined, therefore, as Cop AT o/(We(0)rau?/Z), ay where AT, isthe level shift due to an s electron, ¥u(0) is the unrelativistie wave function of that electron at the origin, ax is the Bohr radius, and Z the atomic number. The quantity ¥."(0) can be evaluated either from the magnetic hyperfine structure due to the $ electron, or from the level scheme of the respective atom orion. For elements with more than two isotopes is usually convenient to measure Cay for one selected pair, and relative isotope shifts for the others. ‘Tsotope shift constants have so far been evaluated for the region 36<2<88 only. Figure I shows the data for isotopie pairs with an even number of neutrons. Apart from a factor 61, considered later, the ordinate isthe ratio Cay/Ca. Cu is the isotope shift constant caleu- lated for a standard model of spherical, homogeneously charged, incompressible nuclel with radius ro propor- tional to 41, used only for the purpose of comparison. ‘The ratio Co/Cuy shows how the quantity cae frei, ® with a2 (a=e/he), @ increases in going from mass number Ay to z= Art, compared with the change 5(0™ jaa (2o/20-43)(6A/A)ra* a for the standard model, For nuclei which are not spherically symmetric, the nuclear charge density ep will be a function of angle as well as radius. ‘The strong variations with neutron number of the quantity plotted in Fig. 1 can be accounted for in LB Bee and H. Koperiann, 2. Phys 126 34 100) 2 P. Bris and H. Koptermann, Festschr- Akad. Wiss. GBttngen, MathPiys KL, 17 931), terms of changes in nuclear deformations, The isotope shifts, therefore, provide a sensitive measure of the change of intrinsic quadrupole moments of nuclei, The data show furthermore that addition of neutrons to a nucleus changes the charge radius less than given by the A¥ law, This can be understood by assuming a nuclear compressibility Several recent reviews!® exist of the theory and interpretation of isotope shifts, to which the reader is referted for a detailed discussion. A complete literature survey up to July, 1956, is given by Mack and Arroe* ‘The published compilation of experimental isotope shift constants, however, is out of date now, Therefore, we present in Table I the numerical values and the litera- ture used in the preparation of Fig. 1. With the gross features of nuclear electric radii now reliably known from other sources, the isotope shifts should provide the most sensitive measure available of the change of nuclear charge distribution from one isotope to another. There are, unfortunately, several dificulties involved in obtaining the values of &(7") from the spectroscopic measurements. (a) Uncertainties Attributable to Cix Calculations should include effects of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron and of a possible polarization of nuclei by atomic electrons, as has been pointed out by Breit? and co-workers, (b) Uncertainties Attributable to Cexy ‘The reliable experimental determination of AT, ¥4(0), and of the mass dependent isotope shifts present other problems, which Breit? was the first to discuss, Tn Sec. 2 we sketch how Carp has been derived in a typical case, The element Gd is chosen both because of its complex spectrum and its position in the interest= ing region of strongly deformed nuclei 3K, W. Ford and D. L, Hil, Ann, Rev, Nuclear Si. §, 25 «385 ee “TAR. Stganoy and Yu. P.Dontsov, Uspekhi Fs, Nauk 55, 315 (1955). ws Jp Mack and H. Aros, Ann. Rev. Nuclear Sci, 6, 117 a3) HL Kopfermann, Kerwnomene (Akadeninche Vrlgsgesl sch Franke, 1380); Nadar Moments (Reet Pres Tae Noe Yor 938) Ser Bre Opt Soe. Am. 47,446 1950) aie et aa hae iin within Aton Nl, Euelopaioof Posie (pingerVerag, Bet, 197), gE, hg ts of Poss Cosogervere *G. Brit, Phys, Rev. 42, 48 (1932), st7S18 P, BRIX AND H. KOPFERMANN » T T T bserved isotope shift Stondord ‘sotope shill Cn (Gm. with Re =(20:10-%em) 2s + 20 — | | | 15 — re | a5 : SAY 7 oe | { ae eee ™ ‘| ° s | “ 50 60 70 20 90 m0 «0S«ROSCBO — Fic. 1, Ratio of observed iotope shit to standard shift for uniform density nuclel ‘number i, and ae placed at the higher N value for each pai of isotopes Pll ees indi ‘Rb ave vugh estimates only 2, TYPICAL EVALUATION OF Cup FOR A ‘COMPLEX SPECTRUM ‘The spectra of Gd and Gd 1 have been very care- fully analyzed by Russell? who assigned electron con- figurations to many levels of the neutral and singly ionized atom. With samples of natural isotopic com- position the isotope shifts are most easily measured for the pair Gd"™.Ga, The numberof lines studied by diferent authors" # amounts to about 120, From these the shifts of about $0 Gar levels and 35 Gd 11 levels have been deduced. A’ discussion of perturbations finally leads to the shifts of presumably unperturbed configurations presented in Fig. 2 Al data of Fig. 2 can be described as follows: a shift of about 74X10" emis assigned to the 6s electron in the configuration 4,[6s of Ga 1. The other valence electrons reduce this isotope shift by reducing the 6s wave function at the nucleus; these screening effects amount to ~20% for a 8d oF Gs electron and ~10% for a 6p electron. A comparison with screening effets HHL N, Rusel J. Opt. Soc, Am, 40, $80 (1950), NP! Bris and HD, Engler, Z. Paya 188,862 (1952), BS" Suway J. Phys, Soe Japan 8, $77 (193). Bie, 2. Phyl 183, 519 (1952) MD. Bris and KIL, Lindenberge, 2. Physik U1, 1 1989) RA), Points are plotted sesus neutron ce Ua Zeal The vals piven for Sand of the valence electrons in Hg,*#* included in Fig. 2, shows good numerical agreement. It is concluded that Setecrn éscatetn cap am ap cae a a ee ee Bl LS] Le] [ee] I &} (#] Le] on T 4 e YY x soe? a eS em eeeecon 2 Top shit of GG and sre eta. The eens ah are even nthe Squares, with ao ats Stblgned to levels of S86p and 5d6p, respect ‘are pre: fmably unperturbed. Corrections for tonfguraion iteration have been made, i neceary Prom the ration of the sie the scr ctor ven atthe en ofthe ennatog line have bjeen obfalned, ‘The corresponding factors for Hg are shown fh brackets. The broken lines indeate an extraplation for the Minsereened™ Ge electron in 47s. The quantum numbers Ste always 5d 6, and 6p. J, Blas, thesis, Paris (1957),ISOTOPE SHIFT STUDIES Tame 1 519 Toto sie commune Cn (uth = AVKL20XI0-% cm, an Cag The fro exp i she text cstomaly The Cox values not given directly can be obtained from the Telative sits, oa rs a Hue oa, mG iiss woe tate * “om Re 75 185-187 io om bay ht sar a he ” 130830 elie) alee 1m ipee tat yy gay a be m0 gag toate wiass 10D bea ae ig nw Pare 100-40 s ‘Pb 82 204-206 124 524 O89 a belee } MBM) 2 ae BR EB owe fh BST nahied prams ‘edt a nec. ae aie they i, ois Gn Roribiceniian le TRE AE GUO By as nan sae. Ee Seva cae nhe merce adigaytone ah. Ne "PRESET I ungpeg tyke on Tee Nekowski Z Physik 14, 284 (1955), ays, IE. Krebs and H. Neluown, 2, Puyalk 148, 849 (1980) ee Sal ae ath Bay Ech teks ba hg Hee eee eee anno, qui bar anl eal NAL Bue a. a0 AE Bs, rar 99,623 955, ze Begs ohl's "ates {Opos e Sasas ,a29 aos, “MI Kelly snd JH, Sitherland, Can. j, Phys, 34 $21 (1956), SEG Fonts, J Ont, S90 An, 44,88 (198, PRES OTERO EOE os TEER UO dah ces aan, ZW. R. Hindmarsh and #1, Kahn, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) A68, 433 J. K.'Holmes and F- MeCtana Boe. Aim. 47,297 (1957). oo Coma ass Rr RA ON all observed Gd isotope shifts can be understood on the basis of a nuclear field effect and that, therefore, Eq, (1) is applicable. Only empirical methods'* were available at first to evaluate ¥.'(0) for the 56s and the Sd6r configura tions, With these the isotope shift constants 134% 10 mr and 120X10~ cm, respectively, were obtained from the indetined values of Fig. 2, Recently the magnetic hyperfine structure splitting constant a, of Gal for 546, a8 well a8 the ratio of the magnetic ‘P. Brix and H, Prank, Z, Physik 127,289 (1950) moments (Gd"™)/u(Eu"") have been measured.”."* ‘These data in connection with the isotope shift con- stant of Eu give ~108X10 cm as a third value, not dependent upon an empirical evaluation of y(0) for Gd, and in agreement with the formerly published average Coxo(Ga**— Ga) = (125-420) 10-* em, ‘The factor 8 indicates that a further uncertainty exists due to a possible contribution to the isotope shift of ED. B. Speck, Rev, 101, 1725 (1986) BW, Low, Phys fev. 103, 1309 (1956).520 the inner closed shells of the Gd atom: the wave func- tions of the 1, 2s, «++ shells could possibly be affected by changes in electron configuration of the valence electrons. Crawford and Schawlow'* and later Humbach® have tried to calculate and for Hg the result seems to be 8=1. For Gd rr the only estimate available is from the isoelectronic Eu t spectrum, where the isotope shift of 6p, electrons has been used" to get the empirical estimate $= 1. ‘Mass dependent effects have been neglected. ‘They are assumed to be unimportant for Gd for theoretical reasons, but no quantitative values can be calculated at present. The fact that the nonequidistant relative 3 ML F. Crawford and A. L, Schawlow, Phys. Rev. 76, 1310 (198) SW. Humbach, 2, Physk 188, S89 (1952); 141,59 (1955) P, BRIX AND H, KOPFERMANN tope shifts of Ga" and other rare earth elements are constant within experimental error is the most con- clusive argument against appreciable mass effects. ‘We believe that the error given above for 8Cxp is conservative and that Cap can be assumed to give a fir estimate of Cup with an accuracy of about 20%, This uncertainty is typical for all isotope shift con- stants and should not be overlooked. The relative shifts, on the other hand, are usually much more accurate, with uncertainties of a few percent or less in favorable cases, We are indebted to Dr. G. Naldeke for his help in bringing Table I up to date. ' Kopfermann, Krlger, and Steuel, Ann. Physik (6), 20, 258 95h