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Figure of the Earth

(Redirected from Earth's figure)

Figure of the Earth is a term of art in geodesy that refers to the size and shape used to model
Earth. The size and shape it refers to depend on context, including the precision needed for the
model. A sphere is a well-known historical approximation of the figure of the Earth that is
satisfactory for many purposes. Several models with greater accuracy (including ellipsoid) have
been developed so that coordinate systems can serve the precise needs of navigation, surveying,
cadastre, land use, and various other concerns.

Motivation
Earth's topographic surface is apparent with its variety of land forms and water areas. This
topographic surface is generally the concern of topographers, hydrographers, and geophysicists.
While it is the surface on which Earth measurements are made, mathematically modeling it while
taking the irregularities into account would be extremely complicated.

The Pythagorean concept of a spherical Earth offers a simple surface that is easy to deal with
mathematically. Many astronomical and navigational computations use a sphere to model the
Earth as a close approximation. However, a more accurate figure is needed for measuring distances
and areas on the scale beyond the purely local. Better approximations can be made by modeling the
entire surface as an oblate spheroid, using spherical harmonics to approximate the geoid, or
modeling a region with a best-fit reference ellipsoid.

For surveys of small areas, a planar (flat) model of Earth's surface suffices because the local
topography overwhelms the curvature. Plane-table surveys are made for relatively small areas
without considering the size and shape of the entire Earth. A survey of a city, for example, might be
conducted this way.

By the late 1600s, serious effort was devoted to modeling the Earth as an ellipsoid, beginning with
Jean Picard's measurement of a degree of arc along the Paris meridian. Improved maps and better
measurement of distances and areas of national territories motivated these early attempts.
Surveying instrumentation and techniques improved over the ensuing centuries. Models for the
figure of the earth improved in step.

In the mid- to late 20th century, research across the geosciences contributed to drastic
improvements in the accuracy of the figure of the Earth. The primary utility of this improved
accuracy was to provide geographical and gravitational data for the inertial guidance systems of
ballistic missiles. This funding also drove the expansion of geoscientific disciplines, fostering the
creation and growth of various geoscience departments at many universities.[1] These
developments benefited many civilian pursuits as well, such as weather and communication
satellite control and GPS location-finding, which would be impossible without highly accurate
models for the figure of the Earth.

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Models
The models for the figure of the Earth vary in the way they are
used, in their complexity, and in the accuracy with which they
represent the size and shape of the Earth.

Sphere

The simplest model for the shape of the entire Earth is a sphere.
The Earth's radius is the distance from Earth's center to its
surface, about 6,371 km (3,959 mi). While "radius" normally is Topographic view of Earth relative
a characteristic of perfect spheres, the Earth deviates from to Earth's center (instead of to
mean sea level, as in common
spherical by only a third of a percent, sufficiently close to treat
topographic maps)
it as a sphere in many contexts and justifying the term "the
radius of the Earth".

The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the

6th century BC,[2] but remained a matter of philosophical
speculation until the 3rd century BC. The first scientific
estimation of the radius of the Earth was given by
Eratosthenes about 240 BC, with estimates of the
accuracy of Eratosthenes's measurement ranging from
−1% to 15%.

The Earth is only approximately spherical, so no single

value serves as its natural radius. Distances from points
on the surface to the center range from 6,353 km
(3,948 mi) to 6,384 km (3,967 mi). Several different ways
of modeling the Earth as a sphere each yield a mean
radius of 6,371 km (3,959 mi). Regardless of the model,
any radius falls between the polar minimum of about
6,357 km (3,950 mi) and the equatorial maximum of
about 6,378 km (3,963 mi). The difference 21 km (13 mi)
correspond to the polar radius being approximately 0.3%
shorter than the equatorial radius.
A view across a 20-km-wide bay in the
coast of Spain. The curvature of the Earth
is evident in the horizon across the image,
and the bases of the buildings on the far
shore are below that horizon and hidden
by the sea.

Ellipsoid of revolution

Since the Earth is flattened at the poles and bulges at the Equator, geodesy represents the figure of
the Earth as an oblate spheroid. The oblate spheroid, or oblate ellipsoid, is an ellipsoid of
revolution obtained by rotating an ellipse about its shorter axis. It is the regular geometric shape
that most nearly approximates the shape of the Earth. A spheroid describing the figure of the Earth
or other celestial body is called a reference ellipsoid. The reference ellipsoid for Earth is called an
Earth ellipsoid.

An ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by two quantities. Several conventions for expressing
the two quantities are used in geodesy, but they are all equivalent to and convertible with each
other:

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▪ Equatorial radius (called semimajor axis), and polar radius

(called semiminor axis);
▪ and eccentricity ;
▪ and flattening .

Eccentricity and flattening are different ways of expressing how

squashed the ellipsoid is. When flattening appears as one of the
defining quantities in geodesy, generally it is expressed by its
reciprocal. For example, in the WGS 84 spheroid used by
today's GPS systems, the reciprocal of the flattening is set
to be exactly 298.257 223 563. An oblate spheroid, highly
exaggerated relative to the actual
The difference between a sphere and a reference ellipsoid for Earth
Earth is small, only about one part in 300. Historically,
flattening was computed from grade measurements. Nowadays,
geodetic networks and satellite geodesy are used. In practice,
many reference ellipsoids have been developed over the
centuries from different surveys. The flattening value varies
slightly from one reference ellipsoid to another, reflecting local
conditions and whether the reference ellipsoid is intended to
model the entire Earth or only some portion of it.

A sphere has a single radius of curvature, which is simply the

radius of the sphere. More complex surfaces have radii of
curvature that vary over the surface. The radius of curvature
describes the radius of the sphere that best approximates the
surface at that point. Oblate ellipsoids have constant radius of
A scale diagram of the oblateness
curvature east to west along parallels, if a graticule is drawn on
of the 2003 IERS reference
the surface, but varying curvature in any other direction. For an
ellipsoid, with north at the top. The
oblate ellipsoid, the polar radius of curvature is larger than
outer edge of the dark blue line is
the equatorial an ellipse with the same eccentricity
as that of Earth. For comparison,
the light blue circle within has a
diameter equal to the ellipse's minor
axis. The red curve represents the
because the pole is flattened: the flatter the surface, the larger Karman line 100 km (62 mi) above
the sphere must be to approximate it. Conversely, the ellipsoid's sea level, while the yellow band
north–south radius of curvature at the equator is smaller denotes the altitude range of the
than the polar ISS in low Earth orbit.

where is the distance from the center of the ellipsoid to the equator (semi-major axis), and is
the distance from the center to the pole. (semi-minor axis)

Geoid

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It was stated earlier that measurements are made on the

apparent or topographic surface of the Earth and it has just
been explained that computations are performed on an
ellipsoid. One other surface is involved in geodetic
measurement: the geoid. In geodetic surveying, the
computation of the geodetic coordinates of points is commonly
performed on a reference ellipsoid closely approximating the
size and shape of the Earth in the area of the survey. The actual
measurements made on the surface of the Earth with certain
instruments are however referred to the geoid. The ellipsoid is a
mathematically defined regular surface with specific
dimensions. The geoid, on the other hand, coincides with that
surface to which the oceans would conform over the entire Geoid undulation in false color,
Earth if free to adjust to the combined effect of the Earth's mass shaded relief and vertical
attraction (gravitation) and the centrifugal force of the Earth's exaggeration (10000 scale factor).
rotation. As a result of the uneven distribution of the Earth's
mass, the geoidal surface is irregular and, since the ellipsoid is a
regular surface, the separations between the two, referred to as
geoid undulations, geoid heights, or geoid separations, will be
irregular as well.

The geoid is a surface along which the gravity potential is

everywhere equal and to which the direction of gravity is always
perpendicular (see equipotential surface). The latter is
particularly important because optical instruments containing
gravity-reference leveling devices are commonly used to make
geodetic measurements. When properly adjusted, the vertical
axis of the instrument coincides with the direction of gravity
and is, therefore, perpendicular to the geoid. The angle between
the plumb line which is perpendicular to the geoid (sometimes Geoid undulation in false color, to
called "the vertical") and the perpendicular to the ellipsoid scale.
(sometimes called "the ellipsoidal normal") is defined as the
deflection of the vertical. It has two components: an east–west
and a north–south component.[3]

Other shapes

Modern geodesy tends to retain the ellipsoid of revolution as a reference ellipsoid and treat
triaxiality and pear shape as a part of the geoid figure: they are represented by the spherical
harmonic coefficients and , respectively, corresponding to degree and order numbers
2.2 for the triaxiality and 3.0 for the pear shape.

Triaxiality (equatorial eccentricity)

The possibility that the Earth's equator is better characterized as an ellipse rather than a circle and
therefore that the ellipsoid is triaxial has been a matter of scientific inquiry for many years.[4][5]
Modern technological developments have furnished new and rapid methods for data collection
and, since the launch of Sputnik 1, orbital data have been used to investigate the theory of

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ellipticity.[3] More recent results indicate a 70 m difference between the two equatorial major and
minor axes of inertia, with the larger semidiameter pointing to 15° W longitude (and also 180-
degree away).[6][7]

Pear shape

The theory of a slightly pear-shaped Earth arose and gained publicity after the first artificial
satellites observed long periodic orbital variations, indicating a depression at the South Pole and a
bulge of the same degree at the North Pole. This theory contends that the northern middle latitudes
are slightly flattened and the southern middle latitudes correspondingly bulged.[3] U.S. Vanguard 1
satellite data from 1958 confirms that the southern equatorial bulge is greater than that of the
north, which is corroborated by the South Pole's sea level being lower than that of the north.[8] A
pear-shaped Earth had first been theorized in 1498 by Christopher Columbus, based on his
incorrect readings of the North Star's diurnal motion.[9]

John A. O'Keefe and co-authors are credited with the discovery that the Earth had a significant
third degree zonal spherical harmonic in its gravitational field using Vanguard 1 satellite data.[10]
Based on further satellite geodesy data, Desmond King-Hele refined the estimate to a 45 m
difference between north and south polar radii, owing to a 19 m "stem" rising in the North Pole and
a 26 m depression in the South Pole.[11][12] The polar asymmetry is small, though: it is about a
thousand times smaller than the earth's flattening and even smaller than the geoidal undulation in
some regions of the Earth.[13]

Local approximations

Simpler local approximations are possible.

Local tangent plane

The local tangent plane is appropriate for very small distances.

Osculating sphere

The best local spherical

approximation to the
ellipsoid in the vicinity of a
given point is the Earth's
osculating sphere. Its radius
equals Earth's Gaussian
The local tangent plane.
radius of curvature, and its
radial direction coincides
with the geodetic normal Ellipsoid and osculating sphere.
direction. The center of the osculating sphere is offset from the
center of the ellipsoid, but is at the center of curvature for the
given point on the ellipsoid surface. This concept aids the interpretation of terrestrial and planetary
radio occultation refraction measurements and in some navigation and surveillance applications.
[14][15]

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Earth rotation and Earth's interior

Determining the exact figure of the Earth is not only a geometric task of geodesy, but also has
geophysical considerations. According to theoretical arguments by Isaac Newton, Leonhard Euler,
and others, a body having a uniform density of 5515 kg/m3 that rotates like the Earth should have a
flattening of 1:229. This can be concluded without any information about the composition of
Earth's interior.[16] However, the measured flattening is 1:298.25, which is closer to a sphere and a
strong argument that Earth's core is extremely compact. Therefore, the density must be a function
of the depth, ranging from 2600 kg/m3 at the surface (rock density of granite, etc.), up to
13 000 kg/m3 within the inner core.[17]

Global and regional gravity field

Also with implications for the physical exploration of the Earth's interior is the gravitational field,
which is the net effect of gravitation (due to mass attraction) and centrifugal force (due to
rotation). It can be measured very accurately at the surface and remotely by satellites. True vertical
generally does not correspond to theoretical vertical (deflection ranges up to 50") because
topography and all geological masses disturb the gravitational field. Therefore, the gross structure
of the Earth's crust and mantle can be determined by geodetic-geophysical models of the
subsurface.

See also
▪ Clairaut's theorem
▪ EGM96
▪ Gravity formula
▪ Gravity of Earth
▪ Horizon §§ Distance and Curvature
▪ Meridian arc
▪ Theoretical gravity

History

▪ Pierre Bouguer
▪ Earth's circumference#History
▪ Earth's radius#History
▪ Flat Earth
▪ Friedrich Robert Helmert
▪ History of geodesy
▪ History of the metre
▪ Meridian arc#History
▪ Seconds pendulum

References

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1. Cloud, John (2000). "Crossing the Olentangy River: The Figure of the Earth and the Military-
Industrial-Academic Complex, 1947–1972". Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern
Physics. 31 (3): 371–404. Bibcode:2000SHPMP..31..371C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2
000SHPMP..31..371C). doi:10.1016/S1355-2198(00)00017-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS135
5-2198%2800%2900017-4).
2. Dicks, D.R. (1970). Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle (https://archive.org/details/earlygreekast
ron0000dick/page/72). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 72–198 (https://archive.org/de
tails/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72). ISBN 978-0-8014-0561-7.
3. Defense Mapping Agency (1983). Geodesy for the Layman (https://www.nga.mil/ProductsServi
ces/GeodesyandGeophysics/Documents/Geo4lay.pdf) (PDF) (Report). United States Air Force.
4. Heiskanen, W. A. (1962). "Is the Earth a triaxial ellipsoid?". Journal of Geophysical Research.
67 (1): 321–327. Bibcode:1962JGR....67..321H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962JGR....
67..321H). doi:10.1029/JZ067i001p00321 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJZ067i001p00321).
5. Burša, Milan (1993). "Parameters of the Earth's tri-axial level ellipsoid". Studia Geophysica et
Geodaetica. 37 (1): 1–13. Bibcode:1993StGG...37....1B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/199
3StGG...37....1B). doi:10.1007/BF01613918 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01613918).
S2CID 128674427 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128674427).
6. Torge & Müller (2012) Geodesy, De Gruyter, p.100
7. Marchenko, A.N. (2009): Current estimation of the Earth’s mechanical and geometrical para
meters. In Sideris, M.G., ed. (2009): Observing our changing Earth. IAG Symp. Proceed. 133.,
pp. 473–481. DOI:10.1007/978-3-540-85426-5_57
8. Tyson, Neil deGrasse (2014) [2007]. Death By Black Hole: And Other Cosmic Quandaries (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70265574) (1st ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 52.
ISBN 978-0-393-06224-3. OCLC 70265574 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/70265574).
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Columbus. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 557. ISBN 978-0-316-58478-4.
OCLC 1154365097 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1154365097).
10. O’KEEFE, J. A., ECKEIS, A., & SQUIRES, R. K. (1959). Vanguard Measurements Give Pear-
Shaped Component of Earth’s Figure. Science, 129(3348), 565–566.
doi:10.1126/science.129.3348.565
11. KING-HELE, D. G.; COOK, G. E. (1973). "Refining the Earth's Pear Shape". Nature. Springer
Nature. 246 (5428): 86–88. Bibcode:1973Natur.246...86K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1
973Natur.246...86K). doi:10.1038/246086a0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F246086a0).
ISSN 0028-0836 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836). S2CID 4260099 (https://api.sema
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12. King-Hele, D. (1967). The Shape of the Earth. Scientific American, 217(4), 67-80. [1] (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/24926147)
13. Günter Seeber (2008), Satellite Geodesy, Walter de Gruyter, 608 pages. [2] (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=qZTS6OI9NGoC&dq=geoid%20j3%20pear&pg=PA517)
14. Williams, Paul; Last, David (3–7 November 2003). On Loran-C Time-Difference to Co-ordinate
Converters (https://loran.org/proceedings/Meeting2003/Session9/WmsLastILA03TD2LL.pdf)
(PDF). International Loran Association (ILA) – 32nd Annual Convention and Technical
Symposium (https://loran.org/proceedings/Meeting2003/ProceedingsIndex.htm). Boulder,
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16. Heine, George (2013). "Euler and the Flattening of the Earth" (http://digitaleditions.walsworthpri
ntgroup.com/publication/?i=172875&article_id=1491473&view=articleBrowser&ver=html5#{%2
2issue_id%22:172875,%22view%22:%22articleBrowser%22,%22article_id%22:%221491473%
22}). Math Horizons. Mathematical Association of America. 21 (1): 25–29.
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25 (4): 297–356, Bibcode:1981PEPI...25..297D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PEPI...
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Attribution

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Defense Mapping
Agency (1983). Geodesy for the Layman (https://www.nga.mil/ProductsServices/GeodesyandGeop
hysics/Documents/Geo4lay.pdf) (PDF) (Report). United States Air Force.

Further reading
▪ Guy Bomford, Geodesy, Oxford 1962 and 1880.
▪ Guy Bomford, Determination of the European geoid by means of vertical deflections. Rpt of
Comm. 14, IUGG 10th Gen. Ass., Rome 1954.
▪ Karl Ledersteger and Gottfried Gerstbach, Die horizontale Isostasie / Das isostatische Geoid
31. Ordnung. Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen Band 5, TU Wien 1975.
▪ Helmut Moritz and Bernhard Hofmann, Physical Geodesy. Springer, Wien & New York 2005.
▪ Geodesy for the Layman, Defense Mapping Agency, St. Louis, 1983.

External links
▪ Reference Ellipsoids (PCI Geomatics) (https://web.archive.org/web/20051023083444/http://ww
w.pcigeomatics.com/cgi-bin/pcihlp/PROJ%7CEARTH+MODELS%7CELLIPSOIDS%7CELLIPS
OID+CODES)
▪ Reference Ellipsoids (ScanEx) (http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:TjusGxmrm4EJ:www.
scanex.ru)
▪ Changes in Earth shape due to climate changes (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthan
dsun/earthshape.html)
▪ Jos Leys "The shape of Planet Earth" (http://www.josleys.com/show_gallery.php?galid=313)

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