ELECTROSTA

cOLLEGEPHYSICS X! ECG tracing

Electrostatics: electrostatics."
ofelectricforces is known
as
"The study of electric charges at rest under the action

Electric Charge: ( .C
Charge is the intrinsic property of fundamental particles. other is termed as charge.
The property of certain particles either they attract or repel each
Properties of electric charges:
Charges are of two kinds: positive charges and negative charges.
A particle having no charge is called neutral particle.
and unlike charges attract each other.
It has been experimentally found that like charges repel each other
Charge is quantized Q=ne
The SI unit of electric charge is "coulomb".
(1C-1A x 1sec) or (1C=6.25x10"electrons)

Electric force
The attraction or repulsion is due to electric force.
and molecules is called an electric force.
The force which holds the positive and negative. charges to make up atoms
Our body is composed of atoms and molecules and our existence is result of electric force.

Interesting Facts about lightning:

FOR YOUR Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs during
INFORMATIO a thunder storm.
A bolt of lightning can measure up to three million volts, and it
lasts less than one second!
>The study of lightning is known as fulminology.
About 2,000 people are killed worldwide by lightrning each year.

12.1 COULOMB' S LAW

"The force of (attraction or repulsion) between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them."

The first attempt to measure the force between electric charges was made by a French military engineer Charles
Coulomb in 1784. He deduced a law known as Coulomb's law.
Explanation:
Consider two point charges "a" and "a" placed at a distance " from each other. Then magnitude of mutuat
force according to coulomb's law is given by:
Fa q14 .--(1)
F .--(2)
 JLLEGE PHYSICS XII
combining (1) and (2) ECTROSTA
Fa9192
F=k9
-
wnere kis . (3) (a)
constant of
Dependence of K proportionality called electrostatic cons ant
Its value
depends
The system ofupon E-
units --
Nature (b
of medium between the charges
For free space Fig 12.1
the medium
between two points
poi charges is free space, then
1
k-
4 TE
Where & is an electrical constant, known
In S.I units its
value is 8.85 x 102
as
permittivity of free space
C?N*m2
1
k=.4 TtE 1 =9x10° Nm'c-2
4x3.14x8.85 x10 12
Thus Coulomb's force for free space is:

F 4 T 99
r< .(4)
Mutual force:
Fis the magnitude of
mutual force that act on each of two
The force F always acts point charges
along the line joining the two
As coulomb is mutual force thus point charges.
charges q1 and q2 exerts equal and opposite forces
on each other.
Vector form
If the force exerted on qa by qi is denoted by , and that on
charge q, due to q, as F. then,
Fa-F
ine magnitude of these two forces is same, bu
If fis the unit vector directed from negative sign show that they
point in opposite
gi to 92 and ii: 5
the unit vector directed from direction.
1 qato ql, then forces
given as
F4, 1
. (5)
Y
are

F 4 TtE
9,4 . (6)
But
Thus Eq. (5) becomes,

21 4TE a142(-fz)=-
2
4TE
9192 12
2
F2=
1
4TE r2 (a)

Fa-F2
The sign of charges.represents either the forces are attractive (b)
This also implies that coulomb law is in
accordance of Newton third
Fig 12.2
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII ELECTROsTATI
5
Effect of medium on Coulomb force:
I f an insulating medium called as dielectric is placed between the two charges, then it is experimentaily ODserved
that the force is reduced as compared free space.
The factorby which the force is reduced is called relative
permittivity and is denoted byE, Table 12.1
Thus the force between charges in the presence of dielectric is given by:
F 14 Material

Vacuum

A (1 atm) 1.0006

Ammonia (liquid) 22-25

Bakelite 5-18
Benzene 2 284
Germanium 16
Glass 48-10
Mica 3-7 5
E, Paratfined paper
The value of relative 3.40
permittivity is different for different dielectrics. Plexiglas
The value of e, is always Rubber 2.994
greater than one. Teflon 21
For air , is 1.0006. (Table 12.1) Transformer oil 2.1
Water (distilled) 78 5
The value of t, is infinity for all metals
It has no unit and hence is a dimensionless
quantity.
Permittivity:
"The ability of a medium allow the electric force to pass through it is determined by a
to
factor known as permittivity.
Relative permittivity:
"It is rotio between permittivity of medium to the
permittivity of free space
Point charge:
"A charge is said to be a point charge if its size is very small as
compared to the distance from any other charge.
12.2 FIELDS OF FORCE
"The space or region around a point charge with in which another charge experiences a force is called electric field.
Origin of force:
Newton's universal gravitational law and Coulomb's law help us to calculate the magnitude and direction of th
gravitational and electric forces. However one may question:
What are the origins of these forces?
il. How these forces transmitted from one mass to another or from one charge to another.
The answer to (i) is still unknown, that is why these forces are called basic forces of naturè.

Michael Faraday's concept of an electric field:

To explain the transmission of electric forces, Michael Faradayintroduced the concept
of an electric field. According to Faraday, it is intrinsic property of nature that an electric field
exists in space around an electric charge.
A charge produces an electric field in the space surrounding it in the form of a sphere.
This field is tested only by taking another charge in field)
Electric field intensity:
"The magnitude of force experienced by a unit positive charge ploced at a point in the electric
field is called electric field strength or electric intensity of that point."
Fig 12.4 (a)

Mathematically,

Explanation:
Consider a charge q which produces a field. When a charge is placed in the field, the charge q interacts with
produce an electric force. Then electric field intensity is given by:
 cOLLEGE PHYSIcS XII
'6
ELECTROST
Where F is the
force
experienced
erienced by positive
positive test charge
charge.g. .
measured. The S n o u l d be very small so that it does not disturb the field to DeE
Unit: strength of field is proportional
oportional to density
ensity of dots.

Electric field is force per unit charge thus S.J

is
t vector quantity and its direction is units are NC
Electric intensity due to a point charge:
in the direction ot force. Fig 12.4 (b}
Consider
r E e placed in vacuum producing its own electric field. A test charge 9. is placed in the fiela
distance 'r 'from the point
the
charge.
E force experienced by test charge a due to charge Coulomb's force, Is given Dy,
a, according to

F= 192 EF9ters
Where Y is 4TE r
unit vector directed
a
from the point charge q to test
But electric
intensity that point, where q. is
at
charge 4.
placed, is given Dy:

9 4Te, r 4TEr
The magnitude of electric intensity due to point charge is given by,
E 4TE/T\4
Electric field intensity depends on
(i) Magnitude of Charge (ii) medium (ii) Distance from charge

Fish and other sea creatures produce electric fields in a of ways. variety
Sharks have special organs, called the ampullae of lorenzini, that are very
INFORMAT sensitive to electric field and can detect potential difference of the order
of nanovolt and can locate their prey very precisely.

12.3 ELECTRIC FIELDLINES

uThe path followed by a unit positive charge in the electric field is called electric field line "
Or
uThe imagin ary lines on which a unit positive test chorge moves in an electric field are called electric field lines."

Explanation:
Tield lines was introduced by
The concept of
electric lines ot
torces or electric Faradau

According to Faraday,
electric field exists in the form of lines which gives the visual representation of a field
and

electric field lines.

t e r m s as about the direction and
the
information strength of electric field at different points.
These lines give
 ELECTROSTATIC

cOLLEGE PHYSICS XII

Electric filed lines due to positive point charge:
Consider a positive charge +q and place positive charges each of magnitude y. at equal
distance but at different points from charge +q. Each test charge experiences a repuisive
force which is directed outwards as shown in the Fig. 12.6. (o).

Fig 12.6 (2

Electric filed lines due to positive point charge Electric filed lines due to negative point charge
Fig 12.6 (b) Fig 12.7

Electric filed lines due to negative point charge:

The field due to negative charge g is directed inwards because the force on a positive test charge is now of attraction.
This is shown in the Fig. 12.7.

Electric field strength:

The above figs show the two dimensional image (pictures) of field lines however they are three dimensional and are
infinite in number.
The electric field lines map also indicate the strength of electric field.
The field lines are closer to each other near the charges whereas spread out continuously away from the charges as
a result electric field decreases.
"The number of lines per unit area passing perpendicularly through an area is proportiona! to the magnitude of
the electric field."

Electric filed lines due to two positive point charges:

In case of two identical positive point charges of equal magnitude, the electric field
lines are curved which shows that lines due to like charges repel each other. The middle
line which shows field spot or neutral zone.
portion has no a zero

Electric filed lines due to two negative point charges:

In case of two identical negative point charges of equal magnitude, the electric
field lines are curved which shows that lines due to like charges repel each other. The
Fyg 12.8
middle has noline which shows a zero field spot or neutral zone.
portion
Electric filed lines due to two opposite point charges:
F o r two opposite charges of same magnitudes, the field lines start from positive charge
and end at negative charge.
The electric field at points 1, 2, 3 is the combination of fields created by the two
charges at these points.
The direction of resultant intensities is tangent to curved path at these points.

Uniform field:
Fig. 12.10 shows the electric field between two oppositely charged parallel plates of finite
length. The field in the middle is uniform but at the ends, the field lines becomes curved
called "Fringing Field". Fig 12.9
 OLLEGE PHYSICS X
Characteristics
.
Electric
of electric
field
8
ECTROE
2. The field lines start ines:
from positive charges
3 The tangent to a "Opositive
lines are field at yany point
point
charges dand end on negative charges.
gives
gives the direction ofthe electric field at that point
because lines closer
n e near
are
a r the charge, thus the field is strong. The field is weak away from charge
4. No farther apart.
two lines
inte
S e c t each
cross E other because /: has only one direction at a give point, it the lines
5 could have more
hese lines are than one direction.
6. imaginary having no physical
They may be straight or curved. significance.
They contact
8.
They can passlongitudinally and expand laterally
easily through a conducting (sideways)
medium.
812.

nis
computer image shows the electric field lines
the generated by the fish at
top of the picture. Through
the electcic field, the presence of other fish
can be detected, such as the one silhouetted at the bottom.

12.4 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS

(0) XEROGRAPHY (PHOTOCOPIER):
The copying process is called Xerography. It is combination of Greek word 'Xeros' and
Principle: 'graphos' which mean dry wr
"The lamp transfers image of the page to the drum which leaves the Static
transfers it to the paper. The toner is melted on Charge. The drum collects toner dus
to the page."
Parts:
The main parts of machine are:
1) Drum 2) Toner 3) Heated rollers

Drum:
The heart of machine is drum. It is an aluminum cylinder coated with
Aluminum is good conductor but selenium is
a layer of selenium.
conductor when light falls on it.
a
photoconductor. It is an insulator in the dark and becoms
For a photocopier to work a field of +ve
charges must be generated on the
surface of the drum and copy paper. This is done by wire page lo be copied-lace down
subjected to high
voltage called corona wires. One of such wires is starched parallel to the
drum surface that charges the photo conductive surface with +ve ens

the other wire charges the copy pay positively.

ion, while iarnp

Thus if positive charge is sprinkled on the selenium it will remain

there
as long as it is in dark. If the drum is exposed to light, the electrons
from aluminum pass through the conducting selenium and
neutralize printed image p a c e r on I o

the positive charge. heated rollers rage

5pnnee

f the drum is exposed to an image or the document to be

copied, the dark and light areas of the document
corresponding areas on the rum. The light areas become pr
conducting,
but dark areas having positive charge remain on the selenium surface.
lose their positive
charge:and become neu
 ELECTROSTATICS
OLLEGE PHYSICS XII 9

r u m tu beavm
elrctuirallh cundurthng.
rtt n i n g peusitive change

Seleniunm Dated
lrum Negativety
chargrd
1oner
(d) Transfeiring the
hargig 1l* dau (.pphingthe toner l o r to ilie jrapx:?

oner
Toner is a special dry and black powder.
This toner is given a negative charge and spread over the drum where it sticks to the positive charged areas.
The toner from the drum is transferred to a sheet of paper on which the document is to be copied.
Heated pressure rollers:
Heated pressure rollers melt this toner into the paper to produce the permanent imze of the document.

INKJETPRINTERS
A printer which uses electric charge in its operation is called an inkjet printer.
rinciple:
The inkjet printer ejects a thin stream of ink when shuttling back and forth across the paper.
This ink is ejected from a small nozzle and breaks up into very smali dropiets.
Charging electrodes:
These droplets pass through an eiectrical compenents charging electrodes
Charging electrodes are used to charge the droplets that are not needed on paper.
Deflection plates (parallel plate capacitor).
These charged ink droplets pass through the deflection plates,
They are directed towards the gutter hence no image is formed on the paper.
Norking:
When the print head moves over regions of the paper which are not to be copied, thee charging electrode is left "on"
and ink droplets get a net charge.
When these charged drops pass through the deflection plates they are diverted into a gutter, so these drops do not
reach the paper. The charging electrode is turns "off" when ink is to be thrown on paper.
In this way the uncharged droplets fly straight through the deflection plates and strike the paper. It can also
produce colored copies.

Defection pates

penthesd Gutter

Paper
Fp: 12 12 6) Wppy
natrucbone from computer

nyet prthead eects a steady tlow of wh deopiets. Ihe tharging eectuodes ate used to tharge the dhoplets that are not nertdedoutie paperchavgesddropietsare deletled
l a a gutter by the detlection plates whie uncharged droplets fly straught onto the paype
 cOLLEGEPHYSICS XII 10 ELECTR
Cectrostatic coating is a manufacturing process that employs charged
in the form of either
particles to moreefficiently paint a workpiece. Paint, towards a
powdered particles or atomized liquid, is initially projected
and is then
conductive workpiece using normal spraying methods,
accelerated toward the work piece by a powerful electrostatic charge.

12.5ELECTRIC FLUX
U numoEr of electricfield lines passing normally through a certain area is called tiectric FIUx:"
OR
Ihe scalar or dot
product of electric intensity E and the vector area A
It is denoted by Greek lette:.
Mathematically,
P-E.A =EA cose
The electric flux
depends upon
o Electric intensity
surface Area
orientation of s face
Flux is Latin word, which means to flow.
Electric flux is scalar product, it is sraler
so auantity.
Unit:
In Sl system, its unit is Nm'C-1
Explanation:
As shown in Fig. 12.13 (a), when we
place an element of area 'A' and 'B' in the electric
field, then the flux through area A is 4 and the flux through area B is 2.
Case: 1 (Maximum flux):
When area A is held perpendicular to the field lines
having uniform electric field of intensity E then electric
flux p, in this case is given by: Maximum

P.=EA Fig 1213(6

P. = E.A = EA cos
9. = EA cos0
(0-0)
EA
Where A Ldenotes the area held perpendicular to field lines. It is the maximum flux.

Case: 2 (Minimum flux):

When area A is placed parallel to the field lines in this case no line cross this area so that
flux p, in this case is given by:
P = EA

.=E.A EAcos =
(0 =90)
P = EA cos 90 0
Minimu
Where Au shows that A is held parallel to the field lines. In this case flux is zero. Fig 12.13(0)
LLEGE PHYSICS XI! ELECTROSTATICS
11
se:3
hen A is inclined at an angle with the lines then we will take the projection ofthe
area which is perpendicular to the
d lines. The area of projection is this case is equal to Acos0, thus filuxp, is given by

P. = EA cos0 E.A
is the angle between field lines and normal to the area.

ector area:
is on area whose magnitude is equal to the surface area A
the element but its direction is normal to this area." A cos0

Lon Fip 12.13 (d)

.6 ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH ASURFACE ENCLOSING A CHARGE
Consider a close siurface in the form of a sphere of radius r due to a point charge g at its centre.
In order to calculate the electric flux through whole surface of sphere, we divide this closed surface into n
mber of small elements AA,, A4,.. AA, which are the magnitudes of the area of each element. If n is very large

en each element would be a flat element. The corresponding vector areas are AA,,AA,z.. AA, respectively
th direction normal to each patch.
t the electric intensities at the centre of vector areas A,,AA2.. .AA, are E,,E,...E, respectively, then
x is given by:
P, E,.AA, = E,.AA, cos0
A
ce Eand A are pointing in the same direction, se G-0.
, E,AA, cos E, AA,
e magnitude cf eiectric intensity E is same for each element
cause they are equidistant from the centre of sphere.

E=E=E,|. .=E=E 4 ne r2 Fig 12.14

us total flux passing through the closed surface is:

P t Pa +Pt +P
=E,. AA, +E2.AA2 +.. E,.AA,
=E,AA, + E,AA, +.. E ,AA, cos0 1

=E(AA, + AA, +.. . +AA,)

=
E(Total area of sphere)
4 r
4 TEr

g 12.15

dependent of shape of the surface:

bw consider a dlosed surface S enclosing the same sphere with a charge 'q' at its centre. Fig. 12.15 shows that the flux

Tough this close surface S is the same as that through the sphere.
Thus flux through a closed surface does not dependuponshape oftheclosedsurface
It only depends upon the medium and the charge enclosed.
If a surface encloses a positive as well as a negative charge ofsame magnitude then netflux through thatsurface is
Zero
 cOLLEGE PHYSICS X!
12.7 GAUSS'S LAW charge
enclosed in it.
istimes the total
closed surface
neux through any
distributed arbitrarily.
Derivation: q,,g,,g, .. , are

point charges
Osider a closed surface in which fiux.
source of electric
will act independent
Each charge as an
=
is:
The flux through the surface due to point charge q, P

Similarly flux through other charges given by

is

will be,
whole closed surface
Thus total electric flux passing through the

P.P1+P2t . . t O 8,
.

-(a.,.+,)-
()
VWhere Q is the total charge enclosed by closed surface.

12.8 APPLICATIONSs OF GAUSS'S LAW

the electric intensity E due to different charge configurations
By applying Gauss's law we can calculate
purpose, following steps must be
followed:
Draw an imaginary, closed surface which passes through the point at which the electric intensi
measured. This closed surface is known as "Gaussian Surface".
Calculate the electric flux enclosed by the Gaussian surface.p, = EAcos

Calculate the electric flux using Gauss's

we-()
Compare both electric flux to calculate the electric intensity E.
Gaussian surface:
A Gaussian surface is an imaginary closed surface of arbitrary shape which passes through the point wherew
calculate electricintensity.
(a) ELECTRICINTENSITY OF FIELDINSIDE A HOLLow CHARGED SPHERE
Consider a hollow conducting sphere of radius R having uniform distribution of
positive
charges on its surface. We want to find the electric field intensity at a point P inside the
Geuselen

sphere.
Draw a Gaussian surface of sphere of radius R'<R inside the hollow
that it passes through the point P at which the electric intensity is to be
charged sphere such
Flux through this closed surface isgiven by:
calculated.
p E.A. 1)
Since charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero. Fy 171
Applying Gauss's law, we have,
LLEGE PHYSICSXII 13
ELECTROSTATICS

E,

(2) (Sinceq 0)
ting this value in Eq. (1),
0-E.A
ce A0 E= 0
s interior of a hollow charged metal sphere is a field free region. Therefore any apparatus placed within a metal
closure is "shielded" from electric field.

To eliminate stray electric field interference, circuits of sensitive

electronic devices such as T.V and computer are often enclosed within
metal boxes.

ELECTRICINTENSITY DUETO INFINITESHEET OF CHARGE

Consider a plane sheet of infinite extent the positive charges are uniformly
tributed. Let 'a' be the surface charge density ofthe sheet. So,

In order to calculate electric intensity E at a point P close to the sheet, imagine a

sed Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder passing through the sheet, whose one flat
e contains point P
The intensity acts at right angle to the end faces and is directed away from the

et. But intensity is parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder. Fig 12.18

px through curved surface:

because
wthe electric flux through curved surface is zero
90
9-E.AA, E. AA, cos6
=

E.AA, cos90 E.AA,. 0

= 0 * * n s a s s n p r e

(1)

x through right end flat surface:

e electric flux through flat end faces of cylinder of surface area A is given by:

P2 = E.A =EAcos
= EA cos0
= EA ..,2)
x through left end flat surface:
milarly E A =EA cose
EA cos0
= EA ..3)
 cOLLEGE PHYSICSs XII 14
Total flux: ELECTE
us total electric flux through the closed cylindrical surtace is:
P.P1 +P2 +(P =0+EA +EA
= 2EA . . (4)
ut
according to Gauss's law flux through this closed surface is given by:

=
Q
E
But charge enclosed by closed surface is a A,
Q =o A
A
SO A
e . (5)
Comparing Eqs. (4) and (5),
2EA A

E2
In vector form:
2
Where r is a unit vector normal to the sheet directed
away from it. If the sheet is negatively charged then,

E--F)=- 2e 2E
(directed towards the sheet)

c) ELECTRIC INTENSITY BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELÝ CHARGED PARALLEL PLATËES:

Consider two parallel
and oppositely charged metal plates of infinite extent placed at a small
distance. The charges are concentrated on the inner surfaces of the
plates. The field lines start from inner
surface of positive plate and end at the inner surface of
negative plate.
These charges are uniformly distributed on the inner surface of the
plate, each having surface charge
density G = where q is the amount of charge on either of the plates and A is the area of plate.

Now imagine a Gaussian surface in the form of a hollow box with

its top inside
the upper metal plate and its bottom in the space between the +Q
Fig. 12.20.
two plates as shown in
The flux through top of box:
, =
E.A =EA cos0 (: no ficld outside the metal
= 0.Acos0 = 0
piate)
Flux through one side of box: Fi22.20
P2 E.A = EAcose
= EA cos 90
= EA.0 = 0

Flux through bottom:

p = E.A = EA cos0
= EA cos0

EA
OLLEGE PHYSICS XII 15 ELECTROSTATICS
lux through one side of box:
P = E.A =EAcose6
= EA cos90
= EA.0 = 0

Total flux PeP +P2 +P3 +P4 (1)

hus total flux through Gaussian surface is:
=0+0 +0+EA
EA.. )
ut charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is:
Q = oA

y Gauss's law:

. A &
.(3)
omparing Eqs. (2) and (3),

EA E
E-

he direction of E is from positive to negative te.

vector form E- E,
/here isa unit vector pointing from positive plate to negative plate.

An ECG records the "voltage" between points on human skin generated

by electrical process in the heart. This ECG is made in running position
providing information about the heart's
performance under stress.

.9 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Lah
he electric potential energy per unit charge js called electric potential of that point. "

he difference of the electric potential energy per unit charge between two points is called BT
ectric Potential Difference." OR
Vork done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to other point against the electric
ld keeping the charge in electrostatics equilibrium is called electric Potential Difference."

planation:
Consider a positive charge q which is allowed to move in an electric field produced ALLLLLI
tween two oppositely charged parallel plates. The positive charge will move freely from B to A
Fig 12.21(a)
d gain K.E. but when positive charge is allowed to move from A to B, an external force must
applied to the charge against the electric field and it gains P.E.
When the charge moves from A to B, it will move with uniform
ectrostatic equilibrium.
velocity

ppose E is the electric intensity between plates then equilibrium may be achieved by
plying a force F= q E in opposite direction at every point along its path.
keeping

Work is done on
TUETT
echarge and isstored as potentialenergy.afthe charge. This workisindependent of thepath
t
A:l
depends upon initialand final positions. Fig 12 21 {b)
cOLLEGEPHYSICS XI| 16
ELECTR
charge 4. from A to B keepi
Let WAa be the work done by the force in carrying the positive
in potential energy, so the
Ium. This work done on the charge d is equal to the change
AU WAD
or
,-U=WA the potential
Whe A and
are the potential e ergies at
U, points Aand B respectively-but
d n electric field Is the work done on unit positive charge keeping the charge in equilibrium, jfference be.
differen.

WA AU

._V, -V, =aV

Therefore,
AV V,-V, "A = =

whereand V, are the electric potential of points Aand Brespectively.

ne electric potential energy and electric potential difference between the points A and B are related .
as
AU= q. AV = WAB
Unit:
The unit of P.E. is Joule and that of charge is Coulomb. Thus unit of potential difference is Joule per Coulomh
equal to one Volt.
1 Joule
. 1 Volt
1Coulomb
"Thepotentiol difference betweentwo pointswillbe one Voltif one Joule ofwork is donetomove apositiver
one Coulombfrom one point to other pointkeepingthechargein equilibrium"

Electric potential at a point (Absolute potential):

"Work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to thot point in the electric field keeping it in equi
colled electric potential of that point"
To calculate the electric potential at any point we must have a reference point where potential is
This point is usually taken at infinity. Let A be point / ie., at infinity where electric field is zero.
supposed to
-V, V,=0)
V,-0
V,

Dropping the subscripts, v

The potential at a point is still potential difference between the potential at that point and potential at intinis
Both potential and potential difference is scalar quantities.

ELECTRIC FIELD AS POTENTIAL GRADIENT

(Relation between Electric Intensity and Potential Differencel
The potential difference between points A and B is given by,

V-V
Work done in moving the charge from A to B is,
OLLEGE PHYSICS XI! ELECTROSTATICS
17
WAB =F.d = q .d= q Edcos6
=
qEdcos180 Ed(-1)
q
=-qEd 2) BT
orce is applied opposite to q E to keep the charge in equilibrium.
utting the value from Eq. (2) in Eq. (1),
V, -V,=-E-Ed
E .-aV
d d
hen the plates A and B are separated by infinitesimally small distance Ar then,

E-
Ar
otential gradient:
The quantity is the rate
of change of maximum value of potential with distance and termed as "Potential
Gradient".
Negative sign shows that direction of E is along the decreasing potential. (Move from a point of low potential to
a point of igh potential).

Init:
hus unit of electric intensity becomes:

E Ar m

ut unit of E by relation: E

oth units are equal

VJIC, Nm 1
m

LECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A POINT CHARGE:

Work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point keeping the charge in equilibrium is called electric
otential of thot point."

xpression for Electric Potential:

Consider a point charge q due to which a radial electric field is produced. The relation for potential difference
etween two points in the field is given by..
AV-EAr ..(1)
This relation holds good as far as E remains constant but E varies as the square of the distance from the point
harge, so E does not remain constant.
Consider two points A and 8 infinitesimally close to each other so that E remains approximately constant
etween these points. The distance of points A and Bfrom charge q are ra and ra respectively. The distance of midpoint
etween A and B from q is r. The magnitude of electric intensity at this point is:

E s***noone

r is the distance between points A and B then from Fig.12.22,

'A+AAr

Ar = - A
 COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 18

Also ELECT
AS the 2
points A and B are very close take the arithmetic n
mean to be
geometric mean which then as a first approximation, we can
gives equa
rtAr+
2
+Ar

Ar

4 (neglecting
r+a: Fig 12.22

+ Ai)

Putting this value in Eq. (2),

E 4 TEAT .(3)
If a unit
positive charge is moved from B to A, the work done is
equal to the potential diftference between A and
V-V =Ea-ra)
But 1
E= So,
4 TE 'A
V.-VAET
4neAe
********tontsaees
(4)

The above equation gives the potential difference between two

the pointB is assumed to be at points. To calculate absolute potential
infinity. or potentia
So V =0 because r, =*
Eq.(4)becomes,
VA-04RE A

Va 4TTE A

General expression for electric potential at a distance r from a is:

V, 4 ae r
OLLEGE PHYSICS XII 19 ELECTROSTATICS

In
brain
electroencephalography (EEG)the potential differences created by the electrical activity of the
are used for diagnosing abnormal behaviour.
EEG (Normal alpha rhythm) EEG (Abnormal
letrodes cuniected|

T ecordinq deviCe

olontia
dferonce

wwwww.www
Tine -
Po'entra'
erence

Tme

The electrical activity of the retina of the eye

generates the potential differences used in electroretinography (ERG).
ERG (Nomal) ERG (Abnormal)

ElGcirodes coeed entia

to detectGn ans aiference Potontial
airerence

ime
Time

12.10 ELECTRON VOLT

"It is the amount of energy acquired or last by an electron it
as moves through a potential difference of one valt."
1ev 1.6x10 "J
Explanation:
When a particle of charge g moves from point A with potential to a point B with potential , keeping electrostatic
equilibrium, the change in potential energy AU of particle is given by,
AU = q(V - VA) = qaVV

If no external force acts on the charge to maintain the equilibrium, this change is P.E. appears as a change in its K.E.

A(K.E) = qAV
When q=e Charge on electron, then
A(K.E) = e AV

But e 1.6x 10 C and if AV1 Volt Then

A(K.E) = (e)(1 V)

= (1.6x 10 "C)x (1 Volt)

(1.6x10 1"(Cx V)
1.6x10 15J

The amountofenergy equal to 1.6x10" is called one electron volt and is denoted by 1eV.

1ev 1.6 x10 19 J

 mm
SIMILIATRIES
qq
t
F, K
depends upon the
obey inverse squareproduct
it of mass It depends upon the product of charges
la I t obey inverse square law
It is
conservative force I t is conservative force
It is
attractive force DIFFERENCES
It is I t is attractive and repulsive force
weak force
I t is
It is long range force strongforce
It does I t is short range force
not
t cannot be
depend
upon medium I t depend upon medium
shielded I t can
It corant is
universal constant be shielded
I t constant is general constant
G 6.67 x 10-11 Nm
K 9x 10s Nm4
kg? C
|12.12 CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON BY
In 1909 R.A Millikan devised MILLIKAN'S METHOD
Construction:
a
technique to measure the charge
un an electron more
The
accurately.
experimental arrangement is shown in the
Source of light, power supply and an atomizerFig.12.23.(a). It consists of a container, two parallel plates,
for spraying micr=
container C to save oil oil drops. Two parallel
The voltage
drops from disturbance. The platespp' are placed i
separation between the plates is d. The
applied to the plates can be plate p has a small hol
adjusted by a power supply and hence the
adjusted. The magnitude of electric inten_ity is strength of the electric field

Working:
An atomizer A is used to
spray oil
drops into the container
through a nozle. The oil drop gets
charge due to friction
C
walls of atomizer and oil between
drop. These charged droplets are
small and some drops pass very
through the hole H of
light S, focused by a lens plate
With the help of a source of upper P.
microscope, the path of motion of these droplets is L, and
observed. L
W,
When gravitational force
F=mg acting on the
becomes equal to electrical force
F=qE, the droplet is drop
suspended between the two plates.
Charge on droplet: Fg 12.23 (a)

The electrical force F, can be adjusted equal to the

F, -F gravitational force F, with the help of voltage. So,
qE mg
If V is the potential difference between the plates, then..1) AFo

Putting this value in Eq. (1),

E-
Oll drop

m
mgd
V (2)
Fig 12.23b)
cOLLEGE PHYSICS XII 21 ELECTROSTATICS
Determination of mass:
The mass of droplet is measured with the help of Stroke'slaw. When electric feld between plates is switched off, the
droplet falls under the action of gravity and gains terminal speed V,. This terminal speed is determined by measuring the
time of fall over a measured distance: As droplet is falling with constant terminal speed, the drag force F due to air
becomes equal to itsweight. Then according to Stroke's law,
F 6TnV,
F-W=mg)
mg-6xnrM ..(3)
where r is the radius of the droplet, 7 is the coefficient of viscosity of air. If p is the density of droplet, then

Then Or m pV

m Pr e*******oreoe..(4)

Substituting the value of 'm' in Eq. (3),

4
rpg-6nrV
67V3x6
4/3pg
nV
4 P9

P9

r2 P9 (5)

Using this equation, radius of droplet is calculated. Then using this value of r in Eq. (4), mass of droplet is determined. By
substituting the value of m in Eq. (2), we can find the value of charge on droplet.
Millikan measured the charge on many drops and found that each charge was an integral multiple of minimum
valueof charge equalto 1.6x10C. So he concluded that this minimum value of charge is the charge on an electron.
Number of electrons in one coulomb

Q= ne n 1.6 x1C101. 6,25 x10 electrons

12.13 CAPACITOR
"A device used to store electric charge is called copacitor."
Construction: +Q
It consists of two conductors usually in the forms of parallel plates placed near to each
other and are separated by vacuum, air or some dielectric. Such a capacitor is called a
parallel plate capacitor.
ig: 12.241
Working:
When the plates of such a capacitor are connected to a battery of voltage V, the plate connected to positive terminal
acquires +Q charge and otherconnectedto negative terminal acquires-Q in equal amount. These charges appear on the
inner surface of the plates due to attraction.
Expression for the capacitance of a capacitor:
Let Q be the magnitude of the charge on either of the plates. It is found that charge Q stored by capacitor is directly
proportional to the potential difference V,
QV
or Q0CV ..nas m (1)
where Cis the constant of proportionality known as "Capacitance or Capacity of a Capacitor"
he abilityorcapability of a capacitor to store charge is called Capacitance."
 cOLLEGEPHYSICS X 22
Its value depends upon ELECTR
The
geometry of
Medium betweencapacitor
the plates
Separation between plates
From Eq (1), cQCoulomb Farad
V Volt
"The t of capacitance is "C/V" which is called "Farad" after the famous English scientist Farada
aCapacitor is one farad if a charge of one Coulomb, given to one of the plates of
capaciter,
dda is d
produces a potential difference of one volt between tnem.
big unit, for practical purposes its sub-multiple units are used.
1
micro farad uF- 10 farad
1
1 pico
farad 1 PF 10" farad

One farad is an enormous amount of capacitance. For practical purposes its

sub-multiple unit.
which are given below nits
1 mirco-farad=1 uf 10 farad
=

1 pico-farad 1 pF 10 farad

12.14 CAPACITANCE OF APARALLEL PLATE

CAPACITOR
Consider parallel plate capacitor consisting of two parallel metallic
a
distance d. The distance between plates each of area A and separa
the plates is small then their size. So the electric
region between plates. Let air or vacuum fieldE IS uniform and
be present as a medium between confins
plates. Ihen capacitance of paral
capacitor is given by:
....(1)
where Q is the
charge and V is the potential difference between the plates. Since E is uniform
given by: so potential diffe
V =
Ed . ...(2)
But electric intensity between two oppositely charged plates is given by:
E *********
...3)

Putting the value of E in Eq. (2),

V gd
4)
If Q is the charge on either of the plates of area A, then surface charge density is given by,
Q
A
So Eq. (4) becomes,

VQd

AE
Now using this value of V in Eq. (1),
Q
Cac Qd
At
QAE
vac Qd
VeV,

vac Ad (5) Fig 12.25

Thus capacitance of paralle! plate capacitor depends upon the nature of
nlates. Capacitance is directly
proportional to area of plates and medium, area of plates, and nben
inversely proportional to separation separato
of the plates
LLEGE PHYSICSXII 23 ELECTROSTATICS
dielectric:
an insulating material called dielectric of relative permittivity c, is inserted between the
plates. Then the capacitance
the capacitor is increased by the factor &, called dielectric constant.
oof: Consider an experimental demonstration in which a charged capacitor is connected to a voltmeter. The
the voltmeter gives potential difference between reading
the plates. When the dielectric is
ading of voltmeter is decreased. Now placed between the plates, the

C
nce 'Q remains constant so when 'V' decreases, the value of 'C'
increases. Then Eq. (5) becomes,
med Acd ***'**
..(6)
. (6) shows that capacitance depends upon the
1) The area 'A' of the
following factors:
plates
2) The separation 'd' between the
plates
3) The medium between the plates
ividing Eq. (6) by Eq. (5),
med E *********..
"..(7)
Cyac
hus dielectric coefficient or dielectric constant is
defined as:
The ratio of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with insulating substance
ates to its
an as medium between
capacitance with vacuum (or air) as a medium between them."

The electric field lines between tre

plates of parallel-plate capacito.
Small bits of thread are suspended in oil and become
aligned with the
electric field. Note that the lines are
equally spaced, indicating that the
electric field there is uniform.

.15 ELECTRIC POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRICS

electric outside electric field:
e dielectric is originally electrically neutral in the absence of an external electric field.
electric inside electric field:
When a dielectric is placed in external electric field, the charges arise result of redistribution of
as a
gative charges within the dielectric material, the
positive and
charges are known as induce or polarized charges and
called Electric Polarization. phenomenon
larization effects on capacitance:
The increase incapacitance of capacitor is due to polarization of dielectric. The dielectric consists of atoms
and
olecules having number of negative and positive charges. In these atoms and
same
molecules, the
d negative centres of positive
charges coincide with each other.
When this dielectric is placed in an electric field between the plates
capacitor, of a
negative charges the
trons) attracted towards the positively charged plate and positive
are
charges (nuclei) towards the negatively
ed plate of the capacitor. The electrons in the dielectric are not free to move. But when
an electric
ectrons and nuclei undergo a slight displacement. Due to this displacement, one end of moleculefield is applied,
es and other end has equal amount of negative charges, but as a whole, the molecule is still show positive
se acts as a dipole. neutral. Molecule in
en qual and opposite charges separated by a small distance make a dipole"
 cOLLEGE PHYSICS XI 24
h e molecules of the dielectric become dipoles and are said to be polarized. The ELEC
plate attracte polarlzation of dielectric is shown in the Fig. 12.26. The positively charged
polar mel
polar molecular.e negative end and negatively charged plate attracts the positive end of
u e to polarization, an electric field is set up inside and outside the dielectric.
Cnarge reduces from plates so the surface charge dènsity also reduces.

Fiy, 121
A
Surface charge density reduces then electric field intensity

E 6o
So the net external electric field between the plates is reduced and it decreases the potential difference
C
Since
Q
remains constant so when V decreases, the value of 'C' increases. Thus the polarization of dielects=
the capacitance of the capacitor.
12.16 ENERGY STORED IN A
CAPACITOR
Capacitor is a device which stores the charge it is a device which is used to store electrical
Work is done to deposit the energy.
charge on the plates and this work appears as the electrical potential ene
charges. When a small amount of charge is deposited, the potential difference between the
amount of work is needed to plate's increasesa
bring up next charge on the plate.
Initially capacitor has no charge and the potential difference between the plates is zero.
deposited on each plate, it becomes V. Thus average potential difference is Finally when c
given by:

P.E Energy
=

=qVav =9
qV
But q CV (for the capacitor)

Energy Cv . (1)
Energy stored in an electric field:
"The energy per unit volume in the space between the plates of a
parallel plate capacitor is called energy density
It is possible that energy is being stored in electric field between the plates rather than the P.E of the c
the plates. In such case we find electric field strength between the plates.
Let E be the magnitude of electric field and Vis potential difference and d is the separation between p
we knowthat, V = Ed and C = Putting these values in Eq. (1),
d

Energy density Volume (e.c,E?)

Electric field Energy =Energy =*L-(E d)?

=AG
2 d
E'd?
-e,E'NAd)
But Ad = Volume between the plates, so
 ELECTROsTATICS
LLEGE PHYSICS XII 25

Energydensity =Ener9y
Volume
is equation is valid for any electric field strength

A collection of capacitors used in various appliances.

T
2.15 CHARGINGAND DISCHARGING ACAPACITOR
Acircuit which is combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called RC circuit." Many electrical circuits consist of both
sistors and capacitors. In Fig.12.27, RC circuit is shown.

R
w.
Cv, 9,

0.63q A
Large RC

SmelRC
Hg 12.27 Fig12 28

Charging of a capacitor:
Vhen the switch S is set at terminal A, the RC circuit is connected to the battery of voltage V. It starts charging the
apacitor through the resistor R.
he capacitor is not charged immediately but it gradually atains the equilibrium value q =CV
The growth of charge with time for different resistances is shown in Fig.12.28. As shown in graph, q =0 at t = 0 and
ncreases gradually with time till it reaches its equilibrium value g = CV. The voltage V across capacitor at any instant

an be determined by dividing g by casV

=

The rate of charging and discharging of a capacitor depends upon the product of resistance R and capacitance C used in
the circuit. The product RC is known as "Time constant" and it is defined as, "The time required by the capacitor to
deposit 0.63 times the equilibrium charge q

RC
g 9 1-e

t RC
RC
Rc
1-e
99

9-e
9-91-0.37)
0.63
cOLLEGE PHYSICS XII 26
0.639is is the chargedeposit on the plate of capacitor in one RC time.
nen time constant issmall,charge attains its equilibrium value sooner (hg.1.48):
Discharging Of Capacito:
wa
CV,

Lerge RC

Small RC

Fig 12.29(a,b)
(b)
ia)
a) shows the discharging of a capacitor through a resistor. When the switch Sis set at point8
on the left plate flow
anticlockwisetthrough the resistance and neutralize the charge -9 on right plate. The
carging begins att-0when q= CV and decreases gradually to zero. When time constant
RC is small, more
rapid is the discharging.
9 e RC

t RC
RC
= 9 e RC

q 0.374o
0.379, is the charge left on the plate of capacitor in one RC time.

The charging/ discharging of a capacitor enables some windshield

wipers of cars to be used intermittently during a light drizzle. In this
mode of operation the wipers remain off for while and then turn on
briefly. The timing of the on-off cycle is determined by the time
constant of a resistor-capacitor combination.

Combination of capacitors
Series Combination Parallel Combination
a

=V+, +V
= +0+0
.2,9, C=C+C,V+CV
.1 =C+C,+C,
 ELECTROSTATICS
cOLLEGE PHYSICS XI 27
IMPORTANT FORMULES
Electric potential difference
Thus coulomb's force for free space is

F 1 9,92 AV V, -V a
-
=:
4TE r
1 Joule
Coulomb force in a medium 1Volt= qCoulomb
F 1 9,92 Electric potential
4 TEE r
Relative permitivity
V-
Potential gradient

E
Electric field intensity Ar
charge
potential at a point due to point
a
Electric

Electric intensity due to a point charge electron by m!llikan's method

Charge on an

E 4 TE E-k
r
mgd

Electric flux 9
P.
=
E.A =EAcos0 r2 P9
surface (gauss's law) Capacitor
Electric flux through closed Q CV
Capacitance
Ac
inside hollow charged sphere
Electric intensity of field
a

E= 0 med d
infinite sheet of charge
Electric intensity due to
med. E
Cyac
Energy stored in a capacitor
Surface charge density 1
Energy-Cva
an electric field
A parallel plates Energy stored in an
between 2 oppositely charged
Electric intensity
U -c,E)NAd)
Energy density = Energy e e,E)
Electric potential energy
AU WAB GLOSSARY
store charge
A device that can
Capacitor unit charge at a point
Electric field force per certain surface element
Electric Field Intensityy
field lines passing through
Number of electric from infinity to a point
in bringinga unit positive charge
Electric Flux
Amount of work done
Electric Potential
Unit of energy equals
to 1.6x 10 action of electric forces is
known as electrostatics.
Electron volt at rest under the
Thestudy of electric charges
a small
Electrostatics charges separated by
Electric Polarlzation Two equal and opposite
distance make a dipole. enclosed in it.
times the total charge
of Dlelectrics
through any closed surface is 1/e
Sauss's Law Theflux over a small region
is called a point charge.
which is concentrated
A charge
Point charge