MINOO - Final Thesis

THE INFLUENCE OF FAMILY SATISFACTION
AND SCHOOL SATISFACTION TOWARDS

PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IRAN
MINOO SADEGHI
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
2015
i
THE INFLUENCE OF FAMILY SATISFACTION AND
SCHOOL SATISFACTION TOWARDS
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IRAN
by
MINOO SADEGHI
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
April 2015
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful
Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for the strengths and His blessings in
completing this thesis.
It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of
gratitude to Dr. Shahizan Hasan, my main supervisor, and Dr. Syed Mohamad
Abdullah, my second supervisor, for their careful and precious guidance which were
extremely valuable for my study both theoretically and practically. I am also grateful
for having a chance to meet Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Hashim Othman, Dr.
Rahimi Che Aman, Dr. Mohd Ali Samsudin, and many other wonderful people and
professionals who guided me on the correct path.
I am sincerely grateful to the Department of Education in Khomeinishahr and
the principals of selected high schools and also to my dear colleague and best friend
Ms. Zahra Pakzad, and my dear niece, Mrs. Shahrzad Loghman, for their cooperation
to distribute the questionnaires.
Last but not least, I take this opportunity to express the profound gratitude
from my deep heart to my husband, Mr. Mohammad Alizadeh, for his unconditional
support, both financially and emotionally, throughout my degree. In particular, the
patience and understanding shown by my beloved daughters, Azar and Sima
Alizadeh, during the honour years is greatly appreciated. This thesis is heartily
dedicated to my father who took the lead to heaven before the completion of this
work.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgment ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Tables viii
List of Figures x
Glossary of Abbreviation xii
List of Publications xiii
Abstrak xiv
Abstract xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 3

1.2.1 Educational System in Iran 9
1.3 Problem Statement 11
1.4 Research Objectives 15
1.5 Research Questions 16
1.6 Research Hypotheses 17
1.7 Significance of Study 17

1.7.1 Families in Iran 18
1.7.2 Educational Planners and Ministry of Education in 18
Iran
1.7.3 Department of Education in Khomeinishahr, Iran 19
1.7.4 School Staff in Iran 19
1.7.5 Other Researches in Iran 20
iii
1.8 Conceptual and Operational Definitions 20
1.8.1 Psychological Well-Being (PWB) 20
1.8.2 Family Satisfaction 21
1.8.3 School Satisfaction 22
1.8.4 High School Students in Iran 23
1.9 Conceptual Framework of the Study 23
1.10 Summary 25
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Concept of Psychological Well-Being 27
2.3 History of Psychological Well-Being 30
2.4 Psychological Well-Being Theories 33

2.4.1 Theory of Eudaimonic Well-Being 34
2.5 Psychological Well-Being Model 37

2.5.1 Self-Acceptance 37
2.5.2 Purpose in Life 38
2.5.3 Personal Growth 38
2.5.4 Positive Relationship with Others 38
2.5.5 Environmental Mastery 39
2.5.6 Autonomy 39
2.6 Influence of Age and Gender on Individuals’ PWB 40
2.7 Psychological Well-Being in Family and School 41
2.8 Concept of Family Satisfaction 43
2.9 Family System Theory 45
2.10 Circumplex Model 47

2.10.1 Cohesion 49
2.10.2 Flexibility 50
2.10.3 Communication 51
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2.11 Family and Psychological Well-Being 53
2.12 Studies on Family Satisfaction Components 61
2.13 Concept of School Satisfaction 66
2.14 Social Cognitive Theory 68
2.15 McCoach’s Model (2003) 70

2.15.1 Attitude towards School 70
2.15.2 Attitude towards Teacher 71
2.15.3 Academic Self–Perception 72
2.15.4 Goal Valuation 73
2.15.5 Motivation 74
2.16 School and Psychological Well-Being 76
2.17 Studies on School Satisfaction Components 78
2.18 Theoretical Framework 91
2.19 Summary 93
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 95
3.1 Introduction 95
3.2 Research Design 95
3.3 Research Method and Research Approach 96
3.4 Research Variables 97
3.5 Location of Study 98
3.6 Study Population 98
3.7 Research Sample Population 99
3.8 Instrumentation 102

3.8.1 Psychological Well-Being Scale 102
3.8.2 Family Satisfaction Instruments 105
3.8.3 School Attitude Assessment Survey–Revised 107
Instrument
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3.9 Pilot Study 109
3.10 Data Analysis 112
3.11 Data Collecting Procedure 115
3.12 Research Procedure 116
3.13 Summary 118
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 119
4.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Descriptive Analysis 120

4.2.1 Students’ Psychological Well-Being Status 131
4.3 Statistical Analysis and Research Findings 133

4.3.1 Difference of Gender based on PWB 133
4.3.2 Difference of Age Groups based on PWB 135
4.3.3 Contribution of Family Satisfaction in Variability of 138
PWB
4.3.4 Contribution of School Satisfaction in Variability of 147
PWB
4.4 Summary of the Findings 156
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 157
5.1 Introduction 157
5.2 Discussion of Findings 157

5.2.1 Discussion on the Status of Students’ Psychological 157
Well-Being
5.2.2 Discussion on the Difference of PWB Status based on 159
Gender
5.2.3 Discussion on the Difference of PWB Status based on 160
Age Groups
5.2.4 Discussion on Contribution of Family Satisfaction in 162
Variability of PWB
5.2.5 Discussion on Contribution of School Satisfaction in 165
Variability of PWB
vi
5.3 Implications of the Study 171
5.4 Recommendations of the Study 172
5.5 Suggestions for Future Research 174
5.6 Limitations of the Study 175
5.7 Conclusion 176
REFERENCES 179
APPENDICES 197
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2.1 Family Satisfaction Definitions 45

Table 2.2 Different Opinions about Components of Family 52
Satisfaction
Table 2.3 Some Effective Factors on PWB 60
Table 2.4 Some Studies on Family Satisfaction Components 65
Table 2.5 Some Researches on School Area 82
Table 2.6 The Results of Some Researches on School Satisfaction 90
Components
Table 3.1 Sample Frame of Study 101

Table 3.2 The Internal Consistency of FSS and PAC 107
Table 3.3 The Reliability Coefficient for Instruments of the Study 111
Table 3.4 Statistical Methods 114
Table 4.1 Frequency Distribution of Students in Terms of Gender 121
and Age
Table 4.2 Description of Family Satisfaction Components and 123

School Satisfaction Components in Terms of Central
Tendency, Dispersion and Distribution
Table 4.3 Frequency Description of Psychological Well-Being, 125

Family Satisfaction and School Satisfaction Scores in
Terms of Central Tendency, Dispersion and Distribution
Table 4.4 Indicator of Mean Scores for the Status of PWB 132
Table 4.5 Group Statistics 133

Table 4.6 The Mean Difference of Male and Female Students on 134
PWB
Table 4.7 The Findings of One-Way ANOVA to Study Mean 136

Difference of Age Groups on PWB
Table 4.8 LSD Post Hoc Test for Multiple Comparisons 137
Table 4.9 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test 140
viii
Table 4.10 Residual Statistics (Mahalanobis Distance) 141
Table 4.11 VIF and Tolerance of Family Satisfaction Components 143
Table 4.12 Pearson r Correlation Coefficient 144
Table 1.13 Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fourth Research 145
Hypothesis (Model Summary)

Hypothesis (ANOVA)
Hypothesis (Coefficients)
Table 4.16 Residual Statistics (Mahalanobis Distance) 148

Table 4.17 VIF and Tolerance of School Satisfaction Components 151
Table 4.18 Pearson r Correlation Coefficient 152
Table 4.19 Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fifth Research 153

Hypothesis (Model Summary)
Hypothesis (ANOVA)
Hypothesis (Coefficients)
Table 4.22 The Summary of the Findings of the Statistical Analyses 156
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1 Frequency of psychological disorder in Iran from 1998 to 5

2004
Figure 1.2 The status of psychological disorder in Iran from 2009 to 15

2011
Figure 1.3 Conceptual framework 24
Figure 2.1 Definitions of psychological well-being (PWB) 30
Figure 2.2 Main components of PWB (Ryff & Marshall, 1999) 33
Figure 2.3 Different views of Eudaimonic well-being 36
Figure 2.4 Studies on psychological status of individuals based on 41

age and gender
Figure 2.5 Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems (Olson 49

et al., 1989)
Figure 2.6 Contribution of some important factors on PWB 54
Figure 2.7 Definitions of school satisfaction 67
Figure 2.8 Explanation of school satisfaction components 75
Figure 2.9 The theoretical framework of study 92
Figure 3.1 The sample plan of study 102
Figure 3.2 Research procedure 117
Figure 4.1 The comparison of frequency distribution of PWB scores 126

with symmetric distribution
Figure 4.2 The comparison of frequency distribution of family 127

satisfaction scores with symmetric distribution
Figure 4.3 The comparison of frequency distribution of school 128

satisfaction scores with symmetric distribution
Figure 4.4 Frequency distribution of the PWB scores in terms of 129

gender
Figure 4.5 Frequency distribution of the PWB scores in terms of age 130
x
Figure 4.6 Determining the range of scores for low, moderate and 132
high for PWB
Figure 4.7 The mean difference of PWB scores in terms of gender 135
Figure 4.8 The mean difference of age groups in terms of PWB 138
Figure 4.9 Normality test of PWB 140
Figure 4.10 The estimation of Mahalanobis indicator for examining 141

the outlier cases
Figure 4.11 Linear regression plots between residual versus predicted 142
value
Figure 4.12 The estimation of Mahalanobis indicator for examining 149

the outlier cases
Figure 4.13 Linear regression plots between residual versus predicted 150
values
xi
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATION
AWB Affective Well-Being
CWB Cognitive Well-Being
FSS Family Satisfaction Scale
PAC Parents Adolescents Communication
PWB Psychological Well-Being
SAAS-R School Attitude Assessment Survey–Revised
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Sadeghi, M., Hasan, S., & Alizadeh, S., (2013). Contribution of family satisfaction on
psychological well-being. World Academy of Science Engineering and Technology, 73,
1638-1643.
Sadeghi, M., Hasan, S., Syed Abdullah, Nazerian, I., Soltani, A., & Alizadeh, S.,
(2014). An Investigation of psychological well-being among students in
Khomeinishahr, Iran. Magnt Research Report, 3(2)134-142
Soltani, A., Sadeghi, M., Aghili, A., & Nazerian, I., (2014). The Comparison of Trait
Anxiety, Competitive State Anxiety and Self-Confidence among Male Athletes of
Some Selected Aqua Exercises and Non Aqua Sports. International Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research, 11(2)37-44.
Alizadeh, S., Abdullah, A., & Sadeghi, M. (2014). The Influence of Demographic
Factors on Landscape Preference of High School Students in Iran. Advances in
Environmental Biology, 9(3) 39-42
Sadeghi, M., Hasan, S., Syed Abdullah, S.M., & Alizadeh, S. (2014). Contribution of
family cohesion, flexibility, and communication on students’ psychological well-
being. International Journal of Current Life Sciences, in press
Soltani, A., Nazerian, I.,Zamani, I.,Sadeghi, M., & Rezaie, S. (2014). An

Investigation of Barriers to Sports Participation in Yasouj Armed Forces
Personnel Using a Hierarchical Model of Leisure Constraints, 29th International
Business Research Conference, Sydney, Australia. World Journal of Social
Sciences.
Soltani, A., Jamalsafri Saibon, Tajuddin Othman, MA., Sadeghi, M, & Nazerian, I.
(2014). Developing a Competency Model for Sports Managers of Physical
Education, 29th International Business Research Conference, Sydney, Australia.
www.wbiworldconpro.com
xiii
PENGARUH KEPUASAN KELUARGA DAN KEPUASAN SEKOLAH
TERHADAP KESEJAHTERAAN PSIKOLOGI DALAM KALANGAN
PELAJAR SEKOLAH TINGGI DI IRAN
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bermatlamat mengkaji kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar
berdasarkan kepuasan keluarga dan sekolah. Kepuasan keluarga dipengaruhi oleh
kohesi, kebolehsuaian dan komunikasi. Sebaliknya, kepuasan sekolah dipengaruhi
oleh sikap terhadap sekolah, sikap terhadap guru, persepsi diri terhadap akademik,
penilaian matlamat dan motivasi. Berdasarkan matlamat kajian ini, objektif berikut
dipenuhi. Pertama, tahap kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar didokumentasikan.
Kedua, usaha dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti perbezaan status kesejahteraan
psikologi pelajar berdasarkan gender dan kumpulan umur. Seterusnya, kajian
mengkaji sumbangan kohesi, kebolehsuaian dan komunikasi keluarga terhadap
variasi kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar. Yang terakhir, persepsi diri terhadap
akademik, motivasi, sikap terhadap sekolah, sikap terhadap guru dan penilaian
matlamat turut dikaji berhubung dengan sumbangan setiap faktor terhadap
kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar. Tiga model yang menyokong teori yang dibahas
turut digunakan. Pertama, model Ryff, yang menyokong hujah tentang
kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar. Kedua, model Circumplex, yang menjelaskan
tentang kepuasan keluarga. Ketiga, model McCoach, yang menyokong hujah
tentang kepuasan sekolah. Sampel kajian terdiri daripada 376 orang pelajar sekolah
tinggi di Khomeinishahr, Iran. Sampel berumur di antara 15 hingga 18 tahun,
dipilih berdasarkan teknik persampelan berstrata rawak. Kaedah yang digunakan
dalam kajian ini termasuk ujian t sampel bebas, ANOVA satu hala, regresi pelbagai
(regresi berhierarki).
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Keputusan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar
adalah pada keadaan yang sederhana. Sehubungan dengan itu, umur adalah faktor
yang signifikan kerana pelajar dalam kumpulan umur 15 tahun dan 16 tahun
berada dalam keadaan kesejahteraan psikologi yang lebih baik berbanding dengan
kumpulan pelajar yang berumur 18 tahun. Namun demikian, faktor gender adalah
tidak signifikan. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa binaan kepuasan
keluarga (kohesi, kebolehsuaian dan komunikasi) dan binaan kepuasan sekolah
(persepsi diri terhadap akademik, motivasi, sikap terhadap guru, dan penilaian
matlamat) secara signifikan menyumbang terhadap varians kesejahteraan psikologi.
Berdasarkan keputusan yang diperoleh, kajian ini mencadangkan penganjuran
program liburan dan menempatkan mereka selaras dengan keperluan psikologi
pelajar bagi meningkatkan status kesejahteraan psikologi pelajar. Sebagai
tambahan, penyelidikan ini mencadangkan agar pihak ibu bapa membiasakan diri
dengan atribut remaja pada umur yang berbeza dalam usaha mengadakan interaksi
yang baik dengan mereka. Justeru, adalah perlu bahawa pendidikan, guru dan staf
sekolah yang lain mengadakan program khusus untuk meningkatkan persepsi diri
terhadap akademik dan juga motivasi.
xv
THE INFLUENCE OF FAMILY SATISFACTION AND SCHOOL
SATISFACTION TOWARDS PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING AMONG
HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IRAN
ABSTRACT
This study aims to examine students’ psychological well-being based on
family and school satisfaction. Family satisfaction is influenced by cohesion,
flexibility and communication. On the other hand, school satisfaction is influenced
by attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal
valuation, and motivation. According to the aim of this study the following
objectives were to be fulfilled. First, the level of psychological well-being of students
had to be determined. Secondly, an attempt was made to identify the differences of
the status of students’ psychological well-being based on gender and age group.
Next, the study examined the contribution of cohesion, flexibility and
communication towards the variation of students’ psychological well-being. Finally,
academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards school, attitude towards
teacher and goal valuation were examined with regard to their contributions to
students’ psychological well-being. Three models that support theoretic argument of
this study were used. Ryff‘s model that defends psychological well-being argument,
Circumplex Model that asserts family satisfaction subject and, finally, McCoach’s
model that supports the argument of school satisfaction. The samples comprised 376
high school students with the age ranging between 15, to 18 years old in
Khomeinishahr, Iran, chosen by random stratified sampling technique. The methods
used in this study included independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, and
multiple hierarchical regressions. The results of this study revealed that the students’
psychological well-being is at a moderate state and, in this regard, age was a
xvi
significant factor as the students of 15 and 16 years old are in a better state of
psychological well-being than the 18 year old age group. However, gender is
insignificant. The findings also showed family satisfaction constructs (cohesion,
flexibility and communication) and school satisfaction constructs (academic self-
perception, motivation, attitude towards teacher, and goal valuation) contribute
significantly towards the variance of psychological well-being. From the obtained
results, this study suggests that family’s ability to create a balance between cohesion,
flexibility, and communication among its members should be improved by enhancing
knowledge of parents. This study also recommends an opportunity to develop
students’ cognitive abilities and motivation in order to intensify self-perception and
motivation by providing teenagers a good chance to participate in extracurricular
activities or developing programs, which helps students express their own ideas or
thoughts. Moreover, a fruitful and friendly communication between teachers and
students should be created by developing teachers’skills, attitudes and knowledge of
students’ emotional needs. This study also suggests that the obstacles and problems
hindering the promotion of students’ psychological well-being should be explored,
identified and solved. Finally, in order to increase students’ psychological well-
being, it is suggested that the conditions of other sources community such as
economic and social conditions, individual freedom and social, as well as personal
security and civil rights should be examined.
xvii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The inspiration behind this study originates from three main issues that will
be explained in the following sections. The primary section of the current chapter is
concerned with a general explanation of the concept of psychological well-being.
The second part focuses on family satisfaction followed by the concept of school
satisfaction. Then, a background of the current study is presented by giving a
summary of psychological well-being status, family and educational systems in Iran.
Next, the problem which led to the administration of this research has been stated
followed by the research objectives and questions along with the hypothesis of the
current study. The significance of the present study, the operational definitions, and
conceptual framework comprise the ending section of this chapter. The following
paragraphs present an overview of the concepts of psychological well-being, family
satisfaction and school satisfaction which remain as the fundamental issues
concerned in the current research.
The psychological well-being (PWB) of individuals and communities are
important because it expresses whether or not people feel content with their lives.
There is evidence has proven that good life conditions are vital to the individuals’
psychological well-being and pursuing these circumstances is essential for
community policy. Many indicators were identified as factors that allow an
individual to evaluate his or her life conditions as well as that cause failure to assess
what an individual believes and sense about his or her life. Campbell, Converse, and
Rodgers (1976) identified some of these factors and demonstrated that a person’s
1
happiness is influenced by his gratification with factors like family, education,
marriage, job, income, city, country, health, friendship, and neighbours.
Subsequently, many psychologists refer to family relationship as one of the
most essential factors in a person’s psychological health. In this field, Bowlby
(1977), a famous theorist of attachment theory, argued that individuals’ family
experiences affect their emotional relation and behaviour. Furthermore, he explained
that the existence of one main causal relationship between children’s experiences and
their parents’ abilities would create emotional bonds.
Due to this causal relationship, it has always been recognized that family
interactions influence and transfer skills and abilities among members. Such skills
and abilities are social skills, such as skills in interpersonal relation, social rules such
as observance of community norms, as well as problem solving capabilities.
Therefore, identification of the vital factors relating to family’s relationship is an
essential step in strengthening this fundamental social institution to make a fruitful
interaction among family members.
Based on Family System Theory, cohesion, flexibility and communication are
three main concepts of family relationship, and since these three aspects had been
frequently regarded as highly pertinent in a variety of family theory, family therapy
approaches and family models, hence in order to evaluate family satisfaction, this
study focuses on family cohesion, family flexibility and family communication.
Obviously, family is not the only serious factor that forms the members’
beliefs and behaviours. Teachers, educators, and school environment also affect a
person’s feelings and mannerisms as well. According to McCoach and Siegle (2003),
adolescents’ beliefs of educational environment can affect their motivation and the
amount of effort that they put into schoolwork. Similarly, this emphasis can be seen
2
in the study administered by Eccles and Wigfield (2002). They affirmed that one of
the noteworthy outcomes of school climate is students’ perception of school which
plays a crucial role in their performance.
Therefore, beside family, this research also considers school systems in order
to study the role of school satisfaction including attitude towards school, attitude
towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation and motivation on
psychological well-being of students that is more understandable by reviewing the
background of this study.
1.2 Background of Study
This section primarily focuses on an overview of individuals’ psychological
status in the world and to keep with the matter in hand, in Iran specifically. In 2001,
the World Health Organization stated that during the two upcoming decades, the
world will witness major changes in the levels of concerns towards non-
communicable diseases in comparison with infectious diseases. As non-
communicable diseases, such as mental illnesses, will become a more important topic
of concern than infectious diseases and will become the first on the list of causes of
disability and premature death.
Presently, roughly 450 million people around the world suffer from
psychiatric problems. Subsequently, mental disorders are responsible for slightly
more than 1% of deaths worldwide. It has been predicted that by 2020, mental and
neurological disorders will increase by nearly 15% worldwide (World Health
Organization, 2001).
In the context of Iran examination of the results obtained from different
studies show that the individuals’ psychological well-being is at an alarming state.
3
There are also signs that have been interpreted to predict the prevalence of
psychological diseases. Based on a conducted research, 44.5% of students in Bandar
Abbas suffer from depression (Moosavi, Adli, & Nikooee, 1998). Subsequent
research also revealed that 36% of people in Kurdistan suffer from depression.
However, there is no significant difference between their gender regarding the
depression (Khairabadi & Yosefi, 2002).This figure reached approximately to 43%
of secondary school students who were discovered to have psychological problems
such as negative thoughts, neurosis, sensitivity to interpersonal relationships,
obsessions, depression, anxiety, aggression, and somatization in the city of Sari
(Hosseini, Moosavi, & Rezazadeh, 2003).
The alarming results from a study showed that 58%8 of girls and boys at high
school in Sari, Iran were suspected of having psychological problems (Masoudzadeh,
Khalilian, Ashrafi, & Kimiabeigi, 2004). Figure 1.1 illustrates some of the
information collected on the psychological disorder rates in Iran from 1998 to 2004.
4
Figure ‎1.1. Frequency of psychological disorder in Iran from 1998 to 2004
Many factors can weaken the growth of psychological disorder and
strengthen psychological well-being. Since based on attachment theory, and social
cognitive theory family and school are two the most important factors in shaping
individuals’ emotion and behaviour, this study focuses on cohesion, flexibility and
communication of family as the means of family satisfaction.
Moreover, emphasis is placed on attitude towards school, attitude towards
teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and motivation as the means of
school satisfaction. In the following paragraphs, the researcher tries to explain how
the above-mentioned components can lead to changes in the individuals’ behaviour
and function in Iran.
The review of relevant literature indicates that family structure affects family
members’ function. Hamidi (2005) stated that the structure of fugitive girls’ family in
5
the sphere of expressing emotions and unity have a lower function than what the
social norms define. It also has been observed that 77% of runaway behaviour of
teenage girls can be predicted by two variables, including marital relationships and
parental relationships with youth (Samani, 2006). Researchers have commented on
the lack of attachment between youths and their parents, is the cause of mental
disorders (Bowlby, 1977; Darvizeh, 2003). On the other hand parents’ attachment to
their children results in the development of social adjustment among them (Vahedi &
Moradi, 2002).
Other studies have further substantiated that children’s perfectionism is the
result of family adjustment as well as unity (Jamshidi, Razmi, Haghighat, & Samani,
2008). Moreover, it is highlighted that the level of family adaptation affects the
students’ mental health (Shakeri, 2003) and adjustment and family unity can
influence the formation of identity among teenagers (Razmi, 2004).
In some studies, the remarks are directed towards the interactional pattern
among family members. In this regard researchers discovered that not only higher
levels of conversation between parents and teenagers result in a lower rate of drug
abuse (Sarvestani, 2003) but also family conversation can predict children’s anxiety
as well as their depression states (Kouroshnia & Latifian, 2007).
However, family is not regarded as the only critical factor that can shape the
members’ beliefs and behaviours. Based on social cognitive theory teachers, school
staff, and school environment are also capable of influencing individuals’ feelings
and behaviour. Indeed, school has been defined as a place that can develop welfare
among individuals (Fraillon, 2004; Olenchak, 2009), while an incorrect educational
environment could increase stress and incompatibility among youths (Neihart, Reis,
Robinson, & Moon 2002).
6
Experts believe that school atmosphere is one of the important components
involved in a school’s evaluation. In this regard, a research has shown that positive
school climate results in an increase in students’ academic achievement levels
(Atoofisalmani, Bahari, & Goodarzi, 2008). Specifically, a teacher’s social behaviour
towards his or her students affects the students’ learning, vitality and motivation.
Besides, a positive social interaction results in a feeling of self-esteem and friendly
communication among students as well (Oreizisamani, Abedi, & Taji, 2007; Nasr
Isfahani, 1992).
Educational psychology researchers have introduced academic self-
perception as another noteworthy element in school appraisal. Based on the
investigations conducted in Iran, students’ positive cognitive beliefs about their
abilities affect their academic achievements as well as their mental status
(Aminizorar, 2007). Conversely, an individual’s negative perception of his
educational capabilities increases mental disorder tendencies (Salahshour, 2003).
However, Yarmohamadian, Molavi, and Iranpour (2003) stated that there is no
meaningful relationship between students’ self-perception, adjustment, mutual
friendship and accepting age mates.
Goals are also considered as a central component that can guide students’
emotions. As purposefulness can be a predicting factor for happiness among students
(Jokar, 2007). Finally, motivation is the last component that this section focuses on
as another main factor in school assessment. Motivation is derived from the value
that students place on their schools (Razavieh, Latifian, & Fooladchang, 2006). Some
researchers have shown that motivation promotes academic achievements (Abedi,
Oreizi, & Nazhad, 2005) and reduce risky behaviours (Mazloomy, Ehrampoosh,
Servat, & Askarshahi, 2010).
7
As a result, after scrutinising the aforementioned studies as well as the
relative literature, it was discovered that apparently there is an increasing tendency of
psychological disorders among youths in Iran. This is while individuals’
psychological well-being is a very important issue for each society because it is one
of the criteria for community assessments. It plays a major role in ensuring the
dynamism and efficiency of the society.
Besides, youths are the assets of each country and they hold some major
responsibilities in economic and social affairs. As 31% of Iran population are
between 15 to 29 years old (The Unit of News Center, 2013), Iran will lose its assets
and face many problems if mental disorders were to spread among its youth
population. Therefore, the government of Iran should consider this as a warning and
it is time for the government to implement appropriate policies to overcome this
problem.
In this regard, researchers mentioned that psychological disorder is probably
due to the inefficacy of family and schools system of Iran. They recommended that
subsequent researchers should examine the family and school in order to identify the
effective factors that could improve the family and the school systems.
This research attempts to examine the significance of family cohesion,
flexibility and communication as well as students’ attitude towards school, their
attitude towards teachers, academic self-perception, motivation and goal valuation on
students’ psychological well-being. Since this research is conducted on high school
students, hence, the next section deals with the status of education and the
educational system in Iran.
8
1.2.1 Educational System in Iran
Educational system is defined as the general principles of institutions
and official organizations to transfer knowledge in the best way and also to
train highly skilled human resources for the society (Alagheband, 2010). At
the moment, the 12-year Iranian educational system is divided into three
periods starting after the pre-school period. The stages are as follows (Safi,
2009): a. Elementary school (5 years) b. Secondary school (3 years) c. High
school (4 years)
Each period follows specific cognitive, emotional, and psychological
objectives as well as having its specific characteristics. Due to importance of
high school in this study the following section will provide information on
high school education in Iran specifically.
High school, goals and structure: High school is regarded as the
period of ‘transformation’ from basic education which is general and
non-specialized to a more specialized education (higher education).
Likewise, this period is also known as the time of transformation from
childhood to youth.
Based on psychological pressures and adaptation difficulties
that teenagers experience, this middle period provides them with
specific characteristics. This period is the main source used to produce
semi-skilled human resources and is also known as the transformation
period since it involves:
a. Transformation from a general and non-specialized education to
specialized education within university environment
9
b. Transformation from educational environment for the working and
living environments
c. Transformation from childhood (the period in which the needs of
individuals are fulfilled under the supervision of others) to maturity
(the period in which the individuals start to be independent and
undertake different responsibilities) (Safi, 2009)
High school is the period between ‘Elementary School’ and
‘Secondary School’ on the one hand, and ‘Higher Education’ on the
other hand. It caters for students from the age of 15 to 18 years old.
During the high school period, there are various programs divided into
different fields and majors which provide good opportunities for
students to choose their fields of study based on their interests,
knowledge as well as the needs of the society.
High school in Iran involves three distinct divisions: a.
Theoretical, b. Technical-Vocational/Professional, and c. Manual
Skills (Dabiri Isfahani, 1997). The ‘Theoretical’ division include three
fields of study: 1) Mathematics and Physics, 2) Experimental
Sciences, and 3) Literature and Humanities. The two other branches
(Technical-Vocational/Professional and Manual Skills) include many
fields as choices and are related to industry, services and agriculture.
As a result, high school students choose to study one of the
above mentioned divisions usually after they have passed the first year
of study at high school level. Graduates of high schools in Iran will be
awarded a diploma in one of the aforementioned fields.
10
1.3 Problem Statement
Psychological problems in Iran have considerably increased in recent years.
Based on the conducted researches in Iran, almost 36% of students at Sabzevar
University suffered from anxiety and that nearly 24% suffered from depression
(Mehri & Seddighi, 2011).
Similar researches also revealed that 32% of students at University of
Medical Sciences of Gonabad, suffered from depression (Tavakolizadeh &
Khodadadi, 2010). More seriously, it was found that 60% of students in Hamedan are
at a risky level of depression, anxiety, and social malfunction (Sadeghian,
Moghaddarikoosha, & Gorji, 2009).
In this regard, researchers considered a possible link between psychological
disorder with age and gender. They mentioned that as a person ages, depression and
anxiety increases (Sadeghian et al., 2009; Masoudzadeh et al., 2004). On the
contrary, it was stated that satisfaction with life and positive emotions will slightly
increase as age increases while negative emotions will decrease (Zandypour &
Yadegari, 2007).
In this setting, some researchers believe that mental disorder is more common
among females rather than among males (Farahbakhsh, Gholamrezaee, & Nicpe,
2005; Masoudzadeh et al., 2004; Hosseinian, Zahraei, & Khodabakhshi, 2003; Saki
& Keikhaveni, 2002). Yet, other researchers argue reversely that the disorder is seen
more among males rather than females (Aghayousefi & Sharif, 2011; Mehri &
Seddighi, 2011; Michaeli, 2010; Akbari, Mahmoudalilou, & Aslanabadi, 2008).
However, some researchers found no significant difference across gender
(Tavakolizadeh & Khodadadi, 2010; Hosseininasab, Ahamadiyan, & Ravanbakhsh,
2008; Khairabadi & Yosefi, 2002).
11
In conclusion, the evaluations of past studies show a significant growth in
psychological problem while, there is no clear distinction between individuals’
psychological health and their age and gender. On the other hand, researchers
mention to family and school as the principal factors that influence an individual’s
behaviour and emotion. According to some conducted studies in Iran 77% of the
reasons of dropout were associated with school and 33% with family. The more
important reasons of dropout from the students’ standpoint are behaviour of teachers,
lack of interest of school and, lack of motivation (Akrami, 2014).
It is argued that teenagers’ quality of life is influenced by their relationships
with parents (Schumm & Bugaighis, 1986). Adolescent who acquires his or her
childhood experiences in an unfavourable family environment has behavioural
changes and social abnormalities that have an impact on his or her future growth
(Navabinejad, 2008; Sanaee, 2001); while at this age, adolescents have various needs
such as searching for their identities, having self-worth, creating positive relationship
with others, and obtaining necessary skills in friendship (Shoarinezhad, 2013).
Such needs are provided in satisfactory and warm family atmospheres. If a
family were to face stress, deformation, and had cold relationships with family
members, or failure to meet teenager’s demands, a person may commit maladaptive
behaviour which sometimes results in social damage (Ahmadi, 2004; Hosseinian et
al., 2003). Accordingly, the experiences that family members attain in the family are
the most important origins of both happiness and distress (Ainsworth, 1989).
With reliance on conducted investigations, researchers considered family as
the main key for explanation individuals’ abnormal behaviour. In this regard, it was
found that individuals’ function is affected by family structure (Hamidi, 2005) and
the main cause of mental disorder in a family is due to lack of attachment between
12
parents and their children (Darvizeh, 2003). Studies also indicated that children’s
anxiety and depression as well as drug abuse are predictable through communication
among family members (Kouroshnia & Latifian, 2007). In light of the mentioned
studies as well as other previous research that introduced relationship among family
members as the reason of individuals’ behavioural problem, this study focuses on the
contribution of cohesion, flexibility, and communication as family satisfaction
towards students’ psychological well-being.
Besides family, school is also a place where students spend much of their
time every day. Subsequently, students are most likely to have frequent interactions
with their teachers. Therefore, teachers, school staffs and school environment can
also be effective in developing individuals’ perceptions and behaviour and play a
crucial role in the appraisal of children’s quality of life and productivity.
In this scope, Roeser, Eccles, and Sameroff (2000) introduce school as an
important place that significantly affects students’ happiness and growth. Engels
(2004) also asserted that students’ well-being cannot be considered as an isolated
unit from the school context. Moreover, investigations have shown that the
increasing rate of dissatisfaction among students will lead to maladaptive
functioning. This simply illustrates that teenagers’ ideas of their educational
environment, including school, teacher, and class atmosphere, have a crucial
influence on their educational function, cognitive and emotional process as well as
their academic motivation (Kavoosian et al., 2007; Aminian & Seyed Mirzayi, 2010).
The findings also showed that in contrast with positive academic self-perception
which increases mental health and academic achievement (Aminizorar, 2007),
negative academic self-perception decreases mental health (Salahshour, 2003). Thus,
schools should not be neglected in the studying of individuals’ behaviour (Verkuyten
13
& Thijs, 2002). With regards to the mentioned studies, school is another capable
factor of individuals’ behavioural problems. Therefore, this study focuses on the
contribution of attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-
perception, goal valuation, and motivation as school satisfaction towards students’
psychological well-being.
As a result, despite the importance of family and school in shaping
individuals’ experience, emotion, and behaviour, still there are lacks of research
regarding the influence of family and school on psychological well-being in Iran.
In fact, previous studies have not directly conducted a research on the
correlation of PWB with family gratification and school contentment. That is why, in
response to the studies which declared that psychological disorders are increasingly
spreading in Iran, the Department of Education in Khomeinishahr, Iran requested for
further research to explore the factors which contribute to the improvement of
students’ well-being.
Therefore, based on recommendations from the Department of Education in
Khomeinishahr (2012), the current study examines the influence of family and
school satisfactions on students’ psychological well-being. Figure 1.2 presents an
overview of the status of psychological disorder in Iran from 2009 to 2011.
14
Figure ‎1.2. The status of psychological disorder in Iran from 2009 to 2011
1.4 Research Objectives
This study attempts to discover the roles of family satisfaction and school
satisfaction in ensuring psychological well-being of students in Iran. For this
purpose, the research objectives are classified as follows:
i. To examine the status of psychological well-being of high school students in
Khomeinishahr, Iran.
ii. To study the status of psychological well-being of male and female high
school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
iii. To investigate the status of psychological well-being of different age groups
of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
15
iv. To examine the contribution of family satisfaction constructs (cohesion,
flexibility, and communication) towards the variation of psychological well-
being of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
v. To study the contribution of school satisfaction constructs (attitude towards
school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation,
and motivation) towards the variation of psychological well-being of high
1.5 Research Questions
The specific research questions of the present study are based on the five
research objectives:
Q1: What is the status of psychological well-being of high school students in
Khomeinishahr, Iran?
Q2: Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-
being of male and female high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
Q3: Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-
being of different age groups of high school students in Khomeinishahr,
Iran?
Q4: Do family satisfaction constructs (cohesion, flexibility, and
communication) significantly contribute to the variation of psychological
well-being of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
Q5: Do school satisfaction constructs (attitude towards school, attitude
towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and
motivation) significantly contribute to the variation of psychological
16
1.6 Research Hypotheses
According to the research questions, the following hypotheses will be
assessed.
H01: There is no significant difference in the status of psychological well-
being of male and female high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
being of different age groups of high school students in Khomeinishahr,
Iran.
H03: There is no significant contribution of the family satisfaction constructs
(cohesion, flexibility, and communication) towards the variation of the
psychological well-being of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
H04: There is no significant contribution of school satisfaction constructs
(attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-
perception, goal valuation, and motivation) towards the variation of the
1.7 Significance of Study
The findings of the present study concentrate on the debated issue and they
are expected to provide some applicable knowledge for Iranian families, educational
planners in the Ministry of Education in Iran and the Department of Education in
Khomeinishahr, school staff and other researchers in Iran. Furthermore, since this
study has made an attempt to identify various dimensions of family satisfaction and
school satisfaction, hence, students’ psychological well-being may be predicted
based on different aspects of family and school.
17
Moreover, by examining students’ subjective experiences, it can offer
valuable insights into specific aspects of their families and schools as well as their
contributions to the students’ satisfaction. The study may result in the development
of a template or a model capable of introducing a way to improve the students’ well-
being in their lives. In other words, by investigating and understanding the
interaction processes of the mentioned factors, it will be possible to assess students’
state for the development of a better and higher level of satisfaction and,
consequently, to improve family and school functions in Iran.
1.7.1 Families in Iran
It is noteworthy that individuals’ attitude towards family is among the
important factors related to a family’s health. One belief is that society’s
health and development depends on families’ health. Accordingly, this study
examines the factors that can influence one’s attitude towards his or her
family such as cohesion, flexibility and communication. Based on family
system theory and Circumplex model, these components are perceived as the
improvement for family health.
Hence, the findings may help families in the planning of a beneficial
communication-interaction pattern among the members. In addition, the
findings may also provide some information that will show some strategies
that parents can assess their relationship with their children.
1.7.2 Educational Planners and Ministry of Education in Iran
By focusing on the role of school satisfaction components on
students’ psychological well-being, the present research will be able to
provide educational planners and Education Ministry of Iran with useful
18
information which can help them design an acceptable educational
environment for students.
An inappropriate educational environment can simply damage the
psychological health of students. Hence, by gathering information on how to
solve the relevant problems, educating the young generation correctly, and
recognizing their problems it will be a promising investment in a developing
society. Subsequently, the results of such studies are undeniably of advantage
in the process of achieving the relevant goals.
1.7.3 Department of Education in Khomeinishahr, Iran
The findings of this study are especially valuable for the Department
of Education in Khomeinishahr, Iran. This research was administered based
on the recommendations of respective organizations to diagnose the strengths
and the weaknesses of schools’ operation. Since a satisfactory atmosphere
will provide students with the grounds to express positive emotions, so this is
obviously one of the duties and the missions of the authorities in the
Department of Education in Khomeinishahr.
Furthermore, it is evident that the absence of psychological well-being
in schools is a waste of financial resources provided by the Department of
Education. This, in turn, will make individuals, families, and the society to
encounter unpleasant social consequences.
1.7.4 School Staff in Iran
The findings of the current study could also be utilized as a useful
feedback for the school staff and might also attract their attention to the
existing deficiencies within the learning atmosphere. Moreover, the study can
19
also pave the way for school authorities in Khomeinishahr, Iran, to eliminate
the inefficiencies and to create a favourable organizational atmosphere for
students.
It is also expected that school principals, teachers, and counsellors
would be able to create appropriate opportunities for constructive growth
through the development of positive emotions. Consequently, this can lead to
improvements in the students’ psychological well-being state.
1.7.5 Other Researches in Iran
As many researchers will administer new studies as well as will
investigate families and schools from a various angles to acquire new results,
the findings of this investigation could pave the way for subsequent studies
and also prepare applicable knowledge for positive psychology.
1.8 Conceptual and Operational Definitions
This research involves several key words that are operationally defined
through this part.
1.8.1 Psychological Well-Being (PWB)
Psychological well-being refers to how people assess themselves and
the quality of their lives. Ryff (1989) designed a multidimensional model to
evaluate life quality of individuals. She identifies six dimensions for this
model as follows:
a. Self-acceptance: This is the ability to see and admit
individual’s strengths and weaknesses.
b. Purpose in life: This constitutes having aims and ideas that
make life more meaningful and oriented.

20
c. Personal growth: This is the feeling of one’s aptitudes and
potentials that will be completed over time.
d. Positive relationship with others: This refers to having close
and desirable associations with significant persons.
e. Environmental mastery: This is defined as the ability to control
and administer the requirements of daily life.
f. Autonomy: This is considered as being independent and
having the capability of resisting social pressures that generate
particular thoughts.
In this study, the students’ psychological well-being is determined by
the scores that they obtain in Ryff’s questionnaire. The higher scores
demonstrate the healthier condition of psychological well-being level and
vice versa.
1.8.2 Family Satisfaction
Family satisfaction is the degree to which a member has an overall
satisfaction with his or her family members as well as having a feeling of
satisfaction with his or her relationships within it (Carver & Jones, 1992). In
this study, family satisfaction is examined in the contexts of cohesion,
flexibility, and communication. Olson and Wilson (1986) defined them as
follows:
a. Family cohesion is a degree of proximity, intimacy or
emotional closeness within a family.
21
b. Family flexibility is regarded as the amount of variability in
the roles, styles, discipline rules and leadership that family
members might have towards each other.
c. Family communication is defined as the proceedings of
exchanging information, ideas, opinions and feelings among
family members.
In the current study, family satisfaction is identified based on the
scores that students achieved after completing the following two
questionnaires: Family Satisfaction Scale and Parents Adolescent
Communication scale. The higher the scores, the more the students will be
satisfied with their family.
1.8.3 School Satisfaction
School satisfaction, which is defined as an indicator of the learning
environment, allows students to move a step closer to their academic and
social goals and also to have a qualitatively good school life (Hascher, 2003).
In this research, school satisfaction is studied through the scores which
students attained from the School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised
questionnaire. This questionnaire is designed by McCoach and Siegle (2003)
and focuses on five components. The higher the scores, the more the students
will be satisfied with their school. The components of this questionnaire
include:
a. Attitude towards school which include the students’ interests in
school, their feelings of pride in and reliance on it.
22
b. Attitude towards teachers which are defined as accepting
teachers as those who are supportive and effective.
c. Academic self-perception which is considered as an
explanation associated with an appraisal of one’s perceived
academic capabilities.
d. Goal valuation which refers to the significance of academic
goals for individuals.
e. Motivation which involves students’ self-generated ideas,
senses and actions that are systematically directed towards the
access of the goals.
1.8.4 High School Students in Iran
High school in Iran is defined as a mediator between the public and
higher education period. This stage starts after the secondary school level and
continues for 4 years and includes 15 to 18 year-old students (Safi, 2009).
Consequently, this study involves high school students in Iran who are in the
age range of 15, 16, 17, and 18.
1.9 Conceptual Framework of the Study
The following figure represents a general image of the contribution of family
satisfaction and school satisfaction as independent variables towards the students’
psychological well-being as dependent variable. Each independent variable consists
of various components. Family satisfaction includes cohesion, flexibility and
communication. School satisfaction addresses components of attitude towards
teacher, attitude towards school, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and
motivation. Additionally, Figure 1.3 also reflects age and gender as two demographic
23
variables in this study. As the arrows show, it is assumed that psychological well-
being is affected by family satisfaction and school satisfaction with regard to
different gender and age.
Figure ‎1.3. Conceptual framework
24
1.10 Summary
In a nutshell, the present research fulfils a number of objectives. First the
status of psychological well-being among students is determined. Secondly, an
attempt is made to identify the differences in the status of psychological well-being
among different gender and age groups. Finally, the research attempts to investigate
the predictors of psychological well-being with a focus on family satisfaction and
school satisfaction. Moreover, it is hoped that the findings of the present study will
help everyone to understand how family and school characteristics, together with the
strong or weak experiences, can affect students’ psychological well-being. In order to
comprehend the aforementioned items it is necessary to make a review of the
literature study.
25
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a literature review which is related to the present study.
Based on this purpose, the current chapter is divided into three parts. It starts with the
concept and definitions of psychological well-being. Next, the history of the state of
psychological well-being is discussed and the discussion is followed by an account
of the traditional theory on psychological well-being setting, namely Eudaimonic
well-being. Psychological well-being model and its elements, including self-
acceptance, purpose in life, personal growth, positive relationships with others,
environmental mastery, and autonomy is also discussed in detail.
Then, the influences of age and gender on psychological well-being are
elaborated in detail. This part is concluded with researches that have been done on
the domain of psychological well-being in family and school in Iran. The second part
mainly focusses on family satisfaction. First, the concept and definitions of family
are presented and an introduction to the theory and model of measuring family
satisfaction and its components including, cohesion, flexibility and communication is
portrayed. This part is concluded with the importance of family satisfaction for
psychological well-being by reviewing some related studies.
The conclusion will highlight the definitions of school satisfaction,
explanation of theory and model, explanation of school satisfaction components such
as attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self–perception, goal
valuation, motivation, the significance of schools for psychological well-being,
conducted researches on school satisfaction, theoretical frame work and summary.
26
2.2 Concept of Psychological Well-Being
The existing literature reveals that psychological well-being is complicated
and disputable subject as it is evident in many definitions given by researchers.
Researchers also believed that PWB is a dynamic notion that comprises subjective,
social and psychological domains and health-related behaviours as well (Ryan &
Deci, 2001). In the following studies, the definition of PWB has been identified
which is closely related to life satisfaction, good mood and vitality, positive and
negative affects, affective and cognitive pleasure reactions with one’s life, optimal
experience and operation, quality of life, and action-guiding. In a general definition
of psychological well-being, Argyle (1987) explained positive well-being as life
satisfaction, good mood and vitality. However, some researcher defined well-being
by emphasize on its components.
For example from Diener’s (1984) point of view, subjective well-being refers
to the state of having more positive emotions and less negative emotions. He
described subjective well-being as consisting of three components, satisfaction with
life that refers to global assessment of an individual from her or his life, positive
affect and a low level of negative affect; negative emotions draw our attention to the
threat and make us ready to flee or to fight (such as when a person confronts with a
scary scene). Positive affect results from repeated experiences of satisfying emotions
while low level of negative affect results from a relative deficit of unpleasant
emotional experiences.
The emphasis on both positive and negative aspects also is obvious in
Karademas’s (2007) definition of well-being. Regarding positive psychological well-
being, Karademas emphasized affective and cognitive reactions to the
27
comprehension of sufficient personal feature and attainment, competent
communication with the world and social integration and positive progress in time.
For example, in school environment, the students’ positive perception of their
abilities to perform schoolwork, career development, good communication with their
classmates, and conformity with them are samples of affective and cognitive
reactions. Karademas also noted that negative psychological well-being comprises
cognitive and affective responses to the perceived deficiency. It would happen when
a person does not have sufficient and appropriate response to environmental stimuli.
For example, when students are unable to visualise clearly their abilities in doing
schoolwork or when they feel uncomfortable to have social relationship with school
classmates and school staff.
In line with the prior definition, Sumner (1996) also defined psychological
well-being as a structure that includes two domains, cognitive well-being (CWB) and
affective well-being (AWB). CWB refers to one’s pleasure with life. For example,
when students evaluate their lives, they would discover if they have a satisfactory life
or not. On the other hand, AWB is a balance of positive emotions such as optimism,
hope, courage and negative emotions like pessimism, anxiety and fear. With a little
difference Ryan and Deci (2001) perceived psychological well-being as a complex
structure that involves optimal experience and operation. They mention to
competence, relatedness and autonomy as three innate psychological needs that if
satisfied promote positive psychological and behavioural outcome among people.
In comparison with previous definitions Ryff (1989) targeted more factors to
define PWB. In her idea psychological well-being signifies that how people assess
themselves and reveals the quality of their lives. She indicated that PWB consists of
six components which define psychological well-being both theoretically and
28
practically. She believed these components will promote effective adaptation of life
events, emotional and physical health. The components are self-acceptance, purpose
in life, personal growth, having positive relationship with others, environmental
mastery, and autonomy.
Some researchers define psychological well-being with respect to features of
it. For example Tiberius and Plakias (2010) addressed psychological well-being as an
empirical phenomenon that is differentiable, measureable and experienced by people
in their lives. They believe the notion of psychological well-being points to
something chosen by us and should be developed for others. They described
psychological well-being as an action-guiding or normal concept that plays a role in
personal evaluation and public strategy. Figure 2.1 shows various definitions of
29
Figure ‎2.1. Definitions of psychological well-being (PWB)
In order to continue with the debated subject, a summary of the history of
psychological well-being is presented in the next section.
2.3 History of Psychological Well-Being
In recent years the pathological approach to study human health has been
criticized. Unlike this standpoint that describes health as not having diseases, the new
approach insists on “wellness” instead of “illness” (Ryff, Singer, & Love, 2004).
From this perspective, lack of symptoms of mental illness is not an indication of
30
health status (Jahoda, 1958). Rather, compatibility, happiness, self-confidence, and
such other positive traits will indicate health and the individual’s main goal in life is
to identify his or her capabilities and to flourish them.
The theories such as Maslow’s self-actualization, fully functioning person
(Rogers, 1961), positive mental health (Jahoda, 1958) maturity (Allport, 1961),
personal development (Erikson, 1959), executive processes of personality
(Neugarten, 1973), basic life tendencies (Buhler & Massarik 1968), aging mental
health (Birren, 1960), and individuation that have rooted from a main theory, namely
Eudaimonia theory, have been accepted as theories that focus on positive feature
rather on negative traits (Ryff & Marshall, 1999).
Following these theories and the positive psychology movement which
emphasizes on the existence of positive traits and growth of personal abilities in
mental health, a group of psychologists have used the term of “psychological well-
being” instead of mental health. This is because they believed that this term creates
more positive aspects in the mind (Ryff & Singer, 1998). Along with these theories,
Ryff’s six-factor model of psychological well-being has been designed to show the
focus on a person’s abilities instead of his weaknesses in order to define
psychological health.
Ryff (1989) introduced PWB as an effort to reach perfection in order to
achieve an individual’s real potential abilities. She claimed that the psychological
well-being is a developmental process that is prevalent throughout one’s lifetime. In
psychological perspective, a person who is in a good psychological state has features
such as self-esteem, extensive social interaction, self-efficacy and a sense of
autonomy. Based on philosophical foundations philosophers like Aristotle and
Russell, Ryff and her colleague identified and classified the criteria for a favourable
31
life or good life. In this regard, they introduced six factors as the components of
psychological well-being including, a. self-acceptance, the ability to notice and to
accept one’s own strengths and weaknesses, b. purpose in life, it means to have aims
and goals that make a person’s life meaningful and directed, c. personal growth the
feeling that a person’s potential capacities and abilities will become real in life, d.
positive relationship with others, it means to have close and valuable relationship
with important people in life, e. environmental mastery, the ability of adjusting and
managing life affairs especially on daily life, and f. autonomy, the ability and power
of following the demands and acting according to personal principles even if it is
against social mores, custom, and requirements (Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
Since Ryff’s model is one of the most important models (based on mentioned
reasons) that can be used for assessing individual’s psychological well-being, this
study will therefore focus on Ryff’s model. Figure 2.2 is designed by Ryff and
Marshall (1999) to show the main components of psychological well-being. This
model sets up based on Edaimonic Theory that is one of the important theories in the
psychological well-being setting. Therefore, in the following section more
explanations are focused on the theories of psychological well-being.
32
Figure ‎2.2. Main components of PWB (Ryff & Marshall, 1999)
2.4 Psychological Well-Being Theories
It is noteworthy that the majority of researches conducted on psychological
well-being have been derived from two general theories, namely Hedonic and
Eudaimonic. In Hedonic Theory, the feeling of happiness and the attitude of keeping
away from pain are emphasized. Psychologists who are oriented to the Hedonic sight
have turned to stress on a large notion of hedonism that consists of the excellence
and enjoyment of the mind and body as well (Kubovy, 1999).
Kahneman (1999) in his explanation of Hedonic well-being, declared that
“Hedonic psychology as the study of what makes experiences and life pleasant and
unpleasant, clearly suggests that, within this paradigm, the terms of well-being and
hedonism are essentially equal” (p. 90). Hence, by explaining the well-being status in
terms of happiness against unhappiness, Hedonic psychology displays, for itself, an
obvious and unequivocal objective of study and mediation, namely maximizing
33
human happiness. According to this theory, psychological well-being is defined as a
connection between the attainment of enjoyment and the avoidance of discomfort.
However, the Eudaimonic Theory pays attention beyond the feeling of
happiness. Indeed, Eudaimonia involves the concept of self-actualisation and
describes PWB according to the degree which an individual is fully functioning
(Waterman, 1993). As Eudaimonic Theory supports the present research, more
account is given on this theory in the next section.
2.4.1 Theory of Eudaimonic Well-Being
By taking historical and philosophical conceptions of well-being into
account, it is worth mentioning that Aristotle recognized psychological well-
being as Eudaimonia (flourishing). From his point of view, Eudaimonia is the
aim of everything and it is a reason to have the best of life as few as possible
for people. He also emphasized virtue as a mean to create happiness and also
attempted to provide an account of the developmental psychology of virtue
(Tiberius & Plakias, 2010). Based on theory of Eudaimonia, it is assumed that
people are born with particular abilities and the essential mission of life is to
know and to understand these capacities and to flourish those (Ryan & Deci,
2001).
In keeping with this vision, Ryff and Singer (1998) stated that PWB is
not only to reach for pleasure, but it is also an attempt to search for perfection
that depicts the understanding of a person’s true potentials for example,
individuals’ perception of their talents, interests, strengths and weaknesses
can be some examples in this setting.
34
In contrast to Hedonic well-being that different kinds of happiness are
not distinguishable, in terms of Eudiamonic well-being, the types of
subjective experiences are different. This means that Eudiamonism is capable
of confirming pleasures which result from self-actualization, or by relating to
other people that would be more precious than physical pleasures, such as
sexual pleasure (Waterman, 1993).
In addition, King and Hicks (2007) affirmed that, “…researches have
shown that individuals engaged in Eudaimonic pursuits enjoy higher levels of
Hedonic well-being” (p. 628). Though, Ryan and Deci (2001) previously
commented that
“Eudaimonia is a valuable term because it refers to well-being as

distinct from happiness per se. Eudaimonic Theory maintains that
not all desires and not all outcomes that a person might value
would yield well-being‎when‎achieved” (p. 144).
To reinforce their view, they remarked that some conclusions are not
good for people and they would not support in the enhancement of their
wellness. However, they will produce enjoyment. For example, although the
use of drugs may make a person to enjoy and be happy, it is still harmful for
the individuals’ wellness. Therefore, in terms of Eudaimonic view, unlike
Hedonic Theory, the psychological well-being and subjective happiness
cannot be corresponded with each other. Advocates of Eudaimonic Theory, in
order to support their claim, have expanded the accounts of psychological
well-being that concentrate on vital human needs and stressed on self-
actualization or evolvement, for instance, multi-dimensional approach (Ryff
35
& Keyes, 1995) is one of such programs. Ryff (1989) designed a
psychological well-being model to highlight the Eudaimonic well-being.
In fact, Ryff visualised Eudaimonia as a six-aspect structure:
Autonomy, personal growth, self-acceptance, having purpose in life,
environmental mastery, and positive relatedness. She applied a
multidimensional approach for the evaluation of individual’s psychological
well-being. From this standpoint, the multi-dimensional program of
psychological well-being, in both theoretical and operational concept, is
defined by these six constructs and they indicated the factors that promote
emotional and physical health. Figure 2.3 shows the different views of
Eudaimonic Theory of well-being concisely.
Figure ‎2.3. Different views of Eudaimonic well-being
36
By relying on what has been mentioned so far, the model of
psychological well-being which is utilized in the present study is introduced
in the following section.
2.5 Psychological Well-Being Model
The present study employs Ryff’s six-factor model that is known as Ryff’s
model. This model is used as an instrument to measure people’s psychological well-
being. The model was introduced by Ryff (1989) and it has been widely studied
across the world. Notably, some great scholars have identified the model as well-fit
for measuring the state of psychological well-being. For instance, Clarke, Marshall,
Ryff, and Wheaton (2001) examined the sample of Canadian (N=4960) by applying
9 different models and concluded that;
“Confirmatory factor analyses with data from a nationally representative

sample of Canadian seniors support the multi-dimensional structure of the
Ryff measure. Each of the six dimensions of PWB was found to be a
distinct factor in its own right. Moreover, the six-factor theory was found
to‎generate‎improvement‎in‎fit‎over‎a‎model‎with‎fewer‎factors”‎(p. 86).
Later, Van Dierendonck (2004) examined two Dutch samples applying six
different models, and concluded that the best fitting model, in both samples, is Ryff’s
six-factor model. Ryff’s model consists of six components or dimensions such as
self-acceptance, purpose in life, personal growth, positive relationship with others,
environmental mastery, and autonomy. In the following sections more explanation
will be focused on psychological well-being components.
2.5.1 Self-Acceptance
This domain refers to one’s ability to identify and to admit his or her
strength and weakness (Ryff, 1989). Keeping positive attitude towards

37
oneself appears as a central characteristic of positive psychological
functioning (Rogers, 1961)
2.5.2 Purpose in Life
Purpose in life is a component that indicates the attitude of having
aims and ideals can create a meaningful and oriented life. In other words, this
dimension comprises beliefs that cause individuals to sense the meaning of
life. The domain also focuses on an obvious understanding of life’s goals, a
feeling of directedness, and intentionality. Hence, a person who operates
optimistically has aims, objectives and a feeling of guidance that all together
contribute to a sensation that suggests life is consequential (Jahoda, 1958;
Allport, 1961; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
2.5.3 Personal Growth
Personal growth is defined as a feeling which suggests that one’s
potential and capability are being completed over time. In other words,
psychological well-being postulates that not only do people maintain previous
characteristics, but they also continue to expand one’s aptitude, to flourish
and develop it (Jahoda, 1958; Allport, 1961; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). It is also
considered in fully function theory; the openness to experience is a basic
characteristic of a fully functioning person. From this point of view, an
individual is successively growing and becoming, rather than obtaining a
stabilized status wherein all obstacles are untangled (Rogers, 1961).
2.5.4 Positive Relationship with Others
This component is about having a close and desirable friendship with
significant people. Furthermore, the establishment of a warm relationship

38
with others underscore the magnitude of trusting interpersonal relations, the
attitude to love, having strong feelings of empathy and fondness for others,
deeper closeness and more complete recognition with others (Rogers, 1961;
Allport, 1961; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).
2.5.5 Environmental Mastery
Environmental mastery is known to be the ability to control and to
administer the requirements of everyday life or the capability of managing
complex conditions to suit personal needs and values. Indeed, the structure
indicates the individual’s potency to select or to create suitable environments
with his or her conditions by changing which a person creates in the
environment (Jahoda, 1958; Ryff, 1989). For example in a family and at
school, students can make use of opportunities of environment tailored to
their needs and personal values.
2.5.6 Autonomy
Autonomy, finally, is the state of being independent and having the
capability of resisting against social pressure for thinking to special manner.
It gives the person a sense of freedom from the pressure of governing
everyday life. In other words, this aspect refers to holding an internal locus of
evaluation whereby one does not look for others to approve of him, but he
evaluates himself by personal standards (Jahoda, 1958; Ryff & Singer, 1998).
The following are some studies on individuals’ psychological status in terms
of age and gender.
39
2.6 Influence of Age and Gender on Individuals’ PWB
In psychological studies, age has always been considered as an effective
factor on individuals’ behaviour. In this setting, some researchers have assembled to
demonstrate enhancements in happiness with age. In fact, studies on positive aspects
have demonstrated a proof of both the decreased and increased aspects with age,
whilst the negative aspects seem to continue steadily (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith,
1999; Mroczek & Kolarz, 1998). Diener et al. (1999) in their study mentioned that
“…overall, the average older age profile of subjective well-being is mostly positive,
a finding that has led many to focus on the adaptation processes that older persons
employ to maintain their levels of happiness and life satisfaction” (p. 297).
The ideas discussed previously are inconsistent with the perspectives
presented by MasoudZadeh et al. (2004) and Sadeghian et al. (2009) who
investigated mental health status at high schools of Sari and Hamadn, Iran, according
to their age. Both studies concluded that mental disorder increases among youth
population as they become older.
On the other hand, association between gender and psychological status of
individuals the different findings have been acquired. For example, Farahbakhsh et
al. (2005) argued that boys are in high level of happiness in comparison with girls
and, on the contrary, Michaeli (2010) acknowledged that girls are much better than
boys in their status of mental health. However, Khairabadi and Yosefi (2002)
opposed that there was no significant difference among individuals’ mental health
according to their gender. Figure 2.4 shows a summary of the views of some studies
regarding age and gender on psychological status of individuals in Iran and in other
countries.
40
Figure ‎2.4. Studies on psychological status of individuals based on age and gender
Considering the fact that family and school are two of the most influential
factors on psychological well-being, the next section will focus on these two
effective variables.
2.7 Psychological Well-Being in Family and School
Generally, psychological well-being probes the conditions and processes that
influence the optimization and growth of human potentials and functions, organizing
interpersonal interactions for putting human beings in a well-being position
(Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005; Seligman, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
In this regard, with reliance on respective investigations, it is asserted that
there are many factors that contribute to the individual’s psychological well-being.
These factors can be environment, religion, culture, perceived competence and self-
efficacy, job, autonomy, marriage, relatives, friendship, sport, wealth, personality
characteristics and many others which suggest that the potentials should be
investigated.
41
To keep with the matter in mind, in this study, family and school have been
probed as two influential factors. They seem to attract much more attention from
researchers. This could be because family is believed to be the core of each
community and the centre of protecting a person’s mental and physical health
(Shariatmadari, 1964). The following researches have emphasized the significant role
and task of family in relation to individuals’ emotions and behaviours.
Sanaee (2001) stated that family has a crucial role in the formation of
experiences of its members. Later, Navabinejad (2008) argued that adolescents who
acquire their childhood experiences in an unfavourable family environment are more
vulnerable and capable of showing behavioural changes and social abnormalities
during their future growth. Subsequently, Shoarinezhad (2013) concluded that at
these ages, teenagers have various needs such as gaining identity, self-acceptance,
and obtaining necessary skills in friendship which can only be fulfilled in a satisfying
and warm family atmosphere. If the family encounters tension, deformation, cold
relationships between family members and failure to afford a teenager’s demands, he
or she may commit maladaptive behaviour which sometime results in social damage
(Ahmadi, 2004; Hosseinian, et al., 2003).
According to Asadi and Ahmadi (2000) during this period, Iranian youths due
to several reasons, such as physical development, gender, identity crisis,
emotionalism, and fear of responsibility or failure in obtaining job, are under great
psychological pressure. Specially, in the final years of high school they experience
more stress due to the entrance exam of university (Hajforoush, 2002).
All of the aforementioned factors will cause them to turn into individuals who
are very vulnerable to psychological trauma. In this regard perhaps students more
than anyone else need social acceptance and support. Since when the conditions and
42
facilities do not properly provide students’ mental and physical health, they will be at
risk and not only does this condition create problems for individuals, but it will also
cause the society to lose a great sum of money and human resource. Jafari (2003)
expressed that if students were to have problems and emotional conflicts, they will
not be compatible with the school environment, teachers, friends, and family.
By considering the importance of family satisfaction and its effects on
shaping family members’ behaviour and emotion, more explanation will be focused
on the concept of family satisfaction in the following paragraphs.
2.8 Concept of Family Satisfaction
With regard to the fact that family is a place where individual’s experiences
and behaviours are formed, thus, the attempt to identify the influence of family
satisfaction on members’ psychological well-being is the second aim of this research.
The definition of family satisfaction, theory of family system, model of family
satisfaction, explanation of its components, and finally reviewing of related studies,
are introduced in this section. The family, like other concepts in humanities science,
has multiple definitions. Scholars from other fields have looked at it from different
perspectives and have presented various definitions. The following definitions are
examples in this setting.
Friedman (1988) stated that family is a living social system which consists of
a small group of people closely related. In this system, people are trying to achieve
certain goals. However, in defining family satisfaction, researchers specifically have
taken a closer look at the relationship between family members, how family
members communicate and how they encounter with each other.
43
For example, Olson and Wilson (1986) in their definition of family
satisfaction, made a remarked on the “degree to which family members feel happy
and gratified with each other” (p. 3).
Consistent with previous definition, Carver and Jones (1992) also stated that
family satisfaction can be explained as the degree to which a member is overall
satisfied with his or her family and the members have a feeling of satisfaction in their
relationships within family, including parent-child and sibling-sibling. In addition to
the degree of satisfaction among family members, Schumm and Bugaighis (1986)
mentioned to the quality of life and satisfaction in relation to parents as two
important indicators in the definition of family satisfaction.
Some researchers define family satisfaction as a supportive and dynamic
system. For example, Henry (1994) defined family satisfaction as the family
members’ assessment on their family context and as an assistance context for moving
ahead through developmental changes. In this setting, the following examples can be
illustrated. Iranian families will assist younger family members to hold weddings and
the planning of a family, preparation of accommodation for them, and the way of
starting businesses for income.
Moreover, in the definition of family satisfaction, some researchers have
paid attention to the ability of family in solving family members’ problems, for
instance, Unger and Wadersman (1988) argued that youths were greatly satisfied
with their families when their family can teach them how to cope or adapt to pressure
of life.
In line with Unger and Wadersman, but with a little more emphasis, Burke
(1989) cited that youths have more satisfaction with their families when their
families are able to provide their daily life needs. With reference to Koos’s, Cavan’s
44
and Ranek’s studies, McCubbin and McCubbin (1991) cited that family satisfaction
is acquired when the family prosperously fulfils the emotional and physical needs of
its members. Table 2.1 displays some brief definitions on family satisfaction.
Table 2.1
Family Satisfaction Definitions
Olson & Wilson (1986) Degree to which family members feel happy and gratified with
each other
Schumm et al. (1986) The quality of life and satisfaction in relation to parents
Wadersman (1988) When the family can teach its members that how to cope or
adapt to pressure of life
Bourke (1989) When the family is able to provide youths’ daily life needs
McCubbin & When the family prosperously fulfils the emotional and physical
McCubbin (1991) needs of family members
Degree to which a member is overall satisfied with his or her
Carver & Jones (1992)
family and members have a feeling of satisfaction in their
relationships within family
Adolescents’ assessment on their family context and as an
Henry (1994)
assistance context for moving ahead through developmental
changes
Since the Family System Theory and Circumplex Model support the theoretic
debate of this study hence, in continuance, the theory of family system and
Circumplex Model are taken into account.
2.9 Family System Theory
Family System Theory refers to the family unit as an organised set and the
interactive patterns in which the families utilise to help organise themselves.
According to this theory, the family system is changing constantly despite the desire
to maintain the balance of this system and each family member acts in a manner to
retain it. It means that each person plays an effective role in the family system which
45
is necessary for the maintenance of balance in that family. This theory emphasises
on: a. totality family system, b. hierarchical organisation of a family and c.
interdependent performance of family members who are deputed to maintain the
balance in the family sub-system (Minuchin, 1974).
Minuchin, Montalvo, Guerney, Rosman, and Schumer (1967) paid attention
to the following five dimensions in describing how family functions:
a. The structure of dominant contracts in family interactions
b. The flexible patterns in which they function
c. The conformity intensity, i.e. the extent of togetherness and
separateness among the family members
d. The external and internal atmosphere for the family system, i.e. the
supporting and restraining forces within their family members and
their environment, such as their neighbours, relatives, learning and
working environment
e. The family development stages, i.e. the level of development in the
family unit, from their marriage to their death
They believed each family member communicates by using the dominant
patterns in their relationship with each other. These patterns establish the family
structure beyond each family member. They also believed that the family structure
influences the flexibility to respond to any controversial condition in a family’s life.
The theory stated that dysfunctional families restrict the boundaries in their
system when they face a stressful situation and prevent new solutions instead of
presenting them. This is in contrast to efficient families in similar situation, they
maintain their cohesion and they are flexible enough to reform their system.
46
Minuchin has also identified five types of dysfunctional family structures
which are enmeshed families, disengaged families, families with their male members
on edge, families with uninvolved parents, and families with young parents.
Minuchin emphasised that inflexibility is a common problem in these families.
According to Minuchin, these families respond to a stressful situation inappropriately
by applying previous approaches in new situations and conditions, whereas efficient
families are more flexible and vary their approaches in their effort to solve their
problems (Minuchin, 1974).
2.10 Circumplex Model
The present study employs Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems
for measuring the range of members’ satisfaction with their families based on Family
System Theory. Olson, Russell, and Sprenkle (1989) disclosed that there are three
main concepts which are vital to systemic family functioning. These concepts are
cohesion, flexibility and communication. Circumplex Model was designed based on
these components. They stated that this model was specifically beneficial as a
relational diagnosis since it is a system which focused and had a combination of
three aspects that had been frequently regarded as highly pertinent in a variety of
family theory, family therapy approaches and family models.
Indeed, the Circumplex Model was developed in an effort to bridge up the
gap that normally exists between researches, theories and practices so as to give an
understandable theoretical structure in clarifying family functioning. One of the
strengths of the Circumplex Model is that it has enhanced its conceptual clarity,
methodological rigor, and empirical base over the years. Change has consequently
been a trait of the model (Olson & Gorall, 2006).
47
In fact, more than 700 researches have been published on the Circumplex
Model using the self-report family assessment (Kouneski, 2000). This has caused it
to be one of the most studied family models, and in addition, the Circumplex Model
had been applied to validate other instruments such as the Family Environment
Scale, the Family Assessment Device, the Family Systems Test and the Kvebaek
Sculpture Technique.
The Circumplex Model concentrates on how the variables of cohesion,
flexibility and communication influence the family and the total family functioning
as well. In due course, it is the blend of these variables that pilots healthy and
satisfied family life (Olson & Gorall, 2006). Figure 2.5 presented by Olson , Russell,
and Sprenkle (1989) shows the various levels of family cohesion and family
flexibility.
Family Satisfaction Scale (FSS) and Parent Adolescent Scale (PAC) were
considered as two instruments that used for measuring family satisfaction and family
communication based on the Circumplex Model. According to the model, Olson and
Wilson (1986) described that family satisfaction is the extent to which family
members experience happiness and have a sense of gratification with each other.
Earlier, Olson and Barnes (1982) explained that family communication is the sharing
of information, ideas, thoughts and feelings among members of a family unit. In
order to understand this current study, FSS and PAC measurement instruments, it is
necessary to review cohesion, flexibility and communication variables.
48
Figure ‎2.5. Circumplex Model of Marital and Family Systems (Olson et al., 1989)
2.10.1 Cohesion
Olson et al. (1989) defined family cohesion “as the emotional bonding
that family members have towards one another” (p. 7). He also mentioned
about some specific aspects of distinguishing and measuring cohesion among
family members such as coalitions, friends, emotional bonding, time,
interests, decision-making, space and recreation. Some scholars have
expressed a parallel definition of cohesion to Olson’s definition (e.g., Beavers
& Hampson, 1990; Kantor & Lehr, 1975).
Olson and Wilson (1986) emphasized on cohesion and how systems
balance their togetherness against separateness. This focus can later be seen
in other researches, for example, Vandeleur, Jeanpretre, Perrez, and schoebi
(2009) mentioned cohesion as the most important component of family
49
satisfaction that results in satisfaction with family bonds. They argued that
cohesion is necessary for closeness in family relations in which family
members are generally satisfied. Green and Werner (1996) expressed the
concept of high level cohesion which includes time together, warmth and
consistency.
2.10.2 Flexibility
Flexibility is another important element in family satisfaction that
includes the amount of variability in roles, styles, discipline rules and
leadership which family members might have towards each other (Olson et
al., 1989). According to Olson and his colleagues, some significant aspects of
this component consist of debate between family members, role relationships,
control, leadership, relationship rules and styles. Indeed, the emphasis of
flexibility is on how systems balance stability against variability (Beavers &
Hampson, 1990; Kantor & Lehr, 1975).
Gorall (2002) described the effects of different levels of cohesion and
flexibility. He stated that low and high levels of each variable are considered
as problematic and moderate levels are optimal. Olson et al. (1989) further
commented that families which are highly enmeshed or disengaged do not
perform well as those with a considerable amount of cohesion. In other
words, families that are chaotic or rigid are less functional whereas those with
moderate levels of both cohesion and flexibility are assumed to function most
effectively. They stressed that a basic point of the Circumplex Model is the
family’s ability to form a balance between cohesion and flexibility.
50
Olson’s conceptualization of the middle range or balancing of
function is a pioneering work on family systems unlike most of the earlier
models that paid attention to the extremes. Based on this model healthy
families are understood to have equal levels of cohesion and flexibility. To be
precise, the Circumplex Model makes use of a curvilinear conceptualization
to depict varying ranges of cohesion and adaptability.
2.10.3 Communication
The third element in the Circumplex Model is communication.
According to Olson and Gorall (2006), communication is defined as the
proceeding of exchanging information, ideas, opinions and feelings among
family members. The element was mentioned as a facilitating dimension.
Communication is considered critical for facilitating movement on the other
two dimensions but not included graphically in the model along with
cohesion and flexibility because it is a facilitating dimension (Olson&
Barnes, 1982). Thus, communication process is obviously implicated in
social skills and competence, in parent-child relationships, and in social
support (Burleson, Delia, & Applegate, 1995).
This dimension is measured by focusing on some skills in
communication among family members as a group which include speaking
skills, listening skills, clarity, continuity tracking, self-disclosure, respect and
concern. Speaking skills are focused on personal expression and not speaking
for others whilst listening skills emphasizes on sympathetic and observant
listening.
51
Tracking is staying on the topic. Self-disclosure refers to sharing self-
feelings with other family members in a friendly relationship. Lastly, respect
and concern from Olson’s and his colleague point of view is the skills related
to affective aspects like communication and problem solving skills. They
claimed that balanced families are oriented to have good communication
together while unbalanced families are oriented to have poor communication
(Olson & Barnes, 1982). Table 2.2 shows a summary of different opinions
about family satisfaction components.
Table 2.2
Different Opinions about Components of Family Satisfaction
Family satisfaction components
Communication
Cohesion
The proceeding of
The emotional bonding that
exchanging information,
family members have towards Flexibility
ideas, opinions and feelings
one another
among family members
(Olson et al.,
(Olson et al.,
1989)
1989)
Burelso et al.
Olson et al.
(1995)
Green & Werner (1989)
Communication is
(1996) Variability in roles, styles,
implicated in social skills
Cohesion include time discipline rules and leadership
and competence, in parent-
together, warmth and which family members might have
child relationships, and in
consistency towards each other
social support
Gorall
Vandeleur et al.
(2002)
(2009) Beavers & Hampason
Low and high levels of
Cohesion is necessary for (1990), Kantor & Lehr (1975)
each components are
closeness in family relations How systems balance stability
considered as problematic
which family members are against variations
and moderate levels are
generally satisfied
optimal
52
The following are some studies on family relationships and
individual’s psychological status.
2.11 Family and Psychological Well-Being
According to Ainsworth (1989), experiences that a person attains in the
family are one of the most important origins of both wellness and distress. He also
said that for the advancement of interpersonal skills and emotional correlation, the
collective experiences of relationship between family members are very vital.
Earlier, this emphasis was seen in Bowlby’s (1977) attachment theory,
“An account is given of attachment theory as a way of conceptualizing the

aptitude of human beings to make strong emotional bonds to particular
others and of explaining the many forms of emotional distress and
personality disturbance, including anxiety, anger, depression and
emotional detachment, to which unwilling separation and loss give rise”
(p. 201).
Since according to the attachment theory, family relationships is an important
factor on the emotional development of family members, and also of familial
experiences for family members’ psychological well-being and social adjustment;
thus, it is essential to perceive how family functions design emotional experiences of
its members inside and outside the family context.
In this regard, a set of items together affect family members’ psychological
well-being and distinguishing of them are difficult. However, this research has
provided some examples to illustrate some images of effective factors of life
satisfaction as a whole, and is then specially focused on family satisfaction in
following paragraphs. Figure 2.6 shows the contribution of some factors to
psychological well-being of family members.
53
Figure ‎2.6. Contribution of some important factors on PWB
Scholars consider the quality of life as the main factor of psychological well-
being. The quality of life refers to social, physical, and psychological aspects of
human well-being and aspects of the person’s living standard and environment as
well (Harding, 2001). In fact, the quality of life is mostly used to exhibit a general
assessment of the life conditions which has been experienced by certain individuals,
such as members of a family (Dew & Huebner, 1994).
Suldo and Huebner (2006) perceived that the quality of life and life
satisfaction are interchangeable words. Particularly, life satisfaction is considered as
“a global assessment of a person’s quality of life according to his chosen criteria”
(Shin & Johnson, 1978, p. 478). Life satisfaction is believed to depend on certain
factors. Keshavarz, Mehrabi, and Soltanizadeh (2009), for instance, explored the
relationship among mental disorder (somatic symptoms, anxiety, insomnia, and
depression), religious attitude and life satisfaction in Iran. The research was
54
conducted in Isfahan city (n=120) and the results showed that life satisfaction was
correlated:
a. negatively with somatic symptoms
b. positively with a belief in principles of religion
c. performing religious rituals and reverence
Life satisfaction in turn has been strongly related to marital satisfaction and
job satisfaction. The significance of marital relationship satisfaction was summarized
by Myers and Diener (1995). Previously Glenn (1991) studied marital success based
on both aspects of stability and quality in USA from 1960 to 1980, and reported that
marital happiness has declined.
According to the estimates of Glenns’ study, the probability of ever-married
persons attaining and maintaining marital success in either the first or a subsequent
marriage, dropped to a significant degree in the past few years. Myers and Diener
(1995) with attention to Glenn’s report stated that “broken marital relationships are
sources of much self-reported unhappiness whereas a supportive and intimate
relationship is among life’s greatest joys” (p. 15). Similarly, the research conducted
by Khojastehmehr, Abaspour, and Rajabi (2009) in Theran, Iran, also showed that
couples who are more willing to forgive in marital relation are more satisfied with
life than those who are less willing to forgive.
In line with this, Noller, Feeney, and Ward (1997) remarked that marital
quality is related to aspects of interaction between couple such as adjustment,
intimacy communication, respect and attraction. Patrick, Sells, Giordano, and
Tollerud (2007) showed that intimacy and spousal are strong variables in predicting
marital satisfaction. They further disclosed that the years of marriage, age, children,
55
division of labour, prior cohabitation and income were insignificant predictors of
satisfaction.
In fact, marital intimacy and relationship beliefs are two effective proctor in
marital satisfaction (Shahrestani, Doostkam, Rahbardar, & Mashadi, 2012). As
mentioned before, Job satisfaction is also linked to life satisfaction. In defence to this
claim, Alipour and Shaibani (2011) interviewed teachers in primary, secondary and
high schools in Khorasan (a state in east of Iran) in order to understand the
relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. They found that happiness
and job satisfaction have strong correlation with life satisfaction.
It was also noticed by Karimi, Jomehri, Asadzade, and Sohrabi (2012) that
the relationship between work/family conflict and satisfaction include job
satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction. The samples comprised 166
Iranian married female teachers in Kordestan, Iran. Results indicated:
a. significant negative relationship between work-family conflict with job
satisfaction and family satisfaction
b. significant negative relationship between family-work conflict with job
satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction
They concluded that Job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction
are presumed to be influenced by work-family conflict and family-work conflict.
Therefore, by decreasing the conflict between work and family, it is possible to
improve job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction among female
teachers.
Furthermore, some recent findings have linked life satisfaction to family
satisfaction as another significant outcome of psychological functioning. They
mention the effect of parenting style and family function as essential items for family
56
satisfaction. For example, Hosseininasab et al. (2008) considered parenting style as
an effective family health factor. They investigated the relationship between
parenting styles: warm parents but authoritative, cool parents but authoritarian, warm
parents but permissive, cool parents but uninvolved, with self-efficacy and mental
health on high school students in Mahabad, Iran (n=360). Their study disclosed
(p<0.01) that the mental health of students who had experienced different parenting
styles are affected differently.
It means children with authoritative and permissive parents are in a better
status of mental health than children with inattentive and dictatorial parents. The
results also found a positive relationship between mental health and self-efficacy
besides an absence of meaningful difference of mental health between male and
female students.
With reference to the previous study, Kar (2008) emphasized on correlation
between parenting style and adolescents’ mental health. To support her declaration,
she referred to three general parenting styles which are autocratic, democratic, and
permissive. The research was administered among high school students in
Eslamshahr, Iran, and results have proven that as the level of parents’ democracy
and their use of democratic parenting style increases, the physical symptoms,
anxiety, insomnia, impaired social functioning and depression in children will
decrease, and at these bases their children will show more normal behaviours. On the
other hand, authoritarian or permissive parents most probably will make their
children suffer from mental disorder and in turn will display more abnormalities.
With regard to family structure, Rajabi, Chahardoli, and Atari (2008)
examined the correlation between family functioning and psychosocial atmosphere
of the classroom with incompatibility among high school students in Malayer, Iran
57
(n=302). The findings (p< 0.01) indicated that the students’ incompatibility and the
failed and impaired of emotional, social and educational relationship are somewhat
affected by insufficient or defective family performance.
Another study conducted by Karami, Sharifi, and Bashlideh (2009) in the
same field of family function among 340 high school students in Kermanshah proved
that there is a meaningful relevance between family function and psychological
hardiness. In fact, the results emphasized the importance of positive reactions
between parents and their children and avoidance of negative reactions. They
mentioned that democratic family will provide the setting of growth of psychological
hardiness among family members.
Saghi and Rajaei (2008) conducted a research on groups of 16 to 19 year-old
high school students in Ahvaz. The results revealed that there is a positive relation
between adolescents’ perception of family functioning and their adjustments. A
number of scholars have tried to identify the factors with healing effects that cause
individual’s psychological status to improve. Religious beliefs and sport activities are
distinguished as some of the examples of such factors. According to Sadri and Jafari
(2010) who hold strong religious beliefs benefit from a higher mental health than
those who do not.
Rezapour, Fathi, sardari, and Shiralipoor (2010) also reported a similar
conclusion based on their observations of religiousness and its effects on life
satisfaction. As mentioned earlier, sport activities are also perceived as a positive
factor in ensuring individuals’ psychological health. Based on a study conducted by
Mortazavi et al. (2012), it was discovered that elderly people who exercised regularly
demonstrated less vulnerability to anxiety and depression compared to those who did
not. Hemayatalab et al. (2003) also compared two groups of female students in
58
Tehran University (athletic and non-athletic) and revealed that satisfaction, self-
esteem and self-efficacy are of a higher status among female athletes.
In previous studies, researchers attempted to show the importance of family
function and style on their members’ psychological health that are indirectly closed
with this research although they did not pay attention to the status of family
satisfaction especially within context of family cohesion, family flexibility and
family communication. Therefore, in the following paragraphs, these variables will
be focused on. Table 2.3 briefly shows some studies that have been administered on
effective PWB factors.
59
Table 2.3
Some Effective Factors on PWB
Author Variable under Research Results

Shin & Johnson Life satisfaction It is considered as a global assessment of a person’s quality
(1978) of life according to his chosen criteria
It is mostly used to exhibit a general assessment of the life
Dew & Huebner
Quality of life conditions which has been experienced by a certain
(1994)
individual
Myers & Diener Marital satisfaction Broken marital relationships are a source of much self-
(1995) reported unhappiness whereas a supportive, intimate
relationship is among life’s greatest joys
Noller, Feeney Marital quality Marital quality is related to aspects of interaction between
& Ward (1997) couple such as adjustment, intimacy, communication, respect
and attraction
Patrick et al. Marital satisfaction Intimacy and spousal are strong variables in predicting
(2007) marital satisfaction whereas, the years of marriage, age,
children, division of labour, prior cohabitation and income
were insignificant predictors of satisfaction
Hosseininasab Parenting style, self-efficacy & The mental health of students who had experienced different
et al. (2008) psychological well-being parenting styles are affected differently
Kar (2008) Parenting style and mental health As the level of parents’ democracy and their use of
democratic parenting style increases, the physical symptoms,
anxiety, sleep disorder, impaired social functioning and
depression in children will decrease. Conversely,
authoritarian or permissive parents will make their children
suffer from mental disorder
Rajabi et al. Family functioning, psychosocial Insufficient families influence students’ compatibility,
(2008) atmosphere of the classroom, emotional, social, and educational relationship
and incompatibility
Saghi & Rajabi Perception and adjustment There is a positive relation between adolescents’ perception
(2008) of family functioning and their adjustment
Keshavarz et al. Mental health, religious attitude Mental health has correlation, a) negatively with somatic
(2009) and life satisfaction symptoms, b) positively with a belief in principles of
religion, c) performing religious rituals and reverence
Karami et al. Family function and Democratic family will provide the setting of growth of
(2009) psychological hardiness psychological hardiness among family members
Khojastehmehr Marital relationship and life Couples who are more willing to forgive in marital
et al. (2009) satisfaction relationship are more satisfied with life than those who are
less willing to forgive
Sadri & Jafari Religious beliefs and mental People who hold strong religious beliefs benefit from a
(2010) health higher mental health than those who do not
Rezapour et al. Religiousness and life Religiousness has effects on life satisfaction
(2010) satisfaction
Alipour & Happiness and job satisfaction have strong correlation with
Job satisfaction
Shaibani (2011) life satisfaction
By decreasing the conflict between work and family, it is
Karimi et al. Work/family conflict and life
possible to improve the job satisfaction, family satisfaction,
(2012) satisfaction
and life satisfaction
Marital satisfaction, marital Marital intimacy and relationship beliefs are two effective
Sharestani et al.
intimacy and relationship beliefs proctors in marital satisfaction
(2012)
Elderly people who exercised regularly demonstrated less

Mortazavi et al.
Exercise, anxiety and depression vulnerability to anxiety and depression compared to those
(2012)
who did not
60
In the following section some conducted studies on family satisfaction components
are reviewed.
2.12 Studies on Family Satisfaction Components
Some characteristics of family structure are considered as the main and strong
traits that have been considered as the predictors of individuals’ mental status. In
other words, the quality of emotional bond between family members is perceived as
one of the significant characteristics that influences the situational and generalized
satisfaction of family members, especially their adaptation to social situations. The
following are examples of studies observed from significant aspects related to the
concepts of familial cohesion, flexibility, and communication.
Samani and Razavieh (2006) investigated the importance of relationship
between family cohesion and emotional autonomy on psychological problems such
as depression, anxiety and stress among high school students (n=1592) in Shiraz,
Iran. They found that families with high level of cohesion have low level of
psychological problems and on the contrary, families with low level of cohesion have
high level of psychological problems. Their finding also revealed that as students feel
being more different from their parents, they would become less satisfied with
themselves.
They mentioned that the worst condition happens when students’ sensation
towards family cohesion gets less and their emotional autonomy gets high. Although
in keeping with the present study Samani and his colleague paid attention to family
cohesion but emphasized on psychological problem rather than on psychological
well-being. The importance of family relationship is shown in a study which was
conducted by Khojastehmehr et al. (2009).
61
Their study was based on cohesion, conformity, communication and marital
satisfaction of two groups (n=270) of merciful and unmerciful couples (merciful
couples who tend to forgive each other when they do some things wrong and
conversely unmerciful couples who do not tend to forgive each other) in Ahvaz, Iran.
The results (p<0.01) showed that the different level of cohesion, conformity,
communication, and marital satisfaction is highly significant in first group. Although,
Khojastehmehr and colleagues considered cohesion and communication but their
study did not include students. However, this study is more interested to examine
family cohesion through student evaluation. They also focused on marital satisfaction
but not on the psychological well-being.
Zareh and Samani (2008) studied the role of family flexibility and cohesion
in goal orientation of students at high schools in Shiraz, Iran (n=449) and reported
that family flexibility and cohesion were positive and significant predictors for goal
orientation among students. It means that students will try to extend their
understanding and improve their capability. Although Zareh and her colleague
looked at the flexibility and cohesion in family relationship, but not in relation to
psychological well-being whilst the present study, anticipates displaying the role of
family flexibility and cohesion on students’ psychological well-being.
Simultaneously, another research in Isfahan, Iran (n=160 male and female)
studied the significance of flexibility and happiness among families. The finding
(p<0.01) showed that as an individual is more flexible, he or she experiences more
happiness. Results also disclosed that there is no significant difference on happiness
between male, female, single, and married individuals (Keshavarz et al., 2008).
Though Keshavarsz and his colleagues also mentioned the effect of flexibility on
individual’s emotional status, but did not incorporate two other components and they
62
did not pay attention to psychological well-being specifically. They also chose their
sample from among adults and not teenagers.
In order to support the communication concept among family members,
Asoodeh et al. (2011) conducted a study in Tehran, the capital of Iran with the
purpose of identifying successful family communication from the viewpoints of
happy couples. For this purpose, 365 couples were selected from the staff of several
industrial companies, and a number of teachers in Tehran. The findings (p<0.01)
revealed that successful couples could solve their own problems, have mutual
understanding in financial managements and costs, spend their leisure time together
with their families, become good friends, and respect each other.
Although Asoodeh and colleagues depicted the importance of communication
in family relationship, like previous study they were not concerned about two other
components in family relationship. Besides, they also focused only on couple and
relationship between them. However, this study focused on students to assess family
satisfaction and its influence on psychological well-being.
Similar studies have been administered in various countries, for instance, a
survey of the relevance between perceptions of family rituals, family cohesion, and
adolescents’ well-being was conducted among families in New Zealand (Crespo,
Kielpikowski, Pryor, & Jose, 2011). Results revealed that there is a longitudinal and
mutual influence between understanding the meaning of family rituals and family
cohesion, and between perceptions of parents or caregivers from family cohesion and
adolescents’ well-being.
In other words, the meaning of family ritual was perceived to be indirectly
connected with adolescents’ well-being through parents’ and adolescents’ family
cohesion. Though the research had paid attention to cohesion in family and its effect
63
on persons’ well-being like several most recent studies, they only evaluated just one
item in family relationship. Furthermore, the study conducted in other country and
focused on adolescents and not on teenagers.
Interestingly, Dreman (2003) examined the relationship between family
structure, as expressed in cohesion and adaptability, as well as the emotional state,
parental anger over children’s behaviour problems in Israel. The result confirmed
that there is a connection between cohesion, adaptability and behaviour problems in
families. The highest level of cohesion and adaptability is related to the fewest
behaviour problems and vice versa. Also for parental anger, an interaction was found
between angry-state and gender. Girls seemed to have more behaviour problems at
higher levels of maternal angry-state, as predicted. In contrast, boys were found to
have few behaviour problems at high levels of maternal anger.
Compan, Moreno, Ruiz, and Pasual (2002) also produced similar results.
They showed that people who experience more cohesion and communication in their
families, have lower need of mental health service. Table 2.4 displays briefly some
researches on family satisfaction components.
64
Table 2.4
Some Studies on Family Satisfaction Components
Cohesion Flexibility Communication

Authors
Compan et al. People who experience more
(2002) cohesion and communication in
their families, have lower need in
mental health service
Dreman The highest level of cohesion and
(2003) adaptability is related to the fewest
behaviour problems and vice versa
Families with high level of cohesion

have low level of psychological
Samani &
problems and families with low level
Razavieh
of cohesion have high level of
(2006)
psychological problems
Family flexibility and
cohesion were a
Zareh & positive and
Samani (2008) significant predictor
of goal orientation
Keshavarz As an individuals is
et al. (2008) more flexible,
experiences more
happiness
Different level of cohesion,

Khojastehmehr conformity, communication, and
et al. (2009) marital satisfaction is highly
significant for merciful couples
Successful couples could solve

their own problems, having
mutual understanding in financial
Asoodeh et al.
managements and costs, spending
(2011)
their leisure time together with
their families, become good
friends, and respecting each other
Family ritual was perceived to be

Crespo et al. indirectly connected with
(2011) adolescents’ PWB through family
cohesion
In previous arguments, the family and its role in individuals’ life has been
highlighted and family influence on psychological well-being is drawn, but, since the
family is not the only factor influencing psychological well-being, in continuance of
this argument, the research will pay attention to school satisfaction as another
65
effective factor. The next section provides a short discussion on the concept of
school satisfaction.
2.13 Concept of School Satisfaction
In subsequent studies, various definitions of school satisfaction have been
elaborated. School satisfaction generalized children’s approach towards specific
subjects in school and later school satisfaction was summarized as a close association
with school by Fend (Hascher, 2008).
Some researchers believe that satisfaction with school depends on type of
students’ experiences at school. For example, Huebner, Valois, Paxton, and Drane
(2005) remarked that school satisfaction is a student’s evaluation of the positivity of
his or her school experiences all together. In this line, with a little difference from
previous definition Peetsma, Wagenaar, and Kat (2001) defined school satisfaction
as the positive social climate in classrooms that culminates in school satisfaction.
However, Gruehn (2000) suggested that school satisfaction is created when negative
emotions towards school are weak.
Some researchers in definition of school satisfaction emphasize specific traits
of school. For example, Ryan and Deci (2000) highlighted the value of independence
and belongingness in their definition of school satisfaction. In other outlooks
McCoach’s (2002) definition of school satisfaction focused on five significant
elements which are attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-
perception, goal-valuation, and motivation. Hascher (2003) defined school
satisfaction as an indicator of a learning environment which allows students to move
a step closer to their academic and social goals and for a qualitatively good school
life.
66
At a later period, Hascher (2008) in a more detailed definition than his
previous one, assumed students’ satisfaction of school as an emotional experience
that is distinguished by the dominance of good feelings and cognitions towards
school, individuals in school and the school context in comparison to unpleasant
feelings and cognitions towards school life. Figure 2.7 shows a summary of the
aforementioned definitions about school satisfaction.
Figure ‎2.7. Definitions of school satisfaction
As regards, Social Cognitive Theory supports the theoretic debate of this
study, hence, the theory is taken in to account in next section.
67
2.14 Social Cognitive Theory
According to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), much of human learning
happens in a social environment. By perceiving people, individuals obtain
information on skills, strategies, beliefs, rules and attitudes. Those who are interested
in understanding classroom, motivation, learning, and achievement have applied this
theory widely (Pajares, 1996; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). SCT include several
basic assumptions about learning and behaviour.
Observational learning: By observing, people can learn what others do and
will not do. This means that people learn by monitoring others’ action and reaction.
In this regard, environment, behaviour, and cognition are the principle elements in
influencing development (Bandura, 1991). Although observational learning is reliant
on the accessibility of models, who or what can attend this role is distinct generally.
For instance, teacher or classmate can typify the notion of modelling live
demonstrations of a behaviour or skill. Based on SCT, due to the effective role of
teachers and school environment as a model of a child’s learning achievement,
therefore, school valuation should not be ignored.
Outcome expectations: Outcome expectations is the response of individuals’
beliefs of consequences that are most likely to follow if specific behaviours are
accomplished (Bandura, 1991). Due to forming the decision that people make about
what actions they should take and which behaviour they should perform,
expectations of the outcome are vital in SCT. For example, if a student imitates
somebody’s gait and others laugh, he or she may decide to continue this behaviour.
68
Perceived self-efficacy: Self-efficacy has appeared as a dominant and
significant concept within SCT as well. Self-efficacy is the mirror of individuals’
beliefs about whether or not they can attain a given level of success at a specific task
(Bandura, 1997). By comparing students with high and low level of self-efficiency,
those who have a greater level will be more confident in their abilities to be
successful than those with lower self-efficacy. Self-efficacy has demonstrated as a
useful tool used to assist in the understanding of students’ incentive and success in
academic contexts (Hejazi et al., 2009). Higher levels of sensed self-efficacy have
merged with greater choice, persistence, and with more enable effective strategies
(Pajares, 1996).
Goal setting: Another essential process within SCT is goal setting (Bandura
& Cervone, 1986; Schunk, 1990). Goals produce cognitive demonstrations of
expected, desired, or favoured outcomes. Hence, goals represent the agency view
within SCT that individuals not only learn but utilize consideration to predict the
future, recognize preferred outcomes, and to create plans of action. Goals are
restrictedly associated with other significant procedures within SCT.
Motivation and self-regulation: The process that individuals use their own
thoughts and actions to attain a goal, are referred to as motivation or self-regulation
of behaviour. Motivated learners classify goals and accept and preserve their own
strategies for achieving the goals. In the absence of motivation, people would not
continue their behaviour until it could be fortified (Bandura, 1991).
McCoach’s Model which this study utilizes for examining school satisfaction
is one of important models that has originated from SCT. Therefore, in the following
section more explanations are focused on introducing of this model.
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2.15 McCoach’s Model (2003)
This study utilized McCoach’s model to examine school satisfaction. This
model is set up based on SCT and is one of the most recently developed multi-
dimensional model related to school. Its formulation was started by McCoach (2002)
and then subsequently revised by McCoach and Siegle (2003). Five main aspects of
the model include attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-
perception, goal valuation, and motivation are mainly focussed. A summary of each
is highlighted below.
2.15.1 Attitude towards School
Attitude towards school is a vital factor in McCoach’s model.
McCoach and Siegle (2003) considered it as the students’ concern towards
school, feelings of belonging to and being proud of their school. In agreement
with McCoach, Fraillon (2004) mentioned that school communities have
often been defined in terms of belonging, participation and influence, values
and commonality. This allows membership of a school community to be
defined objectively by an individual’s functional relationship to a school. The
stress on significance of students’ attitude towards school is also seen in the
self-determination model. According to this model, belongingness, or the
feeling of being supported and accepted by others, is critical to adolescents’
success in school (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Jimerson, Campos, and Greif (2003) stressed that the importance of
feelings of being supported, emotionally connected, and being included in the
school environment are often considered as school attachment or school
bonding. These have been shown to influence students’ psychological and
behavioural adjustment.
70
Strong indications of belongingness to school and lower aggression as
well as higher motivation for success in academic affairs was also among the
aspects found in some studies. School attachment is also positively linked to
satisfaction of the training and self-esteem (Nourbakhsh & Hasanpour, 2004).
Weiner (1992) declared that his findings showed that the positive
attitude of students towards school makes them interested in learning. On the
contrary, many researchers such as Mandel and Marcus (1988) and McCall,
Evahn, and Kratzer (1992) believed that underachievers appear to display
negative attitude towards school. With this theme, some researchers have
directly looked at the attitude towards school as a significant factor in
promoting psychological health. For example, according to Maslow’s (1968)
theory, humans are inherent in the desire for connections and bonding.
Therefore, positive attitude and feelings towards school are helpful for
students’ well-being and learning and school is one of the major social
institutions that provide a sense of belongingness for individuals.
2.15.2 Attitude towards Teacher
Attitude towards teacher is another main factor in McCoach’s model.
It is defined as understanding teachers as being supportive and effective.
Besides, many researchers emphasized on the climate of class and stated that
supportive teacher-student relationships have been linked to students’
motivation, engagement and interest in school, pro social behaviour and
academic achievements. For example, the model of Ryan and Deci (2000)
focused on students’ interest in their teachers and the influence of motivation.
71
Baker, Grant, and Morlock (2008) considered that a warm and trustful
relationship with teacher contribute to positive school outcomes for at-risk
students. In this regard, Fwu and Wang (2002) pointed out the significance of
the critical role that teachers play on students’ learning in class. Hughes, Luo,
Kwok, and Loyd (2006) recommended that the strong relationship bond
between teachers and students will intensify classroom engagement and affect
students’ peer acceptance as well.
2.15.3 Academic Self–Perception
Generally, self-perception is described as an optimism attitude
towards the self by acknowledging and accepting multiple aspects of self,
including unpleasant personal aspects. In addition, self-perception includes
positive feeling of one’s past life experiences (Keyes, 1998). In fact,
academic self-perception is associated with the evaluation of one’s perceived
academic capability (Byrne, 1996).
Academic self-perception comprises global beliefs of self-worth
related to one’s perceived academic competence (McCoach & Siegle, 2003).
In other words, it mentioned about the degree to which a person believes that
he or she can arrange, perform and adapt strategies to obtain the desired
outcomes. It is also true to declare which academic self-perception refers to a
student’s internalized sense of self and result aptitude to function in their
school (Fraillon, 2004). Many researchers stressed on academic self-
perception and cited academic self-perception as a significant predictor of
academic achievement (Mohsenpour et al., 2007; Hejazi et al., 2009;
Zahrevand, 2010).
72
Previous researches also have shown the significance of the effect of
academic self-perception on students’ mental health, self-esteem and self-
efficacy (Nourbakhsh & Hasanpour, 2004; Karimzadeh & Mohseni, 2005;
Aminizorar, 2007). Conversely, underachievers frequently display low self-
concept and low self-perceptions (Diaz, 1998; Ford, 1996). Students’
perceptions of their skills will influence the types of activities that they select,
to what extent they challenge themselves in those activities, and the
persistence they exhibit once they are involved in the activities (Ames, 1990;
Schunk, 1981).
In the designing of a model of assessing students’ well-being, Fraillon
(2004) pointed out that the consideration of student’s appraisal of their social
status as well as the consequent ability to function in their school community
are vital parameters. Students with higher levels of academic self-perception
will show positive attitudes towards their peers, teachers and other members
of the school community. They will also show evidences of trusting others
and their warm feelings towards other members of the school community in
most contexts by demonstrating a dispositional favourable attitude towards
individuals and collective members of the school community.
2.15.4 Goal Valuation
Goal valuation is another valuable constituent in McCoach’s model. It
mentions the importance of goal thinking (McCoach & Siegle, 2003). From
Manoochehri’s (2004) point of view, goal valuation is defined as the
importance of one’s attempts to keep his or her goals in his educational
measures.
73
Bouchey and Harter (2005) stated that goal valuation is the tendency
to set goals and to adjust behaviour by striving and preserving these goals.
Khademi and Noshad (2006), Nikmaram and Sarmad (2007) also identified
goal orientation as a crucial predictor of academic achievement.
In this setting, Wigfield (1994) remarked that children’s goals and
achievement values influence their self-regulation and motivation because
according to Hidi and Harackiewicz (2000), the goals will affect how
children approach, engage in, and respond to achievement tasks. Goals play a
significant role in people’s happiness and influence students’ mental health
status (Jokar, 2007). Future goals play an important role in providing task
value as they will encourage students to progress in learning by using
strategies and being confident of themselves. Students are more likely to be
involved in their tasks, making more attempts on and doing better when they
value the task (Wigfield, 1994).
2.15.5 Motivation
According to McCoach and Siegle (2003), motivation requires
students’ self-generated ideas, senses and measures that are systematically
intended towards the approach of purposes. Motivation can also be expressed
as the longing to finish a task to the best of one’s ability. Jennings and Dietz
(2003) regarded motivation as an extension of completing a responsibility.
The latest advancement in the field of motivation research advocates that self-
regulation may be the answer to understanding student achievement
(McCoach, 2002).
74
Motivation is an important indicator of academic achievement and
application of inner self-regulatory approaches help students to be
accomplished in their respective schools (Rezakhani, 2007; Yousefi et al.,
2009). Figure 2.8 is about different notions of school satisfaction
components.
School
satisfaction
elements
Figure ‎2.8. Explanation of school satisfaction components
Due to the importance of schools to students’ psychological health, the next
section focuses on the contribution of school towards students’ psychological well-
being.
75
2.16 School and Psychological Well-Being
Various views of psychology and sociology of this century have stressed that
a single factor alone cannot ascertain human well-being and that a coalition of factors
play a part in influencing it. A number of researchers are keen on determining the
influence of each factor on individuals. Studies revealed that besides the family,
schools also play the main role in formation a person’s emotion and behaviour. In
other words, the school is an important location that contributes a significant effect
on students’ happiness and growth (Roeser et al., 2000).
School going students are most likely to have a lot of exchanges between
their teachers and classmates rather than with their parents or guardians because they
spend a lot of their time in school every day. Verkuyten and Thijs (2002) believed
that school is an important element of a students’ life. Concerning this importance
many researchers have attempted to examine correlation between schools and
individuals’ behaviour. Consequently, school satisfaction is considered as an integral
part of a student’s learning ability and worth of life and this is the main indicator of
his or her welfare in any educational institution (Gilman, 2001).
According to Engels (2004), students’ well-being cannot be considered as a
separate unit in isolation from a broader school context. Similarly, Fraillon (2004)
also acknowledged school as significant factor that influences greatly the students’
well-being communities. According to Fraillon’s opinion, educational institutions
offer the defining context that has the ability to considerably affect the students’
happiness.
Based on Huebner, Drane, and Valois (2000), most students have shown
positive satisfaction levels with the domains of family, friends, self, school and living
environment. However, across these five domains (family, friends, self, school, and
76
living environment), there are some variations in satisfaction evaluation with
youngsters reporting the most annoying experience with their schools. According to
the data collected from 5545 students of Public high schools in South Carolina, USA,
Hubner and colleagues (2000) disclosed that nearly 25% of the students were
unhappy with their school experiences and 9% portrayed their school experiences in
a dreadful manner.
An analogous study was conducted by Huebner et al. (2005) involving 2278
public middle school students in South Carolina, USA and the findings were similar
to those of the past study on adults and high school students. It was discovered that
children who are displeased with their school experiences tend to exhibit pervasive
adaptive difficulties, similar to those demonstrated by persons who accounted for
lower life satisfaction levels. A longitudinal study administered by Ladd, Buhs, and
Seid (2000) verified that nursery school students’ dissatisfaction came before school
disengagement behaviours, which in turn diminished their school achievement. In
other words, early levels of school satisfaction seem to influence later school
behaviours and achievement levels rather than the contrary.
School satisfaction could be a significant appraisal of children’s quality of
life and school functioning due to the increased rate of dissatisfaction among
students and the correlation between lower levels of school satisfaction and
maladaptive functioning, thus, it should not be neglected (Verkuyten & Thijs, 2002).
That is why many scholars, in their explanations of school life, have tried to mention
the importance of school satisfaction. In light of the expressed overview, a summary
of researches on school satisfaction components is presented in the next section.
77
2.17 Studies on School Satisfaction Components
There has been a remarkable rise in researchers and policy makers’ interest in
school students’ psychological well-being or related issues in recent years. They
were interested to identify factors that can contribute to a better sense of awareness
and well-being during a child’s learning period.
These factors will help to increase a number of policy initiatives made by the
government in recognizing the ways by which schools can promote students’
psychological well-being and build a satisfactory atmosphere in school.
School appraisal has also been demonstrated to play a significant role in
comprehending school function as well as children and adolescents’ quality of life.
Further, inspections in this field have shown that unpleasant experiences at school
influence students’ psychosocial adaptation, thereby resulting in a variety of
consequences such as academic failure, low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression
which eventually leads to school dissatisfaction and dropout.
According to some conducted studies in Iran 77% of the reasons of dropout
were associated with school and 33% with family. The more important reasons of
dropout from the students’ standpoint are economic conditions of family, illiteracy of
parents, behaviour of teachers, lack of interest of school, textbook content, methods
of conducting examinations, lack of motivation, and educational backwardness
(Akrami, 2014).
It is therefore pertinent to show how children rate their school and factors
which are related to the level of school satisfaction. In this regard, various studies
have been conducted to examine effective factors in school life. For instance, the
following are samples of research work on the effective factors which promote
school function.
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During an extensive research carried out in China by Chen and Rubin (1997)
on the relationship between students’ achievements in educational settings, some
indicators of social adjustment were examined. Samples of children in Shanghai
were chosen. The participants were students aged between 10 to 12 years who were
involved in a 2-year longitudinal project. Information was collected from multiple
sources regarding their academic achievements and other variables including social
competency, aggression, social inhibition, leadership, and peer acceptance. It was
found that academic achievement predicted children’s social competence and peer
acceptance. In turn, it was discovered that children’s social functioning and
adjustment, including social competence, aggression-disruption, leadership, and peer
acceptance uniquely contributed to academic achievement.
In Iran, Hosseininasab and Vejdanparast (2002) focused on the emotional
aspect and in particular investigated the relevance of self-esteem and academic
achievements in a study conducted at the University of Tabriz (n=497). Their data
(p<0.05) revealed that there is a real and valid correlation between self-esteem and
academic achievements among students. This means that as a person has more self-
esteem, he or she is more successful in academic affairs. They also remarked that no
significant differences were found between genders based on their score on self-
esteem. A significant difference was observed in their academic achievement score,
which is girls’ achievements were more than boys.
From another study conducted by Hosseini et al. (2007) at the University of
Tehran, Iran (n=88), similar findings were obtained. They noticed that people who
have had greater self-esteem (p<0.05) were in a more favourable educational status
than individuals who were at low level of self-esteem.
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Therefore, in order to promote desirable educational status, there must be an
improvement of self-esteem while another study conducted by Asgari, Ahadi,
Mazaheri, Enayati, and Heidari (2007) showed a little difference than the results of
previous researches. This study was involved university students in Ahvaz. By
analysing the data, they noticed that there was nothing meaningful correlation
between academic function and mental health as well as welfare and self-
actualization.
On the contrary, some studies investigated the dissatisfaction of school and
negative emotions and influences on academic achievement. For instance, Yavarian,
Sohrabi, and Yavarian (2010) probed high school students (n=260) in Uromiyeh of
Iran, and revealed that there were meaningful differences between school
dissatisfaction, aggression and academic failure of students. Earlier, Razavieh, Seif,
and Taheri (2005) examined high school students in Shiraz, Iran (n=982) and
reported (p<0.01) that those who experienced anxiety in studying mathematics often
ended up getting lower grades and this in turn affect students’ attitude towards
mathematics.
These examples illustrated that researchers had attempted to show how
positive trait such as self-esteem, influences academic achievements, and the
negative traits like aggression and anxiety cause academic failure, however, some
researchers showed that individual’ s mental health status is not affected by academic
function.
Some studies referred to the impact of reciprocal reaction between home and
school or teacher and parents and the influence of it on students’ achievements. In
this regard, Sanders (1998) looked at the effect of teacher, family, and church
support on school-related attitude, behaviours, and academic achievements of
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African American urban teenagers. For this study purpose, 827 students in an urban
school district in south eastern United States were examined. The analyses showed
that those students’ perceptions of teacher and parental academic support and church
involvement indirectly affect students’ achievement through their positive and
significant effect on students’ academic self-concepts and school behaviours.
In contrast, some investigations have shown a strong correlation between
antisocial behaviour and academic failure among students. According to McEvoy
and Welker (2000), the existing educational programs organized to enhance either or
both of these patterns of conduct tend to be limited to at least two fundamental ways.
First, they tend to alter the conditions related to academic achievement as being apart
from those associated with violence or other antisocial behaviours. Second, they
often emphasize intently on improving the selected cognitions or personality traits of
the individual for example changing attitude and beliefs.
Since both antisocial behaviour and academic failure are context specific,
each occurs during a climate in which conditions can be known to rationally predict
problematic behaviour and can be altered to reduce such behaviour. The success of
prevention and intervention programs, therefore, depends on their ability to identify
and modify climates in which academic failure and antisocial behaviour emerge.
Table 2.5 presents a summary of aforementioned researches.
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Table 2.5
Some Researches on School Area
Some Researches on School Area
Author Variables under study Results
Students’ achievement, social

adjustment such as social
Chen et al. Academic achievement predicts children’s social
competence, aggression, social
(1997) competence and peer acceptance
inhibition, leadership, and peer
acceptance
Students’ perceptions of teacher and parental
Teacher, family, church support, academic support and church involvement indirectly
Sanders
school-related attitude, and affect academic achievements through their positive
(1998)
academic achievement and significant effect on students’ academic self-
concepts and school behaviours
McEvoy & Antisocial behaviour & academic The success of prevention and intervention programs,
Welker (2000) failure depends on their ability to identify and modify
climates in which academic failure and antisocial
behaviour emerge
Hoseininasab &
Self-esteem & academic There is a valid correlation between self-esteem and
Vejdanparast
achievement academic achievements
(2002)
Razavieh et al. Lower grades in mathematic effect on students’
Anxiety and mathematics
(2005) attitude toward this subject
Asgari et al. No any meaningful correlation between academic
Academic achievement & mental
(2007) function and mental health as well as welfare and
health
self-actualization
Students with greater self-esteem are in a favourable
Hosieni et al. Self-esteem and educational
educational status than individuals at a low level of
(2007) status
self-esteem
Meaningful differences between school
Yavarian et al. School dissatisfaction, aggression
dissatisfaction, aggression and students’ academic
(2010) and academic status
failure
In addition many scholars formulated other factors as being more important
in school appraisal, such as attitude towards school and teacher, academic self–
perception, goal valuation and motivation. Therefore, in the following paragraphs,
the study will focus on these factors to show their contributions to students’ emotion
and behaviour. For example, in Iran, Seif and Kazemi (2003) supported the
correlation between students’ interest in school and escaping behaviour. They
selected two groups of high-school girl students in Tehran (n=179). One group
included the students who had frequent been absent from classes and the other group
comprised of typical students.

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Through the findings of their research (p<0.05), they discovered that the
phenomenon of escaping from school is predictable through the following factors:
 As students’ motivation decreases, their escaping behaviour increases.
 When the behaviours of school staff contradict with students’ interests
and expectation, students will demonstrate more abnormalities such as
escaping from the school, or being dropouts.
 As students’ attitude towards school become more negative, truancy
rate in school will therefore increase.
 As student is feeling of anxiety in school increases, the escaping
behaviour would also increase too.
In line with the studies on school’s atmosphere, another research has been
conducted on high-school girls in the city of Isfahan, aiming at determining the
relations between schools’ organizational atmosphere and entrepreneurial spirit. The
study suggested that there is a positive correlation between these two factors (Samadi
& Shirzadi Esfahani, 2007).
Klein, Cornell, and Konold (2012) in their examination of student’s
behaviour, focused on teacher’s communication with students. They observed that
students’ behaviour is influenced by the quality of interaction between the teachers
and students which is referred to as ‘school climate’. Klein’s research involved high
school students in Virginia (America) and they found that there is a meaningful
correlation between school atmosphere and students’ attitude toward school as well.
Samdal, Wold, and Bronis (1999) carried out a comparative study among
countries in Europe. They studied on 11, 13 and 15 year-old school students in
Finland, Latvia, Norway and Slovakia.
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Based on the findings they proposed that the most important psychosocial
school setting predictors of students’ perception of their academic achievements are
the feeling of satisfaction with school. Also students feel that their teachers have less
expectation of them. They also have a good relationship with their classmates.
The findings implied that interventions which enhance the students’
satisfaction with school are likely to improve their achievement as well. All three
mentioned researches in keeping with the purpose of this study discussed about
student’s attitude toward school but did not investigate its relation to psychological
well-being rather the subject like academic achievement.
Supplementary studies emphasize on class atmosphere and teacher-student
relationship instead of school atmosphere. For instance, Myers and Fouts (1992)
explained that students’ perceptions of their classroom environment affect their
attitudes towards science. In a related study, 27 high school science classes were
divided into three distinct clusters where most were identifiable by the amount of
involvement, affiliation with students, teacher support, order and organizations, and
innovative teaching strategies.
One of the clusters provided a classroom environment which was notably
different from the other two and the students in that environment had more positive
attitude toward science. The dimensions of classroom environment which make a
difference are those of which teachers may develop and adapt them in order to
enhance the interest for science and possibly their students’ achievement in science.
Similar studies were conducted by Crano and Mellon (1978) to assess the
relationship between teacher and students’ academic achievements. They examined
4,300 British elementary school students in a 4-year longitudinal study. Their
outcome indicated that the important reason in the achievement-expectancy
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relationship was that teachers’ expectations will be able to promote students to
achieve more to an extent that students’ functions will exceed teachers’ attitudes.
Moreover, teachers’ evaluations of children’s social performance will influence their
later achievements to an extent that is attributed to academic expectations.
During an inquiry in Hong Kong, Cheng (1994) observed the relationship
between student affective performance and classroom physical environment, social
atmosphere and management style. Students of primary school classes were
surveyed. The outcome suggested that among the measures of classroom
environment, students’ perception of physical environment and class, teacher’s
competency, personal skills, and persuasive ability were the strongest predictors of
affective function. This result supports the importance of class teacher’s management
style in the classroom environment.
Students’ attitude towards school and teachers seemed to be most sensitive to
variations in classroom environment, and self-concept was the lowest sensitive
among the seven students’ affective measures. Profiles of effective and ineffective
classroom environments were also planned. In effective classrooms, teachers care for
students, interested in teaching, being understandable and encouraging, will create a
good classroom atmosphere with their professional knowledge, personal morality
and personality. Physical environment and psychological environment are both
important as a good classroom environment is highly correlated with students’
affective performance.
Another study which emphasised the importance of teacher-student
relationships was conducted by Salimi (2003) among second-grade high-school girls
in Tehran. He concluded that teachers’ intimate and friendly relationship with
students will improve their students’ discipline spirit.
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In another study conducted by Kaveh, Shojaeizadeh, Shahmohamadi,
Eftehkar Ardebili, and Rahimi (2003) in Khorramabad, Iran, 64 primary school
teachers were divided into two groups; one group as the experimental group who
were trained to be aware of students mental disorder and another one as the control
group without this training. The findings (p<0.05) showed a noticeable potential
trained teachers than the other group at having communication with students who
have behavioural problem.
These teachers also disclosed a potential to provide mental service. The latest
four studies which have been discussed earlier made an attempt to show the effect of
student-teacher correlation on academic achievement. However, they were only
concerned with the objective of examining the relationship between teacher and
student, but the present study intends to determine the contribution of student’s
attitude towards teacher on psychological well-being.
In the following researches, academic self-perception is described as an
important factor to assess educational success. For example, Zahrevand (2010) noted
that students, who are successful in school, foster a positive self-perception that
results in their academic achievement. She examined a large number of third year
high school students in six provinces of Iran (n=5062). The results (p<0.05) revealed
that self-perception is a predictive factor for educational success. She also observed
that girls have lower level of self-perception and satisfaction with their gender in
comparison with boys.
In keeping with Zahravand, another study was conducted by Mohsenpour,
Hejazi, and Kiamanesh (2007) at high schools in Thran. The study showed positive
self-perception in mathematics resulting in progress of this subject. Hejazi, Naghesh,
and Sangari (2009), in a similar research in Iran, measured the intervening impact of
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self-efficacy on academic achievement. 400 high school students (n=200 male and
200 female) were observed in the study and the results indicated that self-efficacy
had a positive direct effect on academic achievement.
Keeping in line with the mentioned studies, another study which was
conducted by Karimzadeh and Mohseni (2005) among high-school girls in Tehran
revealed that there is a positive correlation between self-efficacy and students’
academic achievement.
A similar research in this regard was conducted by Williams and Cole (1968)
who studied American students and endeavoured to show the relation between self-
concept with several dimensions of the individuals’ experience that are supposed to
be fundamentally effective on academic adjustments. It was hypothesized that an
individual’s conception of school would be related to his conception of himself, and
thus it might be construed as an extension of his self-concept. For all phases of the
investigation, 80 6th-grade students were selected as subjects. Significantly, positive
correlations were observed between self-concept measures and the following
variables; conception of school, social status at school, emotional adjustment, mental
ability, reading achievement, and mathematical achievement.
At a later period, Soodmand’s (2004) investigated nursing students in Azad
university of Mashhad, Iran (n=347) and disclosed that there was no significant
difference between self-real and self-ideal. It is noticeable that some researchers
mentioned students’ age characteristics as effective factor on the formation of
positive self-perception. In this regard, they expressed that teenagers are more prone
to proud-seeking and fame-seeking, keen to be appreciated, and tend to exaggerate,
trying to look for friends’ attention, follow social acceptability, and have a desire to
show off. Teens love to imitate a person who is their idol (Ghaemi, 2014). Having
87
these features cause that youth to have the tendency of showing a positive image of
their own capability in order to attract friend’s’ attention and others (Saif, Bashash,
& Latifian, 2004). It was apparent from the previous researches that self-perception
is focused not as an effective aspect on psychological well-being rather as an
important item of academic achievement.
Regarding goal valuation that is discussed in this study as an important
component of school satisfaction, Nikmaram and Sarmad (2007) noticed the function
of goals in academic achievement of secondary school students (n=270) in
Hamaedan, Iran. The conclusion of their investigation showed that positive
orientations to goals will affect academic achievement. They also mentioned that
classmates influence their friends’ orientation.
Having goal is considered as an independent variable that can influence
students’ educational status in a study conducted by Khademi and Noshad (2006)
amongst pre-university students in Shiraz, Iran. Based on their results, goal-oriented
attitude has a consequential relevance to academic achievements and self-adjusting
behaviours amongst students.
At this point, some researchers have stressed on the impotence of motivation
on educational success. For example, Yousefi et al. (2009) inspected the role of
academic motivation in the achievements of medical students (n=422) of Isfahan
University of Medical Sciences. Their outcomes showed that there is a strong
relationship between motivation and educational success. They claimed that students
who are motivated, have better educational status and above average than the others.
Earlier, a group of researchers mentioned that motivation affect students’ mental
health and self-conception (Taheri & Maghami 2008).
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Rezakhani (2007) had mentioned the relevance between internal and external
motivation with academic achievements. Her findings (p<0.05) disclosed a
meaningful relationship between internal and external motivation with academic
achievement and that internal motivation is the highest correlation whereas external
is the lowest. The results also showed that boys are more motivated than girls. Like
other previous studies, Yousefi et al and Rezakhani looked at motivation as a
significant factor on academic achievement and not on psychological well-being.
Table 2.6 displays a summary of aforementioned researches.
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Table 2.6
The Results of Some Researches on School Satisfaction Components
The Results of Some Researches on School Components
Elements Authors
Seif & Kazemi
(2003) Klein et al. (2012)
Escaping from Samadi (2007) Meaningful
Samdal et al. (1999) school is predictable Positive relations correlation
Attitude
Feeling of satisfaction with through students’ between schools’ between school
towards
school when teachers have interest to school, organizational atmosphere and
school
less expectation of students educational atmosphere and students’ attitude
motivation, parents’ entrepreneurial spirit towards school
supervision on
children’s education
Crano et al. (1978) Cheng (1994)
Kaveh et al. (2003)
Teachers’ expectations affect Management style Salimi (2003)
Trained teachers
students’ achievements influence student Teachers’ intimate and
Attitude have more
Myers & Fouts (1992) affective friendly relationship
towards communication
Students’ perceptions of performance, with students will
teacher with students who
classroom environment classroom physical improve students’
have behavioural
affect attitude towards environment and discipline spirit
problem
science social atmosphere
Zahrevand (2010)
Williams & Cole (1968) Positive self-
Positive correlation between Mohsenpour (2007) Hejazi et al. (2009) perception result in
student’s self-concept and Positive self- Self-efficacy had a their academic
Academic self conception of school, perception in positive effect on achievements, and
–perception emotional adjustment, mathematics result academic girls had lower
mental ability, reading, & in progress of this achievements level of self-
mathematical achievement subject perception and
satisfaction than
boys
Khademi & Noshad (2006) Nikmaram & Sarmad
Goal-oriented have (2007)
consequential relevance to Goals affect academic
Goal
academic achievements achievements and
valuation
and self-adjusting classmates influence
behaviours amongst their friends’
students orientation as well
Rezakhani (2007)
There is a relationship Taheri & Maghami
between internal and external (2008)
Yousefi et al. (2009)
motivation with academic Motivation affect
There is a relationship
Motivation achievements, internal students’ mental
between motivation and
motivation has the highest health and self-
educational success
correlation, external has the conception
lowest, boys are more
motivated than girls
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2.18 Theoretical Framework
Figure 2.9 shows a theoretical framework of this study as it is obvious in the
figure that this research applies three models based on different theories. Circumplex
Model is generated from Family System Theory, McCoach’s model, as a multilevel
modelling is formulated based on Social Cognitive Theory and multi-dimensional
model of psychological well-being is formed based on Eudaimonic Theory. The
main points of theories are highlighted in the boxes and subsequently the key factors
of each model are identified by the use of circles.
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Family System Theory
Dominant contracts
Flexible patterns in family interactions
Conformity intensity
External and internal atmosphere
Family evolutionary stages Eudaimonic Theory
Dysfunctional family structures: Striving for achievement perfection
1. Enmeshed families that explains understanding of
2. Disengaged families person's true potentials
According to this theory people was
born with particular ability the
essential mission of life is to know
these capacities and flourish them;
individuals’ perception of their
talents, interests, strengths and
weaknesses
1) Cohesion
Family 2) Flexibility
satisfaction 3) Communication
1) Self-acceptance
2) Purpose in life
3) Personal growth
4) Positive
relationship with
1) Academic self- others
perception 5) Environmental
2) Attitude towards mastery
School school 6) Autonomy
satisfaction 3) Attitude towards
teacher
4) Goal valuation
5) Motivation
Psychological
well-being
Social Cognitive Theory

Observational Learning: Teachers and school environment
are seen as a model in a child’s learning achievement
Outcome Expectations: Outcome expectations are
response of individuals’ beliefs of consequences that are
most likely to follow if specific behaviours are
accomplished
Self-efficacy: It is the mirror of individuals’ beliefs about
whether or not they can attain a given level of success at a
specific task
Goals: Produce cognitive demonstrations of expected,
desired, or favoured outcomes
Motivation: The process that individuals use their own
thoughts and actions to attain a goal
Figure ‎2.9. The theoretical framework of study
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2.19 Summary
The definition of psychological well-being (PWB) has been found to be
closely related to life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, good mood and
vitality, quality of life, optimal experience and operation, action-guiding, empirical
phenomenon, affective and cognitive reactions towards pleasure with one’s life and
positive and negative emotions. Ryff defined psychological well-being as an effort to
reach perfection in order to achieve individual’s real potential abilities. In this regard,
she designated six factors including, self-acceptance, purpose in life, personal
growth, positive relations with others, environmental mastery and autonomy. It is
noteworthy that the majority of researchers, who focused on well-being, have
referred to two general theories, namely Hedonic and Eudaimonic theories. In the
Hedonic Theory, the aspects of happiness and avoiding pain are emphasized and
PWB is defined as a connection between the attainment of enjoyment and the
avoidance of discomfort, whereas the Eudaimonic Theory pays attention to
something beyond happiness. Indeed, Eudaimonic Theory involves the concept of
self-realization and describes PWB according to the degree to which an individual is
fully functioning.
By considering the importance of family experiences for persons’
psychological well-being and social adjustment, it is important to perceive whether
and how family functioning designs emotional experiences within and outside the
familial context. In defining family satisfaction, scholars specifically have taken a
closer look at the relationship between family members. For example, Olson in his
definition of family satisfaction made a remark on the degree to which family
members feel happy and satisfied with each other. Olson and colleagues disclosed
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three main concepts that appeared to be as vital to systemic family functioning. They
are cohesion, flexibility and communication.
Studies revealed that besides family, schools also play the main role in a
person’s perception, emotion and behaviour. Students spend their time in school for
most of the day. Hence, school is an important environment of a students’ life.
School satisfaction is a student’s evaluation of his or her school positive experiences
all together. School satisfaction has also been demonstrated to play a significant role
in comprehending school functions as well as children and adolescents’ quality of
life. Further inspection in to this field has shown that unpleasant experiences at
school influence students’ psychosocial adaptation, thereby resulting in a variety of
consequences such as academic failure, low self-esteem, anxiety and depression
which eventually leads to dissatisfaction. It is therefore pertinent to learn how
students rate their school and the factors which are related to school satisfaction.
This current research utilizes McCoach’s model for measuring school
satisfaction. The model is set up based on SCT. The model focuses on five main
aspects in measuring school satisfaction which include attitude towards school,
attitude towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and motivation.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the methodology applied in this study to examine and
measure high school students’ psychological well-being, family satisfaction and
school satisfaction in Khomeinishahr, Iran. The first section of the current chapter
includes the research design, research variables, location of the study and the
research population and sampling style. The chapter continues with explanations of
the applied instruments: a) Ryff’s questionnaire for evaluating the students’
psychological well-being status, b) Family Satisfaction Scale (FSS), Parent-
Adolescent Communication scale (PAC) for examining family satisfaction, and c)
School Attitude Assessment Survey–Revised (SAAS-R) which is used to measure
school satisfaction among students. Finally, the structure, validity and reliability of
each scale are separately discussed, followed by an elaboration of the pilot study, and
data analysing. Four statistical methods were employed to analyse the collected data
including independent samples T-Test, One-way ANOVA, hierarchical multiple
regression, and finally the research procedure is explained.
3.2 Research Design
The research design of this study comprises the research method and
approach, research variables, sampling techniques used to determine the study
population, as well as the measuring or data collection instruments besides, the
employment of it involves data analysis procedures and statistical techniques applied
in this research.
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3.3 Research Method and Research Approach
This study is quantitative study and employed the method for collecting and
analysing numerical data to define, predict, or clarify the phenomena of interest.
Therefore, this quantitative study was used to measure the participants’ thoughts and
emotional level. For data processing this study has done a quantitative analysis of T,
test, one way ANOVA, correlation coefficient and also regression analysis which are
the some powerful tools for finding the patterns from the collected data (Bernard,
2000).
This quantitative study provided evidence of the accuracy and exactness of
data as well as measurement that is statistically reliable (as the method deal with
numbers). In addition, this study generalise the results of the quantitative analysis
from a sample population which is applicable to a larger population. The collected
data sorted and counted, and statistical models constructed by this quantitative study.
Moreover, comparison in quantitative method is direct and facile (Barker, Pistrang,
& Elliott, 2002; Tarantino, 2008).
This study is also classified as descriptive form of survey study approach and
the aim is to generalise the findings obtained from a sample population to a bigger
population. So it is aimed that inferences can be made regarding the characteristics or
behaviours of the bigger population. In other words, a survey study provides a
quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinion of a bigger
population by examining a sample of that population. Among the advantages of this
type of research are the economy of plan, the rapid turnaround in data collection and
the possibility of identifying the attributes of a large population based on a small
group of individuals as the study population (Creswell, 2002).
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3.4 Research Variables
According to Kothari, ‘variable’ is a concept which deals with different
measurable values. Kothari (2008) also stated that “in a quantitative research study,
variables are related to answer a research question or to make predictions about what
the researcher expects the results to show” (p. 33). In this study, three kinds of
variables are directly identifiable, independent, dependent and demographic
variables.
“Independent variables are those that (probably) cause, influence or affect

outcomes, they are also called treatment, manipulated, exogenous,
antecedent or predictor variables whilst dependent variables are those
that depend on variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence
of the independent variables, other names criterion, endogenous, outcome
and effect variables (Creswell, 2002, p. 50).
“Demographic variable provides data regarding research participants

and it is necessary for determination of whether the individuals in a
particular study area representative sample of the target population for
generalization purpose; some common demographic variables in
humanities research are age, gender, ethnicity, education level, income
and job” (Salkind, 2010, p. 346).
Based on the aforementioned explanation in this research, family satisfaction
and its components such as cohesion, flexibility and communication as well as
school satisfaction and its components such as academic self-perception, attitude
towards school, attitude towards teacher, goal valuation, and motivation are
perceived as independent variables. Because of decreasing in students’ well-being in
Iran, this study considers psychological well-being as the dependent variable. Age
and gender are also identified as the demographic variables of the present study.
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3.5 Location of Study
This study was conducted in Khomeinishahr, Iran, in response to the call for
research by the Education Department of Khomeinishahr to examine the influence of
family satisfaction and school satisfaction on students’ psychological well-being.
Khomeinishahr is a district in Isfahan province. Based on the census released in
2011, the population Khomeinishahr was 311629 comprising 90735 families. It is
located about 12 km of northwest of Isfahan, and has three main districts: Khouzan,
Foroushan and Varnosfaderan. The people of Khomeinishahr are Muslims and the
city is known as a religious city with people who follow traditions and respect rituals
a lot. Traditionally, boys are given more freedom of behaviour than girls. In this city,
girls are indeed more under control by families compared to boys. The father of a
family is the most important family member in Khomeinishahr and he is regarded as
the decision maker of the family. People in Khomeinishahr, work in three main
economic sectors which are manufacturing, service and farming industries. However,
the majority of them are self-employed with a medium level of income.
3.6 Study Population
The study population of this research includes high school students in
Khomeinishahr, Iran, since most reports sent to the educational office in
Khomeinishahr, are related to behavioural and educational problems such as anxiety,
aggression, depression, somatization, violation of school rules, and academic failure
the Department of Education recommended that the study should involve high school
students. According to the Department of Education of Isfahan (2012), there are 44
public high schools. These include 24 girls’ high schools and 20 boys’ high schools.
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There were altogether 11192 students comprising 6238 females and 4954
males (%56 females and %44 males) who were studying at these schools. The
students selected for this research include high school students with an age range of
15, 16, 17 and 18 years old (Appendix A).
The sample size is estimated based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table
(Appendix A) and is calculated by the following equation.
S =X2 N P (1-P) ÷ d2 (N-1) + X2 P (1-P)
S=required sample size
X2 =chi-square (3.841)
N=the population size
P=the population proportion (0.50)
d =the degree of accuracy expressed as proportion (0.05)
S= (3.841) *11192 *0.50*(1-0.50) ÷ (0.05)2 *(11192-1) + 3.841 *0.50*(1-
0.50) =371
According to the mentioned equation, the number of the expected sample in
this research is 371 students but this number was increased to 376 subjects in order to
divided equal groups of them in terms of age and gender (Figure 3.1).
3.7 Research Sample Population
This study applies stratified random sampling technique for the process of
sample selection. This means that specific traits of individuals were taken into
account so that the sample population represents the bigger population. The
stratification of the data ensure the inclusion of all specific traits which is unlike
random sampling in which some features of the bigger population may be
99
misrepresented or not even represented in the sample population (Sarmad et al.,
2000).
In addition, this study considered some characteristics such as geographical
location, social characteristics and cultural-religious contexts, units of the society
which were grouped in homogeneous classifications. Then, a random sampling for
each category has been made to determine the final sample size of this study. This
study made an attempt to complete the following stages in order to obtain a stratified
random sample population. First, all students from public high schools in
Khomeinishahar were divided into 6 groups accordingly as the following:
a. 4087 students including 2353 female students and 1734 male students
located in the central area of the city
b. 1781 students consisting of 776 female students and 1005 male students
are residing in Amir Kabir, Asghar Abad and Koshk areas
c. 1307 students including 750 female students and 557 male students
located in Jooy Abad area
d. 1755 students consisting of 1134 female students and 621 male students
from Dorcheh area
e. 1318 students comprising 685 female students and 633 male students from
Andovan Khouzan and Dastgerd areas
f. 944 students consisting of 540 female and 404 male students from
Manzariyeh area.
Next, a random sample was selected from each stratum. Primarily, the
number of students for the sample society was estimated through Krejcie and
Morgan’s table. Attention has also been paid to the ratios of the number of students
in each area and the number of students involved in this study (Table 3.1).
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Table 3.1
Sample Frame of Study
Andovan
Amirkabir
&
Central Asgharabad Jooyabad Dorcheh Manzariyeh Total
Khouzan
& Koshk
Dastgerd
Female students
2353 776 750 1134 685 540 6238
in each area
Female students
71 23 23 34 21 16 188
in this study
Number of each
17 6 6 9 5 4 47
age group (F)
Male students
1734 1005 557 621 633 404 4954
in each area
Male students
66 38 21 24 24 15 188
in this study
Number of each
17 9 5 6 6 4 47
age group (M)
Figure 3.1 shows the sample plan of this study and demonstrates that 376
students were involved including 188 females and 188 males who had been
randomly considered as the sample population of this research. Then, each group of
male and female students were equally classified into 4 groups of 47 students based
on their age of 15, 16, 17, and 18 years old. The total numbers of male and female in
each age group were 94 students.
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Figure ‎3.1. The sample plan of study
3.8 Instrumentation
In the current study, there are four instruments for examining dependent and
independent variables.
3.8.1 Psychological Well-Being Scale
Psychological well-being is regarded as the dependent variable in this
study and is measured by using Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale. The
original instrument contains 120 questions (20 items) (Ryff, 1989) but years
later, shorter versions of the scale were developed by Ryff (7, 6 and 3 item
versions).
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This study applied 7-item version (42-question) which is more
suitable for students within the age range of 15 to 18 because lengthy
questionnaires make students feel tired and reduce their attention span in
answering the questions carefully.
The Psychological Well-Being Scale consists of six subscales namely
autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relation with
others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. In 42-question version of Ryff’s
questionnaire, there are 7 questions for assessing each of the sub-scales. Each
question is responded on a Likert scale of one to seven: (1) strongly disagree,
(2) slightly disagree, (3) disagree, (4) neutral, (5) agree, (6) slightly agree, and
(7) strongly agree. However, the high scores are signs of better psychological
well-being status and the low scores are signs of the low level of
psychological well-being. To avoid biased answers, some items have been
ranked conversely. In this study the mean value of psychological well-being
is 4.57 which shows the moderate level of well-being.
Validity and reliability of PWB: This study made use of the validity
and reliability of the Psychological Well-Being Scale. It was
discovered the body of literature demonstrated that Ryff’s research on
adolescents and youth obtained a reliability of the sub-scales between
0.86 and 0.93 (Ryff, 1989).
The correlations of six elements of Ryff’s scale with other
measuring instruments of well-being (Neugarten’s life Satisfaction
scale, Beoadborn’s Affect Balance Scale, Rosenberg’s Self-esteem
Scale, Levenson’s Internal Sense of Control Scale, and Lawton’s
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Morale Scale) and ill-being (Zung’s Depression Scale, Levenson’s
External Sense of Control Scale) were also examined to assess the
convergent and discriminant validity of the scale. The correlations
among six elements of Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale with
other measuring instruments of well-being were significant and
positive. However, the correlations among six elements of Ryff’s
Psychological Well-Being Scale with other measuring instruments of
ill-being were found to be significant and negative.
In another study conducted by Schmutte and Ryff (1997), an
internal consistency of between 0.89 and 0.90 was reported for Ryff’s
Psychological Well-Being Scale. Many other studies have probed the
characteristics of the shortened versions of Ryff’s questionnaire.
For instance Van Dierendonck (2004) investigated factorial and
content validity of Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale with a
sample population comprising of Spanish adults. Findings of the study
showed the validity of subscales and the internal consistencies were
found to be 0.77 -0.90. Later, Abbott, Ploubidis, Huppert, Kuh, and
Croudace (2010) chose a sample population of 1179 people and
applied structural equation model for testing the Ryff’s questionnaire
and the results confirmed the reliability of the questionnaire.
The validity and reliability of Ryff’s Psychological Well-
Being Scale have also been probed in Iran. For example, Bayani et al.
(2008) examined the reliability and validity of Ryff’s questionnaire
with a sample population of 145 Azad University students in
Azadshahr, Iran. The results illustrated that the reliability coefficient
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of the scale was between 0.89 and 0.90. They also used life
satisfaction scale, the Oxford Happiness questionnaire, and the
Rosenberg’s Self-esteem scale for checking the validity of the sub-
scales; they reported a satisfactory correlation coefficient obtained
from these tests with the 6 sub-scales.
3.8.2 Family Satisfaction Instruments
Family satisfaction is regarded as the independent variable in this
study and is measured through the application of two instruments: a. Family
Satisfaction Scale (FSS), and b. Parent-Adolescent Communication (PAC)
scale. Both instruments were designed by Olson and his colleagues. The FSS
was formulated to assess satisfaction with two specific features of family life
including cohesion and flexibility, while PAC was designed to measure
communication among family members. It is worth mentioning that both of
the scales were developed based upon the Circumplex Model of family
systems (Olson & Gorall, 2006) which is also used in this study.
Family Satisfaction Scale (FSS): This study made use of Family
Satisfaction Scale designed by Olson and Wilson (1986). There are 14
items in the FSS scale; 8 items are devoted for the assessment of
cohesion; a. emotional bonding, b. boundaries, c. coalitions, d. time, e.
space, f. friends, g. decision-making, h. interests and recreation, and
the other 6 items are designed to assess aspects of flexibility; a.
assertiveness, b. control, c. discipline, d. negotiation style, e. role
relationships, and f. relationships rules. All of the items are rated on a
one-to-five Likert scale (1=dissatisfied, 2=somewhat dissatisfied,
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3=generally satisfied, 4=very satisfied, 5=extremely satisfied), and as
the scores increase students’ satisfaction with family cohesion and
flexibility will increase as well. In this study the mean value of family
satisfaction is 3.27.
Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PAC): Communication
is the third dimension in the Circumplex Model that is measured by
PAC in this research. The scale was formulated by Olson and Barnes
(1982) to assess both positive and negative aspects of communication
as well as the content and process of parent-adolescent interactions.
This study employed PAC which comprised of 20 items and
participants are required to answer the items on a Likert scale of one
to five: 1=strongly disagree, 2=moderately disagree, 3=neither agree
nor disagree, 4=moderately agree, 5=strongly agree. The items of the
scale are set in two 10-item according to factor analysis.
The focus is on the free flow and exchange of both factual and
emotional information, sense of lack of constraint and degree of
understanding and satisfaction, and experiences in parent-adolescent
interactions. Examples of the items in this sub-scale are as follows:
“When I ask question, I get honest answers from my mother, or I can
discuss my beliefs with my mother without feeling restrained or
embarrassed”. In this study the ‘problems’ refers to some negative
aspects of communication including hesitancy to share, negative styles
of interaction and selectivity and caution of what is shared. Examples
of the items include: “My mother nags/ bothers me, or I am sometimes
afraid to ask my mother for what I want”. It should be noted that this
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instrument is designed in a way that it requires the adolescents to
complete the form twice, once in reference to his or her mother and
once referring to his or her father.
Validity and reliability of FSS and PAC: Olson and Wilson (1986)
and Olson and Barnes (1982) reported reliability coefficient for the
two scales (FSS and PAC) as described in Table 3.2. The last column
shows a five week test-retest Person correlation coefficient.
Table 3.2
The Internal Consistency of FSS and PAC
Scales Internal consistency Test-retest

FSS 0.92 0.84
PAC 0.88 0.88
Concerning validity, it is statistically demonstrated that FSS
and PAC are highly correlated in a positive manner with the Self-
Report Family Inventory (SFI), the Family Assessment Measure
(FAM III), and the Family Assessment Device (FAD) (Olson &
Gorall, 2006). Validity and reliability of the FSS instrument has been
confirmed by many other studies as well. For instance, Caprara,
Pastorelli, Regalia, Scabini, and Bandura (2005) reported a reliability
coefficient of 0.87 for the FSS instrument.
3.8.3 School Attitude Assessment Survey–Revised Instrument
This study measures school satisfaction another independent variable
by SAAS-R which was designed by Mccoach and Siegle (2003). It consists of
five subscales: a) attitude towards school, b) attitude towards teachers, c)

107
academic self-perception, d) goal valuation, and e) motivation. In the SAAS-
R, there are 35 items that are arranged on a six-point Likert scale which
ranges from strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), slightly disagree (3), slightly
agree (4) agree (5), and strongly agree (6). The higher score shows the more
satisfaction with school. In this study the mean value of school satisfaction is
4.40.
Validity and reliability of SAA-R: McCoach and Siegle (2003)
examined the validity and reliability of SAAS-R in their Psychometric
study and discovered that the five sub-scales suggested a reliability of
over 0.85 as well as an adequate validity. In addition, Suldo, Shaffer,
and Shaunessy (2008) also conducted the SAAS-R with a sample of
321 high school students. They discovered five factors which are
significant in assessing the students’ attitude towards school and their
academic success. These factors are students’ academic self-
perceptions, attitude towards teachers, attitude towards school,
motivation, and goal valuation. Furthermore, the study also supported
the criterion related validity of the SAAS-R, based on the obtained
mean differences of the SAAS-R between groups of students with
various achievement levels.
It should be mentioned that the application of SAAS-R in their
study led to an acceptable convergent validity, supported through
correlations in the expected directions between the SAAS-R factors
and students’ beliefs of their school as well as the indicators of school
behaviour. Therefore, it can be said that the SAAS-R is applicable to
studies conducted in general education and college preparatory

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curriculum programs among high school students, including this study
too.
This study applies four questionnaires as the instruments for
measuring the variables because the questionnaires:
a. exactly evaluate the research questions and hypotheses of this study
b. have strong reliability and validity
c. repeatedly have been applied in many studies conducted in various
countries
d. have been revised and improved over and over again for many
times
e. have strong theory and model to support them
According to some researchers, these questionnaires are
among the most eligible and reliable instruments. Therefore, this study
made use of these questionnaires without having any doubts since the
researchers had made such claims.
3.9 Pilot Study
In order to measure the reliability and validity of the applied instruments, this
study fulfils following stages.
Having confirmed with the president of the Department of Education in
Isfahan, Iran, and received permission from the authorities, the researcher conducted
a pilot study involving 67 students selected from two student research centres in two
different areas of Isfahan (Appendix B): a. Faghihi Student Research Centre which
covers students of district one and two in Isfahan, and b. Saeb Student Research
Centre which covers students of district four and five in Isfahan. At this stage, 67
109
students (36 female and 31 male) involved in the pilot study that they were within the
age range of 15 to18.
After receiving the original questionnaires from the developer(s) through
email (Appendix C), the questionnaires were translated into Persian language and
back translated into the original language to ensure that content validity and
reliability of the instruments applied are applicable to this study. Indeed, based on the
accepted technique presented by Deutscher (1973) for back to back translation, the
following stages should be conducted. First, the original instrument is translated into
the local language (Persian for the purpose of the present research). Then, another
independent translator translates this translated version back into the original
language. Finally, the original and translated versions are compared to clarify the
discrepancies.
In order to carry out the translation, the instruments were given to two
English language teachers from Khomeinishahr’s Educational Department. Both of
them were experts in translating English texts into Persian and another translator was
appointed to take the responsibility to translate back the instruments from Persian
into English.
In addition, a bilingual expert in Persian and English languages was
appointed to evaluate and revise the translation to ensure that the two versions were
completely similar with no significant differences that would distort the accuracy of
the questionnaires. Then, in order to measure the validity of questionnaires through
content validity, the translated versions of the questionnaires were given to five
counsellors from Isfahan Consultation Centre to check the fluency and
comprehensibility of the phrases. All of them confirmed that the content of the
110
questionnaires are valid and understandable for students. Hence, they are applicable
in high schools (Appendix D).
Subsequently, the questionnaires were distributed among 67 students in
Isfahan, Iran in order to identify the imprecise and obscure questions and to calculate
the reliability of the questionnaires. The participants were required to answer the
questions within 35 minutes and majority of them answered all of the questions
within the fixed time.
However, just a few of them needed 10 minutes extra time. The data collected
were analysed by using SPSS software (version 21) and the reliability coefficient of
the applied instrument was examined by using Cronbach alpha component of the
software. The results are illustrated in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
The Reliability Coefficient for Instruments of the Study
Questionnaires Reliability coefficient of

Cronbach alpha
PWB questionnaire 0.92
FSS 0.90
PAC 0.87
SAAS-R 0.95
Accordingly, the information demonstrated in Table 3.3 illustrates that the reliability
of the applied instrument can be confirmed. As Cronbach’s alpha index gets closer to
the value of 1, the questions are internally more correlated. Therefore, the questions
become more homogeneous. Based on, Cronbach (1951) the reliability coefficient
less than the value of 0.45 is low, 0 .75 is acceptable, and 0.90 is high.
111
The value of Cronbach alpha of all variables in this study was discovered to
range from 0.87 to 0.95 which means that the questions were reliable, clear and
comprehensible for all of the students involved in the pilot study.
3.10 Data Analysis
In order to analyse the data, in first step all of the responses were coded by
SPSS version 21 software. Additionally, various statistical processes were applied to
answer the research hypotheses. For this purpose, this study utilized descriptive and
inferential statistics.
For descriptive statistic, frequency distribution table was developed to
include central tendency, dispersion and distribution of all variables of psychological
well-being, family satisfaction and school satisfaction along with graph descriptions
given based on the plotted graphs.
Moreover, in this part, the first research question was evaluated by using the
mean value of students’ responses to psychological well-being questionnaire in order
to assess the status of students’ psychological well-being. For inferential statistics,
the following stages were employed:
 Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is used for evaluating the normality of
collected data (Sarmad, Bazargan, & Hejazi, 2000).
 Levene’s test is applied to assess the equality of independent
variances in different samples (Gibbons, 2007).
 Independent-samples t-test carried out for testing the second
research question of the present study. T-test assesses whether or not
the means of the two groups are statistically different from each other.
112
This analysis is suitable for comparing the means of two groups
(Trochim, 2006).
 One-way ANOVA was employed to test the third research question
of the present study. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is used
to determine whether or not there are any significant differences
between the means of three or more independent groups (Gay, Mills,
& Airasian, 2009).
 Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient is used to discover the strength of
the link between two sets of data (Sarmad et al., 2000). Hence, in this
research Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient was employed to evaluate
the relationship between students’ psychological well-being, family
satisfaction and school satisfaction.
 Multiple hierarchical regression: Multiple regression analysis helps
one to predict dependent variable by two or more independent
variables (Gaurav, 2010). In this research multiple hierarchical
regression was applied to assess the fourth and fifth research
questions to examine whether or not family satisfaction and school
satisfaction contribute towards psychological well-being.
It should be noted that all calculations were carried out by using SPSS
software (version 21). Table 3.4 shows the methods that were applied for analysing
the collected data.
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Table 3.4
Statistical Methods
Methods of
Research Questions Instruments Data
Analysis
H01→ There is no significant difference in

Independent
the status of psychological well-being of
Ryff’s questionnaire Samples T-
male and female high school students in
Test
Khomeinishahr, Iran
H02→ There is no significant difference in
the status of psychological well-being of

Ryff’s questionnaire ANOVA
different age groups of high school students
in Khomeinishahr, Iran
H03→ There is no significant contribution of
the family satisfaction constructs (cohesion, FSS & PAC questionnaires Multiple
flexibility, and communication) towards the and Hierarchical
variation of the psychological well-being of Ryff’s questionnaire Regression
high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran
H04 → There is no significant contribution of
the school satisfaction constructs (attitude SAAS-R questionnaire
towards school, attitude towards teacher, and Multiple
academic self-perception, goal valuation, and Ryff’s questionnaire Hierarchical
motivation) towards the variation of the Regression
psychological well-being of high school
students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
114
3.11 Data Collecting Procedure
After identifying the statement of problem, variables of study, research
questions, and making sure about the preparation of the questionnaires via back to
back translation by relevant experts as explained in the pilot study the researcher
took the following steps for collecting data.
 Getting the official approval letter from the Department of Education in
Khomeinishahr for administering the questionnaires (Appendix E)
 Selecting 14 public high schools in Khomeinishahr, Iran under the
supervision of the responsible officer for the Department of Education for
high school education; 7 female public high schools and 7 male public high
schools
 Arranging the date and time with the authorities of selected schools for
administering the questionnaires
 Randomly selecting 376 students from the designated schools based on the
plan of the study, 94 females and males (47 females and 47 males) from each
age group (15, 16, 17, 18 years old)
 Distributing the questionnaires among selected students in the month of
October (2013) during 7 sessions. The questionnaires were taken to the
selected schools by the researcher herself in the form of printed materials
through face-to-face approach with a clear explanation given to participants
(Appendix F). This approach guarantees a higher response rate as well as
being faster and more reliable and considered better than through phone or
email approaches (Andereck & Nickerson, 1997)
115
 Giving a duration of between 35-45 minutes to the participants to complete
the distributed questionnaires
 All questionnaires were found suitable for analysing. This shows that the
response rate of the study questionnaires was 100%. In order to achieve this
point, the researcher encouraged the respondents by providing gifts like
stationeries for those who gave the complete answers to the whole questions.
The researcher’s presence and observation during the sessions of conducting
the questionnaires as well as the assistance of two friends for checking all the
questions to be answered by the student before presenting their gifts, were
effective methods for the success of this process
 Entering the data and analysing them by using SPSS Statistics 21 program to
interpret and to discuss the findings and to develop conclusions in line with
the research objectives
3.12 Research Procedure
The procedure of conducting this study as well as for the explanation of the
stages is demonstrated through the research framework shown in Figure 3.2. The
figure illustrates the process of conducting the study which consists of 8 general
steps that are: (1) starting the research by introducing the aim of study, (2)
determining the research questions, (3) receiving of the original questionnaires and
doing back to back translation, (4) conducting a pilot study in order to specify the
validity and reliability of questionnaires, (5) making a sample selection of high
school students in Khomeinishshar, (6) performing the quantitative tests including
Ryff’s PWB questionnaire, FSS, PAC and SAAS-R, (7) collecting and analysing
data, and finally (8) providing discussion and developing the conclusion.
116
Influence of family Questionnaire back
Research questions
satisfaction and school to back translation
satisfaction on PWB
Pilot study
Validity Reliability
Selecting sample of high

school students by stratified
random sampling
Performing
questionnaires
Collection data and

analysing
Discussion
and
conclusion
Figure ‎3.2 Research procedure
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3.13 Summary
The present research is classified as a descriptive form of survey studies, and
quantitative research methodology was applied for the purpose of data collection in
this study. Family satisfaction and school satisfaction are considered as the
independent variables, and psychological well-being is the dependent variable of this
study. Age and gender were also taken into account as the demographic variables in
this study. This study was conducted is Khomeinishahr. The study population of this
research included students of high schools in Khomeinishahr, Iran where there are 44
public/governmental high schools. These include 24 girl’s and 20 boy’s high schools.
In total, 11192 students including 6238 females and 4954 males were studying at
these schools. The study sample of this research included high school students in the
age range of 15, 16, 17, and 18. Stratified sampling technique was adapted and 376
students involved in this study. The study sample was calculated according to Krejcie
and Morgan’s table. Four instruments were applied for the purpose of data collection
in this research. The psychological well-being as dependent variable was measured
by using Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale. Family satisfaction as independent
variable was measured by using two instruments: a. Family Satisfaction Scale (FSS),
and b. Parent-Adolescent Communication (PAC) scale. School satisfaction is another
independent variable that was measured by using SAAS-R. Besides, the researcher
conducted a pilot study to examine the reliability of each questionnaire in the context
of Iran. Finally, this study conducted by presenting a data analysis with a focus on
descriptive and inferential statistics. The inferential statistic methods applied in this
study included independent samples t-test, one-way ANOVA, and multiple
hierarchical regression.
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CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
The aim of this research is to examine the influence of family satisfaction and
school satisfaction on the psychological well-being of high school students in
Khomeinishahr, Iran. For this study, the data were obtained from a sample
population and analyzed in two parts of descriptive and inferential statistics.
First, for the descriptive part, the variables are discussed with regard to
gender and age groups. The central tendency, dispersion and distribution indexes
were also examined. In addition, tables and graphs were produced to represent an
exact image of the variables. This part also includes the examination of research
question 1 that benefits the calculation of the mean.
Then, for the inferential parts the research questions and hypotheses were
tested by using independent-samples t-test to compare the mean difference of male
and female groups based on their psychological well-being (research question 2).
Next, One-way ANOVA was utilized to compare the means of different age groups
with regard to psychological well-being (research question 3), and finally multiple
hierarchical regression models were used in order to predict the value of dependent
variable by independent variables (research questions 4 and 5). The research
questions are as follows:
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Q1 What is the status of psychological well-being of high school students
in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
Q2 Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-
being of male and female high school students in Khomeinishahr,
Iran?
Q3 Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-
being of different age groups of high school students in
Q4 Do family satisfaction constructs (cohesion, flexibility, and
communication) significantly contribute to the variation of
psychological well-being of high school students in Khomeinishahr,
Iran?
Q5 Do school satisfaction constructs (attitude towards school, attitude
towards teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and
motivation) significantly contribute to the variation of psychological
4.2 Descriptive Analysis
This part focuses on description of demographic and research variables of the
studied samples. Table 4.1 shows the students’ distribution in terms of gender and
age. According to this table, there are 376 participants including 188 (50%) female
students and 188 (50%) male students. The female and male students groups, within
the age range of 15, 16, 17, and 18 years, are divided into 4 groups of 47. The total
number of each age group is 94 students. Table 4.1 demonstrates a completely
uniform distribution of the samples in the age groups of 15 to 18 male and female
students.
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Moreover, both male and female students in different age groups are
uniformly distributed. Therefore, the ratio of female students in the age groups are
equal to that of the male students in relevant groups and the percentage of age groups
based on their gender shows a uniform distribution as well (Appendix G).
Table 4.1
Frequency Distribution of Students in Terms of Gender and Age
Gender Age Total

15 16 17 18
Female 47 47 47 47 188
Male Count 47 47 47 47 188
Total 94 94 94 94 376
Table 4.2 illustrates the central tendency, dispersion, and distribution of
research variables. Based on the table, the mean, mode, and median for each sub-
scale of family satisfaction are respectively 3.45, 3.40 and 3.50, for cohesion, 3.23, 3
and 3.16, for flexibility, 3.23, 3.23 and 3.25 for communication. In fact, the mean
values of all family satisfaction sub-scales are a little higher than the middle of
measurement scale in the studied samples. In this setting, the mode values revealed
that the estimation level of the majority of students is more than 3.
The calculated dispersion in variation coefficient and standard deviation of
these sub-scales are respectively 24.92% and 0.86 for cohesion, 24.45% and 0.79 for
flexibility, and 13.31% and 0.43 for communication. The comparison between
variation coefficient and standard deviation of the components shows that the
participants had more similar responses and lower intra-group difference in
communication sub-scale; while the difference of intra-group is more in cohesion
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sub-scale. It means that data are located in a wide domain ranging from the lowest to
the highest possible amount (1-5).
Skewness and kurtosis are two indexes that were used to measure the
distribution of sample population. Skewness determines to what extent a deviation of
value distributes from symmetry on either side of the mean. Kurtosis on the other
hand, evaluates the peakedness or the flatness of the distribution (Chapman McGrew
& Monroe, 2009).
The findings revealed that the skewness and kurtosis values for each sub-
scale were -0.37, -0.14 for cohesion, -0.15, -0.17 for flexibility, and -0.39, 0.67 for
communication. In general, Table 4.2 illustrates the mean, mode, and median values
in all sub-scales of family satisfaction that are different, and the distribution shapes
are somewhat skewed. In this setting, the skewness values in all components are
negative (skewness <0). Therefore, most of the studied samples are concentrated on
the right side of the mean. This implies that the scores are mostly higher than the
middle of the measurement scale. In this respect, the highest skewness value is
observed in communication and the least is seen in the flexibility variable.
A value of zero and between -1 to +1 represents a symmetric or evenly
balanced distribution and this is considered as an excellent distribution. However, a
skewness value between -3 to +3 is also acceptable (Kline, 2009). Accordingly,
based on skewness values presented in Table 4.2, it can be concluded that all sub-
scales of family satisfaction variable are located at proper and satisfied status.
Besides, with regard to cohesion and flexibility, kurtosis is negative and near
to zero. It displays the peakedness level of distribution of the studied samples is low
and close to normal (kurtosis <0). The maximum value of kurtosis is observed in
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communication variable. In this regard, kurtosis is positive (kurtosis > 0) and the
graph is somewhat raised (Appendix G).
According to George and Mallery (1995), a kurtosis value near zero and
between -1 to +1 indicates a shape close to normal and considered as an excellent
symmetrical distribution for psychometric aims, although the value of -2 to +2 is also
acceptable. Consequently, it can be claimed that kurtosis values in all sub-scales of
family satisfaction variable have a favorable status.
Table 4.2
Description of Family Satisfaction Components and School Satisfaction Components in
Terms of Central Tendency, Dispersion and Distribution
Central Tendency Dispersion Distribution

Variables Dimension
Coefficient Std.
of research (Scale) Mean Mode Median Skewness Kurtosis
of variation deviation
Cohesion 3.45 3.40 3.50 24.92% 0.86 -0.37 -0.14
Family
Flexibility 3.23 3.00 3.16 24.45% 0.79 -0.15 -0.17
satisfaction
(1-5) Communication 3.23 3.23 3.25 13.31% 0.43 -0.39 0.67
Academic self- 4.40 4.86 4.42 19.31% 0.85 -0.55 0.33

perception
Attitude 4.20 4.71 4.28 20.47% 0.86 -0.36 -0.28

towards teacher
School
Attitude 4.17 4.20 4.20 26.50% 1.08 -0.53 -0.17
satisfaction towards school
(1-6)
Goal valuation 5.10 6 5.25 16.27% 0.83 -0.93 0.35
Motivation 4.28 4.10 4.30 18.81% 0.86 -0.33 -0.10
Table 4.2 shows the acquired results of the indexes mentioned for school
satisfaction sub-scales as well. The numbers indicate that the values of the mean,
mode, median, coefficient of variation, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for
academic self-perception are respectively 4.40, 4.86, 4.42, 19.31%, 0.85, -0.55, and
123
0.33, for attitude towards teacher, 4.20, 4.71, 4.28, 20.47%, 0.86, -0.36, -0.28, for
attitude towards school, 4.17, 4.20, 4.20, 26.50%, 1.08, -0.53, -0.17, for goal
valuation 5.10, 6, 5.25, 16.27%, 0.83, -0.93, 0.35, and finally for motivation sub-
scale 4.28, 4.10, 4.30, 18.81%, 0.86, -0.33 and -0.10.
In an overall view, Table 4.2 displays that the mean is higher than the middle
part of measurement scale in all school satisfaction components in the studied
samples. The highest mean score is related to goal valuation (5.10) and the least
amount is related to attitude towards school (4.17). The mode calculation in school
satisfaction sub-scales demonstrates that the majority of the estimation of the studied
samples is more than 4.10; the highest estimation is seen in goal valuation (6) and the
lowest in motivation (4.10).
The results of variation coefficient comparison between family satisfaction
and school satisfaction components reveal that the variability in most elements of
family satisfaction and school satisfaction are relatively close to each other except
for communication in family satisfaction and attitude towards school in school
satisfaction. As in communication, the closeness and data accumulation lead to the
reduction of variability in comparison with other variables. However, the data of
attitude towards school are located in a wide domain ranging from the lowest to the
highest possible amount (1 to 6). Therefore, in comparison to other variables, it
shows a greater variability.
The evaluation of the distribution data of school satisfaction factors revealed
that the skewness values of all sub-scales are negative (skewness <0). It means that a
majority of the studied samples have a tendency towards the right side of mean
(distribution is negatively skewed).
124
Additionally, kurtosis values for attitude towards teacher, attitude towards
school and motivation are negative and it illustrates that the related graphs are
platykurtic (kurtosis <0); while for other factors (academic self-perception and goal
valuation) these values are positive. It is the sign of leptokurtic state of those graphs
(kurtosis > 0). In this regard, the highest kurtosis is seen in goal valuation variable as
the graph is relatively raised (Appendix G).
Table 4.3 exhibits the mean, mode, median, coefficient of variation, standard
deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for psychological well-being (PWB) which are
respectively 4.57, 4.55, 4.57, 14.87%, 0.68, 0.004, -0.073. For family satisfaction,
these indexes are 3.27, 3.31, 3.31, 13.76%, 0.45, -0.40, 0.070. Finally, for school
satisfaction they are 4.40, 4.51, 4.42, 16.5%, 0.73, -0.49 and 0.33.
Table 4.3
Frequency Description of Psychological Well-Being, Family Satisfaction and School
Satisfaction Scores in Terms of Central Tendency, Dispersion and Distribution
Research Central tendency Dispersion Distribution

variable coefficient
Std.
Mean Mode Median of Skewness Kurtosis
deviation
variation
Psychological
well-being 4.57 4.55 4.57 14.87% 0.68 0.004 -0.073
(1-7)
Family
Satisfaction 3.27 3.31 3.31 13.76% 0.45 -0.40 0.070
(1-5)
School
Satisfaction 4.40 4.51 4.42 16.5% 0.73 -0.49 0.33
(1-6)
The data analysis shows (Table 4.3) that for psychological well-being the
mean and median values are similar and very close to that of mode, although the
accumulation of data is found mainly in the middle of the distribution. This is
somewhat skewed towards the right side (positive skewness, skewness > 0) but the
125
distribution shape is very similar to a symmetrical distribution (Figure 4.1).
Furthermore, the kurtosis distribution is negative and this shows that the graph is a
little flat (kurtosis <0).
Figure ‎4.1. The comparison of frequency distribution of PWB scores with symmetric
distribution
With regard to family satisfaction, the mode and median values are
discovered to be the same and they are higher than those of the mean, but the shape
of the distribution is close to normal (Figure 4.2). In this setting, skewness is towards
the left (negative skewness, skewness <0). Consequently, the number of students
with higher scores than the mean is more than the number of students who obtained
lower scores than the mean.
126
Figure ‎4.2. The comparison of frequency distribution of family satisfaction scores with
symmetric distribution
Besides, kurtosis is positive and the distribution is somewhat raised. In other
words, the respondents are compressed in some data points but this is still normal.
The mean, mode and median values are different in school satisfaction
variable, and its distribution shape is skewed towards the left (Figure 4.3). Therefore,
most scores are higher than the average distribution (negative skewness). Moreover,
kurtosis is positive and it indicates a raised distribution shape in spite of the fact that
it is normal.
Generally, it can be concluded in these three variables that the samples are
not excessively diffused or accumulated. Hence, the distribution shapes are close to
mesokurtic distribution (skewness=0). In other words, the skewness of distributions
is small (near to zero) and not skewed hardly to the right or to the left side. In this
setting, the findings related to variation coefficient and standard deviation indexes
totally specify the variability of these variables that are close together. The distance
127
between the lowest variability value (related to family satisfaction variable) and the
highest variability (related to school satisfaction) is only 2.74%.
Figure ‎4.3. The comparison of frequency distribution of school satisfaction scores with
Figure 4.4 shows the frequency distribution of the scores of students’
psychological well-being in terms of gender. The table demonstrates the average of
the psychological well-being scores of two groups of male and female students that
are very close to each other. For the female group, the median line is almost in the
middle of the box and the skewness of the box tail on the two sides is nearly similar,
and accordingly the distribution of the data is almost normal.
The status of the male group is similar to the female group since, the median
line is almost in the middle and the distribution shape is almost symmetrical. On the
other hand, in the boys’ group, the box and its skewness of tail are more compressed
128
or shorter. Hence, the responses were more similar among males than among the
females. The findings also show no outlier data in both groups.
Figure ‎4.4. Frequency distribution of the PWB scores in terms of gender
Figure 4.5 is related to data distribution in terms of age groups. The figure
shows that less than 50% of the samples in the age groups of 15 and 16 from the
studied samples were discovered to be under the middle of the measurement scale
and also less than 50% of the 18 age group is above the middle of the measurement
scale, while those in the 17 age group, the median line is nearly in the middle of the
box.
For the 16-year-old age group, the median line is located above the box
which shows negative skewness. The 18-year-old age group shows a contrary to
other age groups since the median line is inclined more towards the bottom of the
box. This means that the data distribution is a little skewed positively. The
129
comparison of boxes expresses the highest dispersion is related to the 15-year-old
age group and the lowest is visible in the age group of 17 year olds. The figure also
displays some outlier data which are related to the 17 year old age group and it
displays different answers of these respondents compared to the others.
Figure ‎4.5. Frequency distribution of the PWB scores in terms of age
For descriptive part, the normality test was also examined. The normal Q-Q
plot was applied to inspect the normality of research independent variables. The
Quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plot checks whether the assumed set of data follows a
normal distribution. In this plot, the observed value for each score should be plotted
against the expected value from the normal distribution (Heiberger & Holland,
130
2004). It is noticeable that the outcome displays the values that are laid around the
reference lines and reasonable straight lines are made which illustrate a normal
distribution for all research variables (Appendix H).
4.2.1 Students’ Psychological Well-Being Status
Eventually, the last part of the descriptive data shows the results of
research question 1 as follows:
What is the status of psychological well-being of high school students in
Research question 1 is answered by determining whether the status of
psychological well-being is low, moderate, or high. Furthermore, the descriptive
investigation is utilized by calculating the mean of this variable.
The results display that the mean of psychological well-being is 4.57.
Based on the mean value, 49% of students’ psychological well-being scores are
less than mean. To interpret the mean value and to determine whether the status
of psychological well-being is low, moderate or high, the research benefits from
a presented technique by Green, Salkind, and Akey (1997) which is used for
sorting the score of the mean into three categories, low, moderate and high. For
this purpose, participants’ choices in psychological well-being ranging from 1 to
7 point according to Likert scale are clustered in three sections, low, moderate,
and high. Figure 4.6 shows the procedure.
131
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Low Moderate High
1 3 M=4.57 5.1 7
Figure ‎4.6. Determining the range of scores for low, moderate and high for PWB
Figure 4.6 reveals that there is one space between each number from 1
to 7, which totally are 6 spaces. These spaces are divided into three categories
and the range for each category is visible in Table 4.4. The mean scores ranging
from 1 to 3 show students’ psychological well-being is low, while the mean
scores ranging from 3.1 to 5 indicate that the psychological well-being is
moderate. Lastly, the mean scores in-between 5.1 to 7 demonstrates that the
students’ psychological well-being is high.
With regard to the mean of the psychological well-being, (mean=4.57)
and according to Table 4.4, it could be concluded that the status of students’
psychological well-being of the selected high school in Khomenishahr, is
moderate.
Table 4.4
Indicator of Mean Scores for the Status of PWB
Range Indicator
1 to 3 Low
3.1 to 5 Moderate
5.1 to 7 High
132
4.3 Statistical Analysis and Research Findings
This part of research has focused on the analyses of the hypotheses of study
but before that, in order to be assured about the absence of typing error during the
entering of the data, the minimum and maximum values of the research variables
were tested. The results displayed the lowest and the highest amounts of studied
variables that are not more or less than the mentioned range in related questionnaires.
Consequently, no typing mistake had occurred (Appendix I).
4.3.1 Difference of Gender based on PWB
This section will deal with the research question 2 of study as follows:
Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-being
of male and female high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
being of male and female high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
To probe research question 2 and to determine the difference between
male and female students regarding their psychological well-being,
independent-samples t-test was employed. The outcomes are displayed in the
following.
Table 4.5
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Mean
Psychological female 188 4.54 0.78 0.05
well-being male 188 4.61 0.57 0.04
133
According to Table 4.5, the number of each group of females and
males is 188 and the mean score of females’ psychological well-being is 4.54,
while the mean score of males’ psychological well-being is 4.61.
Table 4.6
The Mean Difference of Male and Female Students on PWB
Levene's Test
for Equality of T-test for Equality of Means
Variances
F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. Error 95%
Psychological well-being
(2- Difference Difference Confidence

tailed) Interval of
the
Difference
Equal -1.038 342.42 0.300 -0.07319 0.07052 -0.21190
variances
not
assumed
According to Table 4.6, the results of Levene’s test shows an
inequality of the variance (p<0.05) of the psychological well-being between
male and female students. Subsequently, the results of independent samples t-
test also showed the mean of the psychological well-being of male and female
students in confidence interval of 95% does not have significant difference
(P>0.05). Hence, the H01 is failed to be rejected. It means that there is no
significant difference between male and female students with regard to their
In this regard, Figure 4.7 demonstrates a clearer picture of the
comparison between male and female groups, as the figure shows the mean of
the female group in confidence interval of 95% starts from 4.43 and ends at
4.65. In the male group the mean in confidence interval 95% starts from 4.52
and ends at 4.69. That is why in the error bar chart (Figure 4.7) there is
134
somewhat an obvious overlapping of the two lines of chart (the mean values
in two groups are close).
Figure ‎4.7. The mean difference of PWB scores in terms of gender
4.3.2 Difference of Age Groups based on PWB
In this section, the focus is on testing research question 3 of the study.
Is there any significant difference in the status of psychological well-being
of different age groups of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
being of different age groups of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
135
In order to examine research question 3 and to determinate the means
of different age groups in relation to the psychological well-being One-way-
ANOVA is used. In this setting, the estimates are presented in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7
The Findings of One-Way ANOVA to Study Mean Difference of Age Groups on
PWB
Descriptive ANOVA
Test of
Homogeneity of Test of Equality of Means
Age Std.
Variable Mean Variances
groups Deviation
Levene d
Sig dfw F Sig
Statistic fb
15 4.64 0.743
Psychological
Well-being
16 4.70 0.642
17 4.52 0.659 1.123 0.34 3 372 3.250 0.022
18 4.42 0.660
In order to observe equal variances between the age groups regarding
their psychological well-being, Levene’s test of homogeny of variances was
applied. The results showed that the variance of psychological well-being is
homogenous among the age groups (p>0.05). Thus, to compare the means of
the age groups, F test was applied and the outcomes revealed that the mean of
psychological well-being variable among students of various age groups has a
significant difference (F=3.250; p<0.05). Accordingly, H02 is rejected. Then,
LSD test was utilized to compare those two age groups and the results are
shown in Table 4.8. Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test computes
the smallest significant difference between the two means(Williams & Abdi,
136
2010). Based on Carmer and Swanson (1973) this test is one of the most
reliable common post hoc multiple-comparison procedures that could be
applied.
Table 4.8
LSD Post Hoc Test for Multiple Comparisons
(I) age (J) age Mean Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
Difference (I- Lower Bound Upper Bound
J)
16 -0.05977 0.09885 0.546 -0.2542 0.1346
15 17 0.12690 0.09885 0.200 -0.0675 0.3213
18 0.22061* 0.09885 0.026 0.0262 0.4150
15 0.05977 0.09885 0.546 -0.1346 0.2542
16 17 0.18667 0.09885 0.060 -0.0077 0.3811
18 0.28038* 0.09885 0.005 0.0860 0.4748
15 -0.12690 0.09885 0.200 -0.3213 0.0675
17 16 -0.18667 0.09885 0.060 -0.3811 0.0077
18 0.09371 0.09885 0.344 -0.1007 0.2881
*
15 -0.22061 0.09885 0.026 -0.4150 -0.0262
18 16 -0.28038* 0.09885 0.005 -0.4748 -0.0860
17 -0.09371 0.09885 0.344 -0.2881 0.1007
* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
The findings clearly illustrate that there is a significant difference
(p<0.05) between the age groups of 15 (M=4.64), and 16 (M=4.70) with 18
(M=4.42) years old concerning their psychological well-being that it is not
random. Table 4.7 shows the mean values of 15 and 16 year-olds significantly
are higher than the mean value of the 18 year-old students. It means that 15
and 16 year old groups of students are in a better position than those in the 18
year old group in terms of their psychological well-being. No significant
137
difference was observed among the mean values of other age groups. Figure
4.8 presents a clearer view of the comparison among different age groups.
Figure ‎4.8. The mean difference of age groups in terms of PWB
4.3.3 Contribution of Family Satisfaction in Variability of PWB
In this part, research question 4 and related hypothesis are examined
as follows.
Do family satisfaction constructs (cohesion, flexibility, and communication)
significantly contribute to the variation of psychological well-being of high
school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
138
H03: There is no significant contribution of the family satisfaction constructs
(cohesion, flexibility, and communication) towards the variation of the
With regard to research question 4, the respondents provided answers
to 76 questions; 34 questions in the range of 1 to 5 point according to Likert
scale, which are related to family satisfaction (independent variable) and 42
questions in the range of 1 to 7 point (Likert scale) that are connected to the
overall psychological well-being. To assess the answers and to perceive the
variance of the dependent variable (psychological well-being) by the
independent variable (family satisfaction), multiple hierarchical regression
analysis was used and related assumptions are also checked as follows.
Normality test: Normality test of research dependent variables is one
of the conditions of regression model which is performed by the use of a
graphical technique named Probability-Probability (P-P) Plot. This plot is a
standard diagnostic plot in the regression analysis utilized to test the
assumption of normally distributed residuals. Indeed, the points would gather
around the reference line if the related variable matches a normal distribution
(Heiberger & Holland, 2004).
In Normal P-P Plot (Figure 4.9), it is indicated that the points are laid
in a reasonably straight diagonal line angled at 45 degrees from the bottom
left to the top right which shows that the assumption of normality is followed.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (Table 4.9) also demonstrates that the difference
between the two distributions is not statistically meaningful.
139
Figure ‎4.9. Normality test of PWB
Table 4.9
One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
Psychological
well-being
N 376
Mean 4.5732
Normal Parametersa,b
Std. Deviation .68378
Absolute .041
Most Extreme
Positive .041
Differences
Negative -.036
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z .787
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .566
Outlier data: In order to find out the existence or the lack of outlier,
Mahalanobis index was applied (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010).
Result showed that the Mahalanobis value, 38.28811.345 for a few
participants was higher than the chi-square distribution (  2 ) in confidence
interval of 99% and df=3 (Field, 2009) (Appendix J). Therefore, those cases
are identified as outlier data and are eliminated from the regression analysis
140
(in order to prevent any undue influence on the results for the model as a
whole). The results of this investigation are observable in Table 4.10 and
Figure 4.10.
Table 4.10
Residual Statistics (Mahalanobis Distance)
Std.
Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation N
Mahal. Distance 0.097 38.228 2.992 3.036 376
Figure ‎4.10. The estimation of Mahalanobis indicator for examining the

outlier cases
Residual plots: To ensure that there is lack of curvilinear relationship
between independent and dependent variables, residual plot’s analysis should
be checked (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). It was observed that in
this model there is no curvilinear relationship between cohesion, flexibility,
communication and psychological well-being. Accordingly, the regression
141
equation can be used to predict the variance of psychological well-being. The
results are shown in Figure 4.11.
Figure ‎4.11. Linear regression plots between residual versus predicted value
Multicollinearity: In order to assess the relations among independent
variables, Tolerance and VIF criterions were used. These two criteria show
the magnitude of multicollinarity among independent variables. It was
observed that there is an occurrence of multicollinarity when VIF is higher
than 10 (and more acceptable when VIF value is less than 5) and Tolerance is
lower than 0.2 (Marthin & Bridgmon, 2012). However, the findings of the
present study revealed that not only there is no multicollinearity between the
independent variables, but also VIF and Tolerance values are in an acceptable
point. This means that they are not strongly related to each other (Table 4.11).
Therefore, all the independent variables of the study can be entered into the
regression equation.
142
Table 4.11
VIF and Tolerance of Family Satisfaction Components
Model multicollinearity Statistics

Tolerance VIF
Cohesion 0.332 3.012

Communication 0.348 2.872
Flexibility 0.788 1.270
After examining the pre-assumptions of multiple regression in relation
to testing research question 4, the variables of the study are entered into the
regression equation by applying the hierarchical method.
The hierarchical method is a type of multiple regression analysis.
Hierarchical regression can be useful for evaluating the contributions of
predictors above and beyond previously entered predictors, as a means of
statistical control, and for examining incremental validity (Izzett, 2009;
Devore, 2012). Indeed, by using hierarchical regression researcher can
evaluate the ability of the model to predict dependent variable, after
controlling for a number of additional variables (Pallant, 2007). Hence, to
assess the strength of cohesion, flexibility and communication in prediction
of the student’s psychological well-being regardless the influences of age and
gender, multiple hierarchical regression was utilized.
In hierarchical regression those variables that the influence of them
must be controlled, are entered into the first block and the rest of the variables
are included in the next block (Howitt & Cramer, 2010). Therefore, age and
gender as first block and cohesion, flexibility and communication as the
143
second block are entered into the regression equation. Findings are shown in
following tables.
Table 4.12 shows that psychological well-being has a positive
statistical correlation with cohesion (r=0.529; p<0.01) flexibility (r=0.497;
p<0.01) and communication (r=0.341; p<0.01).
Table 4.12
Pearson r Correlation Coefficient
Correlations
Cohesion Flexibility Communication

Pearson PWB 0.529 0.497 0.341
Correlation sig 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 376 376 376
The analyses also help to identify the two models (Table 4.13); the
first model demonstrates the value of the multiple correlation coefficients
R=0.149 (obtained scores from a linear combination of age and gender on one
side and psychological well-being on the other side) and value of R2=0.022.
This means that 2.2% of the variance of psychological well-being is
explainable by age and gender.
Second model, displays the value of the multiple correlation
coefficients R=0.563 (obtained scores from a linear combination of age,
gender, cohesion, flexibility and communication on one side and
psychological well-being on the other side) and the value of R2=0.317,
meaning that 31.7% of the variance of psychological well-being is predictable
by all the mentioned variables in both blocks.
To illustrate how much value of the whole variance is shown by
cohesion, flexibility and communication when the influence of age and
144
gender are under control , the research benefits from R square change value
(Pallant, 2007). In Table 4.12, the value of R2 change=0.294. This means that
cohesion, flexibility and communication explain 29.4% of the variance of
psychological well-being even when the influence of age and gender are
statistically under control. This is a significant contribution as p.F
change<0.01.
Table 4.13
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fourth Research Hypothesis (Model
Summary)
Model Summary
Mode R R2 Adjusted Std. Error Change Statistics
R2 of the R2 F df1 df2 Sig. F
Estimate Change Change Change
1 0.149 0.022 0.017 0.67797 0.022 4.229 2 373 0.015
2 0.563 0.317 0.307 0.56910 0.294 53.119 3 370 0.000
The model as a whole is significant as the value of F=34.272; p<0.01
(Table 4.14). This means that in confidence interval of 99%, there is a
significant relationship between cohesion, flexibility, communication and
psychological well-being and it is not due to errors related to the random
sampling. Hence, H03 is rejected and it is expected that if the cohesion,
flexibility, and communication values increase in the statistical population of
the study, the psychological well-being will increase as well.
145
Table 4.14
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fourth Research Hypothesis (ANOVA)
ANOVAa
Model Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
Regression 3.887 2 1.944 4.229 0.015
1 Residual 171.445 373 0.460
Total 175.332 375
Regression 55.499 5 11.100 34.272 0.000
2 Residual 119.833 370 0.324
Total 175.332 375
In this regard, the results show (Table 4.15) that cohesion has the
largest beta coefficient (beta=0.324). The second great beta coefficient is for
flexibility (beta=0.193) while the least beta coefficient is related to
communication (beta=0.109). As a result, cohesion variable is the factor
which has the largest role in predicting the variance of the psychological-
well-being, flexibility is also the second and finally communication is the
least influential factor on predicting the variance of psychological well-being.
The findings also revealed that, for cohesion, the value of B=0.259.
This means if cohesion were to increase by one standard deviation, then, the
psychological well-being will increase to 0.259 of the standard deviation as
well. For flexibility B=0.167. This means if flexibility were to increase by
one standard deviation, then, the psychological well-being will increase to
0.167 of the standard deviation as well, while for communication B=0.174. It
means that, if communication were to increase by one unit subsequently, the
psychological well-being will also increase to 0.174.
146
Table 4.15
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fourth Research Hypothesis (Coefficients)
Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients T Sig
α B Std.Error Beta
Constant 5.863 0.528 11.111
Age -.085 0.031 -0.139 -2.713 0.007
Gender 0.073 0.070 0.054 1.047 0.296
Constant 2.829 0.525 5.387 0.000
Age -0.028 0.027 -0.045 -1.038 0.300
Gender 0.135 0.059 0.099 2.288 0.023
Cohesion 0.259 .060 0.324 4.345 0.000
Flexibility 0.167 0.063 0.193 2.646 0.008
Communication 0.174 0.077 0.109 2.247 0.025
In fact, the variance of dependent variable by independent variables
can be calculated through the following equation:
well  being  2.829  0.259(cohesion)  0.167( flexibility )

 0.174(communication)
Yˆ    X    X
1 2 3
4.3.4 Contribution of School Satisfaction in Variability of PWB
This section focuses on testing the fifth research question and related
hypothesis as follows.
Do school satisfaction constructs (attitude towards school, attitude towards
teacher, academic self-perception, goal valuation, and motivation)
significantly contribute to the variation of psychological well-being of high
school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
H04: There is no significant contribution of the school satisfaction constructs
(attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, academic self-perception,
147
goal valuation, and motivation) towards the variation of the psychological
well-being of high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
With regard to research question 5, participants responded to 35
questions by the answer ranging from 1 to 6 point Likert scale. For the
analysis of the responses and also for predicting the variance of the dependent
variable (psychological well-being) by the independent variables (school
satisfaction components), the multiple hierarchical regression was used but
before that the validity of the regression conditions were checked as follows.
Outlier data: In order to probe the presence or the absence of the
outlier, Mahalanobis index was inspected (Hair et al., 2010). In this setting,
since the Mahalanobis value (15.91>15.086) was higher than the chi-square
(  2 ) in confidence interval of 99% and df=5 for one case of the studied
samples, thus that case was identified as outlier and omitted from the
regression equation. The result is clear in Table 4.13 and in Figure 4.12.
Table 4.16
Residual Statistics (Mahalanobis Distance)
Std.
Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation N
Mahal.
0.181 15.910 3.989 3.244 376
Distance
148
Figure ‎4.12. The estimation of Mahalanobis indicator for examining the
outlier cases
Residual plots: The necessity to analyze residuals is one of the
requirements which is to be done before the regression analysis in order to
ascertain the lack of curvilinear correlation among independent and
dependent variables (Hair et al., 2010). Figure 4.13 illustrates that residuals
are free and no curvilinear relationship exists between independent variables
with dependent variable. Therefore, regression equation can be used in
predicting the psychological well-being variance.
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Figure ‎4.13. Linear regression plots between residual versus predicted values
Multicollinearity: To assess multicollinearity between independent
variables, VIF and Tolerance criteria were used. The values of these criteria
will show the magnitude of multicollinearity between independent variables.
The results are presented in Table 4.14. According to the obtained values,
none of the VIF of independent variables is not more than 5 and their
tolerance is not less than 0.2 (Marthin & Bridgmon, 2012). Thus no
multicollinearity was observed and all independent variables are discovered
to be located in favorable status due to lack of multicollinearity relations.
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Table 4.17
VIF and Tolerance of School Satisfaction Components
Multicollinearity Statistics
Model
Tolerance VIF
Academic self-perception 0.536 1.866
Motivation 0.485 2.063
Attitude towards teacher 0.624 1.603
Goal valuation 0.576 1.735
Attitude towards school 0.542 1.845
After evaluating the validity of regression conditions, school
satisfaction components are studied by employing the hierarchical method. In
fact, to assess the strength of academic self-perception, motivation, attitude
towards teacher, goal valuation and attitude towards school in prediction of
the student’s psychological well-being regardless the influences of age and
gender, hierarchical regression is utilized. In this regard age and gender are
referred to as the first block and academic self-perception, motivation,
attitude towards teacher, goal valuation and attitude towards school as the
second block entered to the regression equation. The results are explained by
following tables.
Table 4.18 reveals that there is a positive significant relationship between
psychological well-being and academic self-perception (r=0.532; p<0.01),
motivation (r=0.480; p<0.01), attitude towards teacher (r=0.443; p<0.01),
goal valuation (r=0.440; p<0.01) and school satisfaction (r=0.302; p<0.01).
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Table 4.18
Pearson r Correlation Coefficient
Correlations
Academic Motivation Attitude Goal Attitude
self- towards valuation toward
Pearson perception teacher school
Correlation PWB 0.532 0.480 0.443 0.440 0.302
sig 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
N 376 376 376 376 376
Findings introduced two models as well (Table 4.19); model 1 refers
to the first block of variables included in the regression equation and model 2
consists of all the variables included in both blocks.
In the first model the results show the value of the multiple correlation
coefficients R=0.149 (obtained scores from a linear combination of age and
gender on one side and psychological well-being on the other side) and
R2=0.022. It means 2.2% the psychological well-being variance is explainable
by age and gender, while in the second model the value of the multiple
correlation coefficients R=0.616 (obtained scores from a linear combination
of age, gender, academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards
teacher, goal valuation and attitude toward school on one side and
psychological well-being on the other side) and the value of R2=0.380. This
means that 38% of the psychological well-being variance is predictable by all
the mentioned variables in both blocks.
To disclose how much of the value of the whole variance is shown by
academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards teacher, and goal
valuation when the influence of age and gender are controlled, the research
benefits from the R square change value (Pallant, 2007). Table 4.19 shows R2
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change=0.358. This means that academic self-perception, motivation, attitude
towards teacher, and goal valuation are within 35.8% of the psychological
well-being variance even when the influence of age and gender is statistically
under control. This is a significantly contribution as p.F change<0.01.
Table 4.19
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fifth Research Hypothesis (Model
Summary)
Model Summary
Mode R R2 Adjusted Std. Error Change Statistics
2 2
R of the R F Change df1 df2 Sig. F
Estimate Change Change
1 0.149 0.022 0.017 0.67797 0.022 4.229 2 373 0.015
2 0.616 0.380 0.368 0.54354 0.358 42.462 5 368 0.000
The model as a whole is significant F=32.210; p<0.01 (Table 4.20).
Consequently, with the confidence interval of 99%, it is observed that there is
a significant relation between mentioned variables with psychological well-
being that is not due to sampling error. Thus, H04 is rejected, and it is
anticipated that if academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards
teacher, and goal valuation develop in the statistical population,
psychological well-being will increase as well.
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Table 4.20
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fifth Research Hypothesis(ANOVA)
ANOVAa
Model Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Regression 3.887 2 1.944 4.229 0.015
1 Residual 171.445 373 0.460
Total 175.332 375
Regression 66.612 7 9.516 32.210 0.000
2 Residual 108.720 368 0.295
Total 175.332 375
In this regard the scanning of the sig. column (Table 4.21) illustrate
that academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards teacher and goal
valuation make a statistically significant contribution to the psychological
well-being variance. Since academic self-perception has the largest beta
coefficient (beta =0.332) and the second great beta coefficient is for
motivation (beta =0.183). Attitude towards teacher (beta =0.151) and goal
valuation (beta =0.143) have the third and the fourth great beta coefficient
respectively. However, attitude towards school did not make a unique
contribution.
As a result, academic self-perception variable is the factor which has
the largest role in predicting the variance of psychological-well-being, while
motivation is also the second influential factor, attitude towards teacher is the
third effective factor as well, and finally, goal valuation is the last influential
factor on predicting the variance of psychological well-being.
The results also showed that the value of B=0.267 is for academic
self-perception. It means that if academic self-perception were to increase by
154
one standard deviation, then, the psychological well-being will increase to
0.267 of the standard deviation as well. The value of B=0.146 is for
motivation, meaning that, if motivation were to increase by one unit
subsequently psychological well-being will increase to 0.146 of the standard
deviation as well.
The value of B=0.121 is for attitude towards teacher and for goal
valuation is B=0.117. This means, if each attitude towards teacher and goal
valuation variables were to increase by one unit, the psychological well-being
will also increase to 0.121 and 0.117 of the standard deviation respectively.
Table 4.21
Multiple Hierarchical Regression to Test Fifth Research Hypothesis (Coefficients)
Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients T Sig
α B Std.Error Beta
(Constant) 5.86 0.528 11.111 0.000
Age -0.085 0.031 -0.139 -2.713 0.007
Gender 0.073 0.070 0.054 1.047 0.296
(Constant) 2.18 0.507 4.302 0.000
Age -0.034 0.026 -0.056 -1.347 0.179
Gender 0.212 0.057 0.156 3.700 0.000
Academic self- 0.267 0.046 0.332 5.827 0.000
perception
Motivation 0.146 0.048 0.183 3.056 0.002
Attitude towards 0.121 0.047 0.151 2.560 0.011
teacher
Goal valuation 0.117 0.045 0.143 2.629 0.009

Attitude towards -0.062 0.035 -0.098 -1.758 0.080
school
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In order to predict students’ psychological well-being by using goal
valuation, attitude towards teacher, motivation and academic self-perception,
the following equation can be used.
Yˆ    1 X 1   2 X 2  3 3   4 X 4
psycholog ical.well  being  2.182  (0.267  academic self - percepttion ) 
(0.146  motivation)  (0.121 attitude.towards.teacher)  (0.117  goal.valuation)
4.4 Summary of the Findings

The results of this research are visible in Table 4.16 briefly.
Table 4.22
The Summary of the Findings of the Statistical Analyses
Research question and Hypotheses Results

What is the status of, psychological well-being of high school
Q1 Moderate
students in Khomeinishahr, Iran?
There is no significant difference in the status of psychological Failed to
H01 well-being of male and female high school students in be
Khomeinishahr, Iran. rejected
There is no significant difference in the status of psychological
H02 well-being of different age groups of high school students in Rejected
Khomeinishahr, Iran.
There is no significant contribution of the family satisfaction
constructs (cohesion, flexibility, and communication) towards
H03 Rejected
the variation of the psychological well-being of high school
students in Khomeinishahr, Iran
There is no significant contribution of the school satisfaction
constructs (attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher,
H04 academic self-perception, goal valuation and motivation) Rejected
towards the variation of the psychological well-being of high
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
The aim of chapter 5 is to discuss the significant findings as presented in
chapter 4. This chapter also provides a summary of the whole research. Additionally,
it incorporates implications, recommendations and suggestions for future researches.
Finally, the limitations of the study and conclusions are also briefed.
5.2 Discussion of Findings
This section presents an overview of the findings and discussions based on each
research question of the study. First, the status of students’ psychological well-being
was discussed. Then, an attempt was made to discuss on the differences of the status
of students’ psychological well-being according to gender and age group. Next, the
contributions of cohesion, flexibility and communication towards the variation of
students’ psychological well-being were discussed. Finally, academic self-
perception, motivation, attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher and goal
valuation were discussed with regard to their contributions to students’ psychological
well-being.
5.2.1 Discussion on the Status of Students’ Psychological Well-Being
The results of the study show that the psychological well-being status
of the students in Khomeinishahr, Iran was moderate. Previous researches in
this area have shown that the students’ mental status in Iran was at risk.
Although the result of this study has shown that students’ well-being is not at
risk, it is still not at a satisfactory status as well.
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From this point of view, it can be said that the results of this study are
inconsistent with those of previous researches which announced that Iran
students’ mental health is alarming. Mehri and Seddighi (2011) had also
mentioned the high prevalence of mental disorder among students of
Sabzevar University. Moreover, Tavakolizadeh and Khodadadi (2010) also
stressed those psychological disorders of university students in Gonabad Iran
such as social dysfunction, somatization, anxiety and depression were at a
risk too. Similarly, Moosavi et al. (1998) and Sadeghian et al. (2009) reported
the number of students in Bandar Abbas and Hamedan, Iran who suffered
from depression and anxiety was on the high risk level.
Conversely, Khairabadi and Yosefi, (2002) and Hosseini et al. (2003)
indicated that the mental health status of Kurdistan’s people was low. It is
worth mentioning also that Mohammadi et al. (2003) had ascertained that the
level of mental disorder of the rural population in Meybod, Iran was low.
One possible reason for dissimilarities between the findings of the
current research and those of the mentioned studies could be due to the fact
that the mentioned studies were mostly conducted in cities geographically
located in the border of the country (e.g. Hamedan, Sari, and Gonabad cities).
These are generally undeveloped and poor cities in which standards of life
criteria are at a low level. Residents of these cities endure more pressure due
to lack of living facilities which result in their psychological status. However,
the present research was conducted in Khomeinishahr, a city in the developed
province of Isfahan located in the centre of Iran. Residents of such developed
provinces can experience higher standards of living criteria as well as life
facilities. Another possible explanation for inconsistent findings may be due
158
to different sample population. Most of the previous studies were conducted
on adults who burden more responsibilities in life. Meanwhile, teenagers
constitute the sample population of the present study who have less
responsibility than adults.
5.2.2 Discussion on the Difference of PWB Status based on Gender
The result of this study demonstrates that there is no significant
difference between male and female students in terms of their psychological
well-being. In other words, male and female students were discovered to have
the same psychological well-being status.
The result of this study is in accordance with the finding of the
research conducted by Tavakolizadeh and Khodadadi (2010) and Khairabadi
and Yosefi (2002) which disclosed that gender is not a significant factor
affecting psychological disorders. Similarly, Hosseininasab et al. (2008)
showed an absence of meaningful difference between the males and females
with regard to their mental health. Moreover, the finding of this research is
supported with the results which disclosed that there is no significant
difference in happiness between male and female, single and married
individuals (Keshavarz et al., 2008).
However, with regard to this fact, researchers have achieved different
results. This is because some studies disclosed that gender can influence an
individuals’psychological state, for example, according to Masoudzadeh et al.
(2004) mental disorders are more common among females rather than among
males. Similarly, Farahbakhsh et al. (2005) argued that boys were at the high
level of happiness in comparison with girls.
159
Moreover, Hosseini et al. (2003) reported that females possess
psychiatric symptoms and need to be attended by physicians or they need to
be sent to consultation centres rather than the males. It also has been
emphasized by Saki and Keikhaveni (2002) that men are in a better status
than women based on their mental health state.
Reciprocally, some findings opposed with the fact that mental
disorders are more common among males, for example, Akbari et al. (2008)
discovered that psychological disorders are seen more among males rather
than among females. Furthermore, Michaeli (2010) acknowledged that girls
are much better than boys in their status of mental health. Equally, Mehri and
Seddighi (2011) also revealed that men are more likely to suffer from
depression than women. The result of their research is also consistent with
that discovered by Aghayousefi and Sharif (2011). They explained that
females are in a better mental health state than males.
These differences in the findings of the aforementioned studies can be
due to the differences in the sample population, differences of the time when
the studies were conducted, differences in the appellation of the measurement
instruments (SCL-90-R and GHQ-28), the difference in the age range and
difference of the total number of men and women as respondents.
5.2.3 Discussion on the Difference of PWB Status based on Age Groups
The results of this study demonstrate that there is a significant
difference in attributes of students between the ages of 15 and 16 years with
18 years based on their psychological well-being. The findings revealed 15
and 16 years old group are in a better status than the18 year old group in
terms of psychological well-being. This is in line with the findings made by

160
Masoudzadeh et al. (2004) and Sadeghian et al. (2009). They mentioned that
as a person ages, depression and anxiety increases.
Many researches have been conducted on this matter, and they have
revealed that at the latest years of high school, teenagers are under great
psychological pressure due to several reasons such as physical development,
gender differences, identity crisis, emotionalism, and fear of responsibility or
failure in obtaining jobs. All of the aforementioned factors influenced them to
become individuals who are very vulnerable to psychological trauma (Asadi
& Ahmadi, 2000). Moreover, in the final years of high school, teenagers will
experience more stress due to the university entrance exam (Hajforoush,
2002).
However, the result of this research is inconsistent with those obtained
by Zandypour and Yadegari (2007). They stated that satisfaction with life and
positive emotions slightly increases as age increases while the negative
emotions decrease as the age increases. It is notable that the different results
may be due to some reasons that are mentioned as follows:
 The sample population in Zandypour’s and Yadegari’s studies
included university students while the sample population of this
research comprised high school students.
 Participants of this present study were within the age range of
15 to 18 years (mean=16.5) but participants of that sample were
between 20 to 43 years old (mean=26)
 All samples of the present study were single while all samples
of Zandypour’s and Yadegari’s studies were married.
161
 The present study was conducted in Khomeinishahr with a
completely different context from Tehran.
 The population of this study consisted of males and females
while the other was made up just females.
 Inequality of age groups is also another factor that can affect
results.
 Iranian high school students in this period usually prepare
themselves to be successful in university entrance exam which
is generally considered as hard and very difficult by the
students. That is why high school students, especially those in
the last year of high school, are under extreme stress.
5.2.4 Discussion on Contribution of Family Satisfaction in Variability of
PWB
The results of the study demonstrate that family satisfaction constructs
(cohesion, flexibility, and communication) contributes significantly towards
the variance of psychological well-being. These findings are based on
multiple hierarchical regression test which shows that the largest beta
coefficient value is for cohesion variable. This clarifies that cohesion towards
psychological well-being creates a significant explanation of the variance of
the psychological well-being.
The second great beta coefficient is for flexibility variable. This
illustrates that flexibility provides a second major contribution towards the
interpretation of the psychological well-being variance. Finally, the third
largest beta coefficient is for communication variable. This shows that
162
communication is the third biggest contribution toward the interpretation of
the psychological well-being variance. Indeed, according to the finding of the
testing research hypothesis 3, all components of family satisfaction are
influential factors of students’ psychological well-being as cohesion is the
attribute that has the highest influence while communication exhibits the
lowest influence. This result is explainable by the following paragraphs.
First of all, the obtained results of this study are supported by Family
System Theory. Minuchin (1974) mentioned that cohesion and flexibility are
two of the effective factors in family structure. He believed that efficient
families maintain cohesion and are flexible enough to improve their family
system when they encounter a stressful situation.
Similarly, Olson et al. (1989) advocated that cohesion, flexibility, and
communication are three vital elements that should be considered when
evaluating the family function. Earlier, Olson and Wilson (1986) emphasized
on cohesion and flexibility of how the systems create a balance of their
togetherness in contrast to separateness. The focus later is seen in other
researches, for example, Vandeleur et al. (2009) mentioned that cohesion is
the most important component that produces results in satisfaction with
family bonds. They argued that cohesion is necessary for closeness in family
relations in which family members will feel generally satisfied and happy.
In the light of attachment theory, the result of this study is also
reasonable. According to the attachment theory, emotional connection
between family members, especially mother and children is an important
factor for emotional growth of children (Bowlby, 1977). A similar result can
be seen in Darvizeh’s (2003) study which revealed that lack of attachment of
163
youths to their parents can cause mental disorders. On the other hand,
parents’ attachment to their children may result in the development of social
adjustment among family members (Vahedi & Moradi, 2002). Furthermore,
the results of this study are consistent with the findings of other researches
conducted on family area as illustrated in the following paragraphs.
In 2006, Samani and Razavieh discovered that families with high
cohesion level have low psychological problem level and on the contrary,
families with low cohesion level have high problem level. They also
mentioned that as students feel more different than their parents do, they
become less satisfied of themselves. The worst situation is that when a
student realises that his or her sensation on family cohesion is less and vice
versa, his emotional autonomy is high.
In this setting, Compan et al. (2002) also obtained a similar result.
They discovered that people who experience more cohesion and
communication in their family, have less requirement for mental health
service. Obviously, the highest level of cohesion and adaptability is related to
the least behavior problems and vice versa (Dreman, 2003). However, as an
individual becomes more flexible, he or she will experience more happiness
(Keshavarz et al., 2008).
Researchers asserted that the level of cohesion, conformity,
communication and marital satisfaction are highly significant in contrast to
merciful than the unmerciful couples (Khojastehmehr et al., 2009).
Moreover, a group of researchers in 2008 shared facts about children’s
perfectionism which is the result of family adjustment as well as unity
164
(Jamshidi et al., 2008). Earlier, it is shown that adjustment and family unity
can influence the formation of identity among teenagers (Razmi, 2004).
Crespo et al. (2011) also supported this claim which showed that
family ritual was perceived to be indirectly connected to adolescents’
psychological well-being through family cohesion. Similarly, Zareh and
Samani, (2008) displayed that family flexibility and cohesion are significant
predictors for goal orientation among children.
In agreement with the result of this study, Sarvestani (2003) also gave
an emphasis that higher levels of conversation between parents and teenagers
result in a lower rate of drug abuse. Another instance in relation to the result
of the study is that family conversations can predict children’s anxiety as well
as their depression states (Kouroshnia & Latifian, 2007).
Therefore, it can be concluded that family satisfaction elements not
only decrease mental problems, influence perfectionism, form identity and
predict goal orientation but also, based on the result of this study, can
improve students’ psychological well-being.
5.2.5 Discussion on Contribution of School Satisfaction in Variability of
PWB
The results of the study demonstrate that school satisfaction constructs
(academic self-perception, motivation, attitude toward teacher, and goal
valuation) contributes significantly towards psychological well-being
variance. Furthermore, the findings of multiple hierarchical regression tests
reveal that the largest beta coefficient value is for academic self-perception
variable. This concludes that academic self-perception towards psychological
well-being creates a significant contribution for the explanation of

165
psychological well-being variance. The second great beta coefficient belongs
to motivation variable. This displays that motivation gives a second
significant contribution for the definition of psychological well-being
variance.
Subsequently, the third main beta coefficient is for the attitude
towards teacher variable. This shows that the attitude towards teacher is the
third main contribution for the description of psychological well-being
variance. Eventually, the fourth major beta coefficient belongs to goal
valuation variable. This shows that the goal valuation is the fourth significant
contribution for the interpretation of psychological well-being variance.
Thus, it can be deduced that academic self-perception has the greatest
influence on students’ psychological well-being while goal valuation
demonstrates the minimum influence. These results are valid according to the
following reasons.
 First of all, the results of this study can be supported by theories such as Full
Functioning theory by Rogers (1961), who is one of the prominent figures in
humanistic psychology. He discovered that people are inherently motivated to
develop a positive self-concept and to understand their potentials. Likewise,
the results can also be fortified by Social Cognitive Theory that emphasize on
self-efficacy as a mirror of individuals’ beliefs about whether or not they can
attain a given level of success at a specific task (Bandura, 1997). Researches
that were conducted on the comparison of students with high and low level of
self-efficiency have shown that students who have the greater level are more
confident in their abilities to be successful than those with lower self-efficacy.
Indeed, self-efficacy has demonstrated to be a useful tool in the understanding
166
of students’ incentive and success in academic contexts (Hejazi et al., 2009).
Similarly, Alport (1961) and Maslow (1968) also emphasized on self-
perception as the most basic factor of children’s and adolescents’ personality
development.
Moreover, researches on humanistic perspective revealed that positive
self-perception and academic achievement are closely associated. In other
words, self-perception is an integral part of students’ learning and mental
growth. In this setting, researchers found a strong correlation between
students’ academic self-perception and academic achievement. For example,
according to Zahravand (2010), students who are successful in school, foster
a positive self-perception that results in their academic achievement. His
results revealed that self-perception is a predictive factor for educational
success. Conversely, underachievers frequently display low self-perceptions
(Diaz, 1998; Ford, 1996). Evidently, students’ positive cognitive beliefs of
their abilities also affect their mental health status (Aminizorar, 2007) while
individuals’ negative perceptions of their educational capabilities can increase
their mental disorder (Salahshour, 2003). Significantly, it is confirmed that
there are positive correlations between self-concept, emotional adjustment,
and mental ability (Williams & Cole, 1968).
As a result, the significant findings of this study are that academic
self-perception not only has a strong relationship with academic achievement
(results from previous studies), but also can be a predictor for students’
psychological well-being (result of this study).
 Another point is that in Iran, education is of great importance. A highly
educated person is able to acquire good jobs and earn proper income. He or
167
she can also create social identity. In addition, education plays a significant
role even at the basic levels of study. For example, students who want to
further their studies to the next level of education, or to choose an important
course, or to be enrolled in a high-ranking school, his or her academic
achievements are given priority.
 It is also considerable that 12 to 19-year-old teenagers develop a new state of
self-centredness for their own selves as they try to re-evaluate everything and
gradually take steps towards ambition and assertiveness. They are more prone
to proud-seeking and fame-seeking, keen to be appreciated, and tend to
exaggerate on them, trying to look for friends’ attention, follow social
acceptability, and have a desire to show off. Teens love to imitate their idols
(Ghaemi, 2014).
All these desires will influence youths to have a tendency of showing
a positive image of their own capability in order to attract their friends’
attention and as well as others (Saif et al., 2004). Besides, Fraillon (2004)
pointed out that the considerations of student’s appraisal of their social status
as well as the consequent ability to function in their school community are
very vital parameters. Students with higher levels of acceptance will show
positive attitudes to their peers, teachers and other members of the school
community. They will also offer proof of trusting others and feeling
comfortable with other members of the school community in most contexts
thereby demonstrating a dispositional favorable attitude to the individual and
the collective members of the school community.
Briefly, it is important that community assigns academic activities or
programmes that match students’ biological traits at these ages and this will
168
promote academic self-perception which is the most influential factor of their
On the other hand, among the evaluated components of school
satisfaction, goal valuation is revealed to have the least influence on an
individual’s psychological well-being. This is in accordance with
developmental psychology that expresses although teenagers are able to
recognize the logic of facts they still have not acquired profound cognitive
skills. Moreover, at the latest age of this period, teenagers tend to dream of
their future aspirations and goals and will struggle to achieve them, whereas
the formation of individual’s self-concept normally has started at the earlier
ages (Ghaemi, 1999). The findings of this research also demonstrate the
priority of self-perception on goals.
This study also discovered that there is an influence of motivation on
students’ psychological well-being, as advocated by Social Cognitive Theory.
According to this theory, people would not strive to change their behavior
without motivation (Bandura, 1991). Similarly, Jennings and Dietz (2003)
regarded motivation as an extension factor for the strong sense of
responsibility.
The result of this study also correspond to that discovered by Taheri
and Maghami (2008). They also stated achievement motivation affects
students’ mental health and self-conception. In fact, many researchers also
mentioned the influence of motivation on educational status which is
indirectly consistent with the results of this study. For example, Yousefi et al.
(2009) revealed that there is a strong relationship between motivation and
169
educational success. They claimed that a motivated student has a better
educational status than others who are not.
The findings of this study also illustrated the influence of attitude
towards teacher on students’ psychological well-being. From this standpoint,
the findings made by Crano and Mellon (1978) are similar with the results of
the present study. According to them, teachers’ relationship with children will
influence children’s future achievements to an extent exceeding their
academic expectations. Likewise, teachers’ intimate and friendly relationship
with students will obviously enhance students’ disciplinary spirit (Salimi,
2003). Consequently, students’ behaviour is influenced by the quality of
interaction between the teachers and students (Klein et al., 2012).
Oreizisamani et al. (2007) also admitted that teacher–student
relationships also influence students’ vitality and motivation. The results
obtained by Baker et al. (2008) from their study are also similar with the
finding of this study. They considered that having a warm and trustful
relationship with teacher will result in positive school outcomes for at-risk
students. In this regard, Fwu and Wang (2002) pointed out the critical role
that teachers play on students’ learning in class.
Another significant factor discovered in this study is the influence of
goal valuation on students’ psychological well-being. This is in accordance
with the claim made by Nikmaram and Sarmad (2007). They affirmed that
goal or ambition is considered as a factor that contributes to an improvement
of students’ educational achievements. Indeed, goal orientation is also
significantly relevant to academic achievements and self-adjusting behaviours
amongst students (Khademi & Noshad, 2006); and it can be a beneficial
170
predicting factor for children’ s happiness in the future (Jokar, 2007).
According to Hidi and Harackiewicz (2000), goals affect how children
approach, engage in, and respond to achievement tasks. Goals play an
important role in increasing the task value and they will encourage students to
progress by using learning strategies and creating a sense of stability.
Students are more likely to be involved in their tasks, thereby making more
attempts and doing better when they value a task (Wigfield, 1994).
5.3 Implications of the Study
The results of this research have implications and provide practical
knowledge for Iranian families, educational planners of the Ministry of Education in
Iran and the Department of Education in Khomeinishahr, the school staff and other
researchers in Iran to improve family and school functions as follows:
a. As the study had examined the students’ interaction processes with their
families, therefore, the results provide valuable information on certain domain
of the families in order to improve family relationship and consequently to
motivate family members to achieve a better and higher status of satisfaction.
b. The finding of this research provides important information on significant
factors that influence students’ psychological well-being at schools.
Therefore, the results of this study will be useful for the Ministry of
Education of Iran in designing a satisfactory educational environment for
students.
c. The research has been conducted according to the requirement of the
Department of Education in Khomeinishahr. Thus, the obtained information
of this study is especially valuable for the Department of Education in
Khomeinishahr.
171
d. Since this study had assessed students’ attitude towards school, thus the
findings of this research will be of interest and valuable for school personnel,
especially for the school staff in Khomeinishahr, Iran who are searching for
strategies to eliminate the inefficiencies and to create a favourable
organizational atmosphere for students.
e. Possibly in future, researchers would conduct new researches and examine
the families and schools from different angles so as to achieve new results.
Therefore, the findings of this exploration could pave the way for subsequent
studies.
f. The study had also prepared practical knowledge for positive psychology,
family and school studies.
g. This study provides a new insight for students to assess their relationship with
family members and their satisfaction with school in general. Besides, the
research provides some clues for students to evaluate their feelings about
themselves, their life and to find their capabilities as well as their weaknesses.
h. The study has provided information on the influence of age factor on
psychological well-being which can be used by educational planners,
families, principal and teachers to create a proper emotional atmosphere in
accordance with students’ needs based on their age.
i. The study can be a suitable motivation for teachers to create a pleasant
communication with their students.
5.4 Recommendations of the Study
The present study was designed to fill the existent vacuum in the discovery of
the influence of family satisfaction and school satisfaction on students’ psychological
well-being. Hereupon, the findings of the study can serve as a baseline for future
172
studies and also present strategies to improve students’ psychological well-being as
follows:
a. As family relationship is an effective factor on psychological well-being,
therefore, it is recommended to guide parents on how to have positive
interaction with their youth.
b. By increasing parents’ knowledge, policy makers and planners will
intensify family’s ability to create a balance between cohesion, flexibility,
and communication among its members.
c. The development of skills, knowledge and attitude of teachers about
students’ emotional needs create a fruitful and friendly communication
between teachers and students.
d. It is necessary to create opportunity to develop students’ cognitive
abilities in order to intensify self-perception by teens’ participation in
extracurricular activities or to develop programs which students can
express themselves. For example, sport contest, exhibition of students’
works, to contribute students in school affairs.
e. With respect to the results of this research suggest parents should be
familiar with teens’ attributes at different ages in order to have a proper
interaction with them.
f. It is important to conduct entertaining and appropriate programs in
accordance with students’ psychological needs in order to increase the
students’ psychological well-being such as group activities or
membership in sports groups, group jaunt or travel, picnic, shopping.
g. As motivation has positive influence on students’ psychological well-
being, it is necessary that education, teachers and other school staffs
173
provide special programs to increase students’ motivation. For example,
encourage students in the material and spiritual form.
5.5 Suggestions for Future Research
Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following
recommendations are proposed for future research.
 It is necessary that educationists and researchers examine the methods and
ways of increasing students’ psychological well-being.
 All these statistical data should be supported by expanded qualitative
research in order to understand precisely family satisfaction, school
satisfaction and psychological well-being.
 Ways of interaction between schools and families should be examined and
identified so as to promote students’ psychological well-being.
 A template or a model should be developed for the purpose of introducing
ways of improving students’ psychological well-being for their future.
 The obstacles and problems hindering the promotion of students’
psychological well-being should be explored, identified and solved.
 In order to increase students’ psychological well-being, it is suggested to
examine the conditions of other sources community such as economic and
social conditions, individual freedom and social, personal security and civil
rights.
 This research was conducted on high school students and hence, will offer
in the future to examine students’ psychological well-being at other periods
of educational system, such as primary and secondary schools and other
174
groups of people other than students, with different levels of education and
fields of study, and other age groups as well.
 The present study was conducted in Khomeinishahr, and it is hoped to do a
similar research in the other cities of Iran so as to achieve a clearer image
of the state of students’ psychological well-being.
 In examining school satisfaction, the present study focused on academic
self-perception, attitude towards school, attitude towards teacher, goal
valuation and motivation. Probably for the next study, the researcher will
pay more attention on the effects of classmates and textbooks and
curriculum on psychological well-being.
5.6 Limitations of the Study
The limitations of the present study are as follows:
i. This research was conducted at high school level following the
recommendation of the Department of Education in Khomeinishahr, Iran.
Therefore, it can be said that the findings of this research cannot be extended
to other educational levels.
ii. According to the educational laws in Iran, a female researcher is not allowed
to enter males’ high schools. This creates some limitations for the collection
of relevant data from males’ schools.
iii. Since the completion of questionnaires was accomplished at schools, it was
difficult for teachers to devote their time towards the research in the process
of data collection.
iv. The students need to answer so many questions that may make them feel
bored. Thus, to reduce this problem, the researcher needs to come up with
175
some strategies, such as by giving them some gifts or rewards which will
involve financial problem.
v. Psychological well-being is a dynamic concept that consists of subjective,
social and psychological domains as well as health-related subject. Therefore,
there are so many items and factors that can influence it. This study only
investigates the effects of family satisfaction and school satisfaction on
students’ psychological well-being. Family satisfaction was examined in the
contexts of cohesion, flexibility and communication. Subsequently, school
satisfaction was investigated with regard to the following elements: attitude
towards school, attitude towards teachers, academic self-perception, goal
valuation and motivation.
5.7 Conclusion
The psychological well-being is an important matter for people and the
community since it suggests the opportunity to discover whether individuals’ overall
needs were fulfilled or not, and to create an overall sense of awareness of their
health, happiness and successful achievement. Seligman et al. (2005) stated that the
aim of psychological well-being is to probe the conditions and processes that
influence the optimization and growth of human potential and function, organizing
interpersonal interactions for putting human beings in satisfactory circumstances.
Scholars believe that there are many factors which contribute to the
individual’s psychological well-being. To keep with the matter in mind, in this study,
families and schools were considered as two influential factors.
According to Sanaee (2001), family plays a crucial role in the shaping of
members’ mental health. On the other hand, researches have shown that school
satisfaction could be a significant appraisal of children’s quality of life and school

176
functioning due to an increased rate of dissatisfaction among students and the
correlation between lower levels of school satisfaction and maladaptive functioning
(Verkuyten & Thijs, 2002).
The findings of this study demonstrated, on the one hand, cohesion,
flexibility and communication in context of family life and on the other hand
academic self-perception, motivation, attitude towards teacher and goal valuation of
school life that contributes to the variation of students’ psychological well-being.
The findings also showed that the psychological well-being status of high school
students in Khomeinishahr, Iran, was moderate and in this regard, age was a
significant factor while gender insignificant. Furthermore, the results of this research
provide information on how to improve family satisfaction, school satisfaction and
psychological well-being among high school students.
However, the findings of this study are hoped to contribute ways of
improving family life and school life. Indeed, the findings of this study have
important contributions for families in the planning of a successful communication
interaction pattern among its members. Likewise, the Department of Education and
school staff will realise the important factors that will contribute to the planning of
healthy environment in schools.
Hopefully, it will inspire the authority to refine their policies with respect to
improving students’ psychological well-being as well. In general, the current
research has contributed several significant strategies for psychological development.
First, it has provided insights into family satisfaction and school satisfaction.
Secondly, it has provided support for the opinion that family satisfaction and school
satisfaction should be considered as influential factors on students’ psychological
well-being. Thirdly, the study has made a contribution to improve the psychological
177
well-being model, Circumplex Model McCoach’s model. Additionally, this study has
provided practical work to reinforce Family System Theory and Social Cognitive
Theory. Finally, this study is characterized as one of the very few studies to
determine students’ psychological well-being by the evaluation of family satisfaction
and school satisfaction among high school students in Khomeinishahr, Iran. In
practical terms, it makes it possible for further research of this domain to be
conducted in this environment.
In light of this summary and with respect to Iran, which is a developing
country with a major population of youths who form a huge population of students,
especially high school, and considering the fact that they are undergoing a sensitive
and critical period of adolescence, hence, more than anyone else they need
acceptance, attention and social support. If the conditions and facilities are not
properly provided, the students’ psychological and physical health will be at risk.
This condition not only creates problems to individuals but will also make the
society to lose a great sum of money and human resource. When students have
problems and emotional conflicts, they will not be compatible with the school
environment, teachers, friends and family members. By contrast, if students’
psychological well-being is being taken care of properly, we can expect a better and
brighter future and healthier society in the political, cultural and economic setting.
178
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APPENDICES
Appendix A
Statistical Population Report of Students of Khomeinishahr
197
198
199
Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) Table
200
Appendix B
The permission letter from Education Department of

Isfahan
201
Appendix C
The Permission letters from Questionnaire Developers
202
203
204
Appendix D
Confirmation of Questionnaires Validity by Isfahan Consultation Centre
205
206
207
208
209
210
‫سؤاالت زیر نشان دهنده احساس شما درباره خود و زندگی تان می باشد‪ .‬به یاد داشته باشید هیچ‬
‫پاسخ درست و غلطی وجود ندارد‪.‬‬
‫چندمین‬ ‫تعداد فرزندان‬ ‫نام مدرسه‬ ‫سن‬ ‫جنسیت‬
‫فرزند خانواده‬
‫کامالً‬ ‫تا حدی‬ ‫نظری‬ ‫تا حدی‬ ‫کامالً‬

‫موافقم‬ ‫مخالفم‬ ‫سؤاالت‬
‫موافقم‬ ‫موافقم‬ ‫ندارم‬ ‫مخالفم‬ ‫مخالفم‬
‫‪ -1‬از ابراز نظرات خود حتی اگر مخالف با‬
‫دیدگاه سایرین باشد‪ ،‬ترسی ندارم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬آنچه که دیگران انجام می دهند‪ ،‬معموالً‬
‫تصمیم های مرا تحت تأثیر قرارنمی دهد‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬از آنچه دیگران راجع به من فکر می کنند‪،‬‬
‫نگران هستم‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -4‬افراد مصمم بر من تأثیر می گذارند‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -5‬به نظرات خود اطمینان دارم‪ ،‬اگرچه آنها‬
‫برخالف نظر جمع باشند‪.‬‬
‫‪ -6‬اظهارنظر درباره مسائل جنجال برانگیز‬
‫برایم مشکل است‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -7‬درباره خودم براساس آنچه که فکر می کنم‬
‫مهم است‪ ،‬قضاوت می کنم‪ ،‬و نه براساس‬
‫ارزرش هایی که دیگران فکر می کنند درست‬
‫است‪.‬‬
‫‪ -8‬به طور کلی احساس می کنم خودم مسئول‬
‫موقعیتی هستم که در آن قرار دارم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -9‬نیازهای رندگی روزمره پیشرفت مرا کند می‬
‫کند‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪-10‬احساس میکنم با افراد و جامعه ای که در آن‬
‫زندگی می کنم هماهنگ نیستم‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪ -11‬در انجام بسیاری از مسئولیت های زندگی‬
‫روزانه ام موفق هستم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -12‬اغلب احساس می کنم در مسئولیت هایم‬
‫غرق شده ام‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -13‬در سازمان دهی زندگی خود به شیوه ای که‬
‫از آن احساس رضایت کنم دچار مشکل هستم‪-( .‬‬
‫)‬
‫‪ -14‬توانسته ام روش زندگی دلخواهم را برای‬
‫خود ایجاد کنم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -15‬به فعالیت هایی که دید مرا باز می کند‬
‫‪211‬‬
‫عالقه مند نیستم‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪ -16‬فکر می کنم داشتن تجارب جدیدی که باعث‬
‫درگیر شدن ذهن آدم درباره خود و جهان می‬
‫شود‪ ،‬مهم است‪.‬‬
‫‪-17‬وقتی فکر می کنم‪ ،‬می بینم طی سال های‬
‫گذشته پیشرفت زیادی نکرده ام‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -18‬دوست ندارم در موقعیت های فرار بگیرم‬
‫که مجبور شوم شیوه های قبلی خود برای انجام‬
‫امور را تغییر دهم‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -19‬برای من زندگی جریان مداومی از‬
‫یادگیری‪ ،‬تغییر و رشد بوده است‪.‬‬
‫‪ -20‬در گذشته برای ایجاد تغییرات و اصالحات‬
‫در زندگی ام تالش می کردم اما حاال دیگر این‬
‫کار را نمی کنم‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -21‬احساس می کنم که باگذشت زمان به عنوان‬
‫یک فرد پیشرفت زیادی داشته ام‪.‬‬
‫‪ -22‬اکثر افراد مرا شخصی دوست داشتنی و‬
‫مهربان می دانند‪.‬‬
‫‪ -23‬حفظ روابط صمیمی برای من مشکل ونا‬
‫امید کننده بوده است‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪-24‬اغلب احساس تنهایی می کنم‪ ،‬چون دوستان‬
‫صمیمی کمی دارم که بتوانم‬
‫نگرانیهاودلواپسیهای خود را با آنان در میان‬
‫بگذارم‪(-) .‬‬
‫‪-25‬از گفتگوهای شخصی و متقابل با اعضای‬
‫خانواده یا دوستان لذت می برم‪.‬‬
‫‪-26‬مردم مرا به عنوان فردی که تمایل دارد‬
‫وقتش را با دیگران سپری کند‪ ،‬توصیف میکنند‬
‫‪ -27‬تجارب زیادی از روابط گرم وصمیمی با‬
‫افراد دیگر ندارم‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -28‬می دانم که می توانم به دوستانم اعتماد کنم‬
‫و آنها می دانند که می توانند به من اعتماد کنند‬
‫‪ -29‬من برای حال زندگی می کنم‪ ،‬و واقعا ً به‬
‫آینده فکر نمی کنم‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪ -30‬احساس می کنم زندگیم هدفمند و جهت دار‬
‫است‪.‬‬
‫‪ -31‬فعالیت های روزانه ی من اغلب ناچیز و‬
‫بی اهمیت به نظر می رسد‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -32‬نسبت به کارهایی که تالش می کنم در‬
‫زندگی ام انجام دهم احساس خوبی ندارم‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪ -33‬از برنامه ریزی برای آینده لذت می برم و‬
‫برای تحقق آن تالش می کنم‪.‬‬
‫‪212‬‬
‫‪ -34‬بعضی از افراد بی هدف زندگی خود را‬
‫سپری می کنند‪ ،‬اما من از آن دسته افراد نیستم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -35‬بعضی اوقات احساس می کنم که همه آنچه‬
‫را که باید در زندگی انجام دهم‪ ،‬انجام داده ام‪-( .‬‬
‫)‬
‫‪ -36‬هنگامی که داستان زندگی خود را مرور‬
‫می کنم‪ ،‬از آنچه برایم پیش آمده است خوشحال‬
‫می شوم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -37‬به طور کلی احساس مثبت و اطمینان‬
‫بخشی درباره خود دارم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -38‬احساس می کنم بسیاری از افرادی که می‬
‫شناسم‪ ،‬در زندگی موفق تر از من بوده اند‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪ -39‬بیشتر جنبه های شخصیت خود را دوست‬
‫دارم‪.‬‬
‫‪ -40‬به طرق مختلف از موفقیت هایم در زندگی‬
‫احساس ناامیدی می کنم‪)-( .‬‬
‫‪ -41‬دید من درباره خودم احتماالً به اندازه دید‬

‫دیگران نسبت به خودشان مثبت نیست‪)-(.‬‬
‫‪-42‬هنگامی که خودم را با دوستان و آشنایان‬
‫مقایسه می کنم‪ ،‬احساس خوبی درباره خودم پیدا‬
‫می کنم‪.‬‬
‫از همکاری شما دانش آموز عزیز سپاسگزارم‪.‬‬
‫صادقی‬
‫‪213‬‬
Appendix E
The Permission Letter from Education Department of Khomeinishahr
214
215
Appendix F
Questionnaires
216
217
218
219
The following set of questions deals with how you feel about yourself and your life. Please
remember that there are no rights or wrong answers.
Circle the number that best describes your Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Strongly
Neutral
present agreement or disagreement with Disagree Somewhat Slightly Slightly Some Agree
each statement. what
1. I am not afraid to voice my opinions, 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
even when they are in opposition to the
opinions of most people..
2. My decisions are not usually influenced 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

by what everyone else is doing.
3. I tend to be influenced by people with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

strong opinions.
4. I have confidence in my opinions, even 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
if they are contrary to the general
consensus.
5. It’s difficult for me to voice my own 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

opinions on controversial matters.
6. I tend to worry about what other people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

think of me.
7. I judge myself by what I think is 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
important, not by the values of what others
think is important.
8. In general, I feel I am in charge of the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

situation in which I live.
9. The demands of everyday life often get 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

me down.
10. I do not fit very well with the people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

and the community around me.
11. I am quite good at managing the many 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

responsibilities of my daily life.
12. I often feel overwhelmed by my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

responsibilities.
13. I have difficulty arranging my life in a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

way that is satisfying to me.
220
7
14. I have been able to build a home and a 1 2 3 4 5 6
lifestyle for myself that is much to my
liking.
15. I am not interested in activities that will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

expand my horizons.
16. I think it is important to have new 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
experiences that challenge how you think
about yourself and the world.
17. When I think about it, I haven’t really 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

improved much as a person over the years.
18. I have a sense that I have developed a 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
lot as a person over time.
19. For me, life has been a continuous 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

process of learning, changing, and growth.
20. I gave up trying to make big 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
improvements or changes in my life a long
time ago.
21. I do not enjoy being in new situations 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
that require me to change my old familiar
ways of doing things.
22. Most people see me as loving and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

affectionate.
23. Maintaining close relationships has 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

been difficult and frustrating for me.
24. I often feel lonely because I have few 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
close friends with whom to share my
concerns.
25. I enjoy personal and mutual 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
conversations with family members or
friends.
26. People would describe me as a giving 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
person, willing to share my time with
others.
27. I have not experienced many warm and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

trusting relationships with others.
221
7
28. I know that I can trust my friends, and 1 2 3 4 5 6
they know they can trust me.
29. I live life one day at a time and don’t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

really think about the future.
30. I have a sense of direction and purpose 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

in life.
31. I don’t have a good sense of what it is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I’m trying to accomplish in life.
32. My daily activities often seem trivial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

and unimportant to me.
33. I enjoy making plans for the future and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

working to make them a reality.
34. Some people wander aimlessly through 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

life, but I am not one of them.
35. I sometimes feel as if I’ve done all 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

there is to do in life.
7
36. When I look at the story of my life, I 1 2 3 4 5 6
am pleased with how things have turned
out.
37. In general, I feel confident and positive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

about myself.
7
38. I like most aspects of my personality. 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
39. In many ways, I feel disappointed 1 2 3 4 5 6
about my achievements in life.
2
40. My attitude about myself is probably 1 3 4 5 6
7
not as positive as most people feel about
themselves.
41. When I compare myself to friends and 1 2 3 4 5 6

7
acquaintances, it makes me feel good about
who I am.
42. I feel like many of the people I know 1 2 3 4 5 6

have gotten more out of life than I have. 7
222
Appendix G
Descriptive Analyses
Frequency distribution of students in terms of gender and age
gender * age Cross tabulation

age Total
15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00
Count 47a 47a 47a 47a 188
% within gender 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 100.0%
1.00
% within age 50.0% 50.0% 50.0% 50.0% 50.0%
% of Total 12.5% 12.5% 12.5% 12.5% 50.0%
gender
Count 47a 47a 47a 47a 188
% within gender 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 100.0%
2.00
% within age 50.0% 50.0% 50.0% 50.0% 50.0%
% of Total 12.5% 12.5% 12.5% 12.5% 50.0%
Count 94 94 94 94 376
% within gender 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 100.0%
Total
% within age 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
% of Total 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 25.0% 100.0%
Each subscript letter denotes a subset of age categories whose column proportions do not differ
significantly from each other at the .05 level.
Distribution of students in terms of percent of age groups and gender
223
The frequency distribution of respondents in terms of cohesion variable and its comparison
to symmetric distribution
The frequency distribution of respondents in terms of flexibility variable and its comparison
224
Frequency distribution of respondents based on communication variable and its comparison
The frequency distribution of respondents in terms of academic self –perception and its
comparison to symmetric distribution
225
Frequency distribution of respondents based on attitude towards teacher and its comparison
Frequency distribution of respondents in terms of attitude towards school and its comparison
226
Frequency distribution of respondents based on goal valuation variable and its comparison
Frequency distribution of respondents based on motivation variable and its comparison to

227
Appendix H
Normality Test of Variables of Study
228
229
230
Appendix I
Checking of Typing Error
No. Variables N Minimum Maximum
Psychological well-being
1 376 2.57 6.36
(range=1-7)
Family satisfaction
2 376 1.78 4.30
(range=1-5)
a) Cohesion 376 1.00 5.00
b) Flexibility 376 1.00 5.00
c) Communication 376 1.50 4.23
School satisfaction
3 376 1.80 5.91
(range=1-6)
a) Academic self-perception 376 1.00 6.00
b) Attitude towards teacher 376 1.00 6.00
c) Attitude towards school 376 1.00 6.00
d) Goal valuation 376 2.00 6.00
e) Motivation 376 1.00 6.00
231
Appendix J
Inferential Analyses
232
Independent Samples T-Test
Group Statistics
gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
1.00 188 4.5366 .78064 .05693

Well-being
2.00 188 4.6098 .57054 .04161
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality of
Variances Means
F Sig. t df
Equal variances assumed 18.094 .000 -1.038 374

WELLBEING
Equal variances not assumed -1.038 342.427
t-test for Equality of Means
Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error
Difference
Equal variances assumed .300 -.07319 .07052

Well-being
Equal variances not assumed .300 -.07319 .07052
t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Lower Upper
Equal variances assumed -.21186 .06547

Well-being
Equal variances not assumed -.21190 .06551
Nonparametric Tests
233
Gender
Case Processing Summary
gender Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
1.00 188 100.0% 0 0.0% 188 100.0%

Well-being
2.00 188 100.0% 0 0.0% 188 100.0%
The variance of psychological well-being scores in terms of gender
234
One-way ANOVA
Descriptive
Well-being
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
15.00 94 4.6451 .74352 .07669 4.4928 4.7974
16.00 94 4.7049 .64288 .06631 4.5732 4.8366
17.00 94 4.5182 .65930 .06800 4.3832 4.6533
18.00 94 4.4245 .66056 .06813 4.2892 4.5598
Total 376 4.5732 .68378 .03526 4.5039 4.6425
Descriptive
Well-being
Minimum Maximum
15.00 2.57 6.36
16.00 2.98 6.14
17.00 2.88 6.29
18.00 2.81 6.21
Total 2.57 6.36
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Well-being
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
1.123 3 372 .340
ANOVA
Wellbeing
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 4.479 3 1.493 3.250 .022
Within Groups 170.853 372 .459
Total 175.332 375
235
Post Hoc Tests, Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: Wellbeing
LSD
(I) age (J) age Mean Difference Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
(I-J) Lower Bound Upper Bound
16.00 -.05977 .09885 .546 -.2542 .1346
15.00 17.00 .12690 .09885 .200 -.0675 .3213
*
18.00 .22061 .09885 .026 .0262 .4150
15.00 .05977 .09885 .546 -.1346 .2542
16.00 17.00 .18667 .09885 .060 -.0077 .3811

*
18.00 .28038 .09885 .005 .0860 .4748
15.00 -.12690 .09885 .200 -.3213 .0675
17.00 16.00 -.18667 .09885 .060 -.3811 .0077
18.00 .09371 .09885 .344 -.1007 .2881

*
15.00 -.22061 .09885 .026 -.4150 -.0262
*
18.00 16.00 -.28038 .09885 .005 -.4748 -.0860
17.00 -.09371 .09885 .344 -.2881 .1007
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
236
The variance of psychological well-being scores in terms of age groups
237
Pearson Correlation
Wellbeing Communication Cohesion Flexibility
** ** **
Pearson Correlation 1 .341 .529 .497
Well-being Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 376 376 376 376

** ** **
Pearson Correlation .341 1 .455 .410
Communication Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 376 376 376 376

** ** **
Pearson Correlation .529 .455 1 .806
Cohesion Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 376 376 376 376

** ** **
Pearson Correlation .497 .410 .806 1
Flexibility Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000
N 376 376 376 376

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Hierarchical Regression
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Well-being 4.5732 .68378 376
Age 16.5000 1.11952 376
Gender 1.5000 .50067 376
Cohesion 3.4541 .85599 376
Flexibility 3.2323 .79133 376
Communication 3.2365 .42916 376

a
Variables Entered/Removed
Model Variables Variables Method

Entered Removed
b
1 Gender, Age . Enter
Communication . Enter
2 Flexibility,
Cohesion
a. Dependent Variable: WELLBEING

b. All requested variables entered.
238
c
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Change Statistics
Square Estimate R Square F Change
Change
a
1 .149 .022 .017 .67797 .022 4.229
b
2 .563 .317 .307 .56910 .294 53.119
c
Model Summary
Model Change Statistics
df1 df2 Sig. F Change
a
1 2 373 .015
b
2 3 370 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), Gender, Age
b. Predictors: (Constant), Gender, Age, Communication, Flexibility, Cohesion
c. Dependent Variable: Well-being
a
ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
b
Regression 3.887 2 1.944 4.229 .015
Residual 171.445 373 .460

1
Total 175.332 375
c
Regression 55.499 5 11.100 34.272 .000
Residual 119.833 370 .324

2
Total 175.332 375
239
a
Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig.
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 5.863 .528 11.111 .000
1 age -.085 .031 -.139 -2.713 .007
gender .073 .070 .054 1.047 .296
(Constant) 2.829 .525 5.387 .000
age -.028 .027 -.045 -1.038 .300
gender .135 .059 .099 2.288 .023

2
Cohesion .259 .060 .324 4.345 .000
Flexibility .167 .063 .193 2.646 .008
Communication .174 .077 .109 2.247 .025
a. Dependent Variable: Wellbeing

a
Excluded Variables
Model Beta In t Sig. Partial Collinearity
Correlation Statistics
Tolerance
b
Cohesion .528 11.914 .000 .526 .967
b
1 Flexibility .498 10.968 .000 .494 .963
b
Communication .331 6.814 .000 .333 .992
a
Excluded Variables
Model Collinearity Statistics
VIF Minimum Tolerance
b
Cohesion 1.034 .967
b
1 Flexibility 1.038 .963
b
Communication 1.008 .992
a. Dependent Variable: Well-being

a. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Gender, Age
240
a
Collinearity Diagnostics
Model Dimension Eigenvalue Condition Index Variance Proportions
(Constant) Age Gender Cohesion
1 2.929 1.000 .00 .00 .01
1 2 .069 6.518 .01 .01 .98
3 .002 35.969 .99 .99 .01
1 5.820 1.000 .00 .00 .00 .00
2 .111 7.237 .00 .00 .59 .03
3 .045 11.431 .01 .03 .39 .07

2
4 .012 22.064 .01 .03 .00 .27
5 .010 23.839 .01 .04 .00 .63
6 .002 55.038 .97 .90 .01 .00
a
Diagnostics
Model Dimension Variance Proportions
Flexibility Communication
1 2
1 .00 .00
2 .03 .00
3 .07 .02
2
4 .54 .44
5 .35 .48
6 .01 .06
241
a
Residuals Statistics
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation N
Predicted Value 3.3236 5.4247 4.5732 .38470 376
Std. Predicted Value -3.248 2.213 .000 1.000 376
Standard Error of Predicted .044 .186 .070 .016 376
Value
Adjusted Predicted Value 3.3346 5.4333 4.5736 .38469 376
Residual -1.44298 1.54982 .00000 .56529 376
Std. Residual -2.536 2.723 .000 .993 376
Stud. Residual -2.564 2.740 .000 1.002 376
Deleted Residual -1.47548 1.56912 -.00037 .57480 376
Stud. Deleted Residual -2.584 2.765 .000 1.004 376
Mahal. Distance 1.273 39.194 4.987 3.147 376
Cook's Distance .000 .046 .003 .004 376
Centered LeverAge Value .003 .105 .013 .008 376
242
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Wellbeing 4.5749 .68388 375
Attitude toward teacher 4.2088 .85372 375
Academic self-perception 4.4023 .85083 375
Motivation 4.2869 .85818 375
Goal valuation 5.0737 .82829 375
Attitude toward school 4.1739 1.07994 375
243
Wellbeing Attitude toward Academic self-
teacher perception
Wellbeing 1.000 .441 .532
Attitude toward teacher .441 1.000 .533
Academic self-perception .532 .533 1.000
Pearson Correlation
Motivation .482 .546 .619
Goal valuation .440 .481 .541
Attitude toward school .300 .652 .489
Wellbeing . .000 .000
Attitude toward teacher .000 . .000
Academic self-perception .000 .000 .
Sig. (1-tailed)
Motivation .000 .000 .000
Goal valuation .000 .000 .000
Attitude toward school .000 .000 .000
Wellbeing 375 375 375
Attitude toward teacher 375 375 375
Academic self-perception 375 375 375
N
Motivation 375 375 375
Goal valuation 375 375 375
Attitude toward school 375 375 375
Correlations
Motivation Goal valuation Attitude toward

school
Wellbeing .482 .440 .300
Attitude toward teacher .546 .481 .652
Academic self-perception .619 .541 .489
Pearson Correlation
Motivation 1.000 .602 .439
Goal valuation .602 1.000 .426
Attitude toward school .439 .426 1.000
Wellbeing .000 .000 .000
Attitude toward teacher .000 .000 .000
Academic self-perception .000 .000 .000
Sig. (1-tailed)
Motivation . .000 .000
Goal valuation .000 . .000
Attitude toward school .000 .000 .
Wellbeing 375 375 375
Attitude toward teacher 375 375 375
Academic self-perception 375 375 375
N Motivation 375 375 375
Goal valuation 375 375 375
Attitude toward school 375 375 375
244
Hierarchical Regression
a
Variables Entered/Removed
Model Variables Variables Method
Entered Removed
b
1 gender, age . Enter
Attitude toward . Enter
teacher
Goal valuation,
Academic self-
2
perception,
Attitude toward
school
Motivation
b. All requested variables entered.
245
c
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Change Statistics
Square Estimate R Square F Change
Change
a
1 .149 .022 .017 .67797 .022 4.229
b
2 .616 .380 .368 .54354 .358 42.462
c
Model Summary
Model Change Statistics
df1 df2 Sig. F Change
a
1 2 373 .015
b
2 5 368 .000
a. Predictors: (Constant), gender, age
b. Predictors: (Constant), gender, age, Attitude toward teacher, Goal valuation, Academic self- perception,
Attitude toward school, Motivation
c. Dependent Variable: Well-Being

a
ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
b
Regression 3.887 2 1.944 4.229 .015
Residual 171.445 373 .460

1
Total 175.332 375
c
Regression 66.612 7 9.516 32.210 .000
Residual 108.720 368 .295

2
Total 175.332 375
a. Dependent Variable: Well-Being
b. Predictors: (Constant), gender, age
c. Predictors: (Constant), gender, age, Attitude toward teacher, Goal valuation, Academic self-
perception, Attitude toward school, Motivation
246
a
Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Standar t Sig. Correlations
Coefficients dized
Coefficie
nts
B Std. Beta Zero- Partial
Error order
(Constant) 5.863 .528 11.111 .000
1 age -.085 .031 -.139 -2.713 .007 -.139 -.139
gender .073 .070 .054 1.047 .296 .054 .054
(Constant) 2.182 .507 4.302 .000
age -.034 .026 -.056 -1.347 .179 -.139 -.070
gender .212 .057 .156 3.700 .000 .054 .189
Attitude toward .121 .047 .151 2.560 .011 .480 .132
teacher
2 Academic self- .267 .046 .332 5.827 .000 .532 .291
perception
Motivation .146 .048 .183 3.056 .002 .443 .157
Attitude toward -.062 .035 -.098 -1.758 .080 .302 -.091
school
Goal valuation .117 .045 .143 2.629 .009 .443 .136

a
Coefficients
Model Correlations Collinearity Statistics

Part Tolerance VIF
(Constant)
1 age -.139 1.000 1.000
gender .054 1.000 1.000
(Constant)
age -.055 .961 1.041
gender .152 .953 1.049
Attitude toward teacher .125 .470 2.130
2 Academic self- perception .239 .520 1.925
Motivation .105 .483 2.069
Attitude toward school -.072 .538 1.859
Goal valuation .108 .569 1.758
247
a
Excluded Variables
Model Beta In t Sig. Partial Collinearity

Correlation Statistics
Tolerance
b
Attitude toward .438 9.474 .000 .441 .989
teacher
b
Academic self- .546 12.478 .000 .543 .967
perception
b
1 Motivation .495 10.708 .000 .485 .941
b
Attitude toward .299 6.043 .000 .299 .979
school
b
Goal valuation .452 9.601 .000 .446 .950
a
Excluded Variables
Model Collinearity Statistics
VIF Minimum Tolerance
b
Attitude teacher 1.011 .989
b
Academic self- perception 1.034 .967
1 Motivation 1.063
b
.941
b
Attitude toward school 1.021 .979
b
Goal valuation 1.052 .950
a
Residuals Statistics
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation N
Predicted Value 3.2734 5.6350 4.5732 .42146 376
Std. Predicted Value -3.084 2.519 .000 1.000 376
Standard Error of Predicted .044 .133 .077 .018 376
Value
Adjusted Predicted Value 3.2640 5.6554 4.5739 .42158 376
Residual -1.50482 1.51561 .00000 .53844 376
Std. Residual -2.769 2.788 .000 .991 376
Stud. Residual -2.801 2.807 -.001 1.002 376
Deleted Residual -1.54042 1.53538 -.00065 .55057 376
Stud. Deleted Residual -2.828 2.833 -.001 1.004 376
Mahal. Distance 1.494 21.484 6.981 3.959 376
Cook's Distance .000 .029 .003 .004 376
Centered Leverage Value .004 .057 .019 .011 376
248
249

MINOO - Final Thesis

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MINOO - Final Thesis

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THE INFLUENCE OF FAMILY SATISFACTION

AND SCHOOL SATISFACTION TOWARDS

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

completing this thesis.

It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of

professionals who guided me on the correct path.

I am sincerely grateful to the Department of Education in Khomeinishahr and

to distribute the questionnaires.

support, both financially and emotionally, throughout my degree. In particular, the

patience and understanding shown by my beloved daughters, Azar and Sima

Table of Contents iii

List of Tables viii

Glossary of Abbreviation xii

List of Publications xiii

1.2 Background of Study 3

1.3 Problem Statement 11

1.4 Research Objectives 15

1.5 Research Questions 16

1.6 Research Hypotheses 17

1.7 Significance of Study 17

1.9 Conceptual Framework of the Study 23

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 26

2.2 Concept of Psychological Well-Being 27

2.3 History of Psychological Well-Being 30

2.4 Psychological Well-Being Theories 33

2.5 Psychological Well-Being Model 37

2.6 Influence of Age and Gender on Individuals’ PWB 40

2.7 Psychological Well-Being in Family and School 41

2.8 Concept of Family Satisfaction 43

2.9 Family System Theory 45

2.10 Circumplex Model 47

2.12 Studies on Family Satisfaction Components 61

2.13 Concept of School Satisfaction 66

2.14 Social Cognitive Theory 68

2.15 McCoach’s Model (2003) 70

2.16 School and Psychological Well-Being 76

2.17 Studies on School Satisfaction Components 78

2.18 Theoretical Framework 91

3.2 Research Design 95

3.3 Research Method and Research Approach 96

3.4 Research Variables 97

3.5 Location of Study 98

3.6 Study Population 98

3.7 Research Sample Population 99

3.8 Instrumentation 102

3.10 Data Analysis 112

3.11 Data Collecting Procedure 115

3.12 Research Procedure 116

3.13 Summary 118

CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 119

4.1 Introduction 119

4.2 Descriptive Analysis 120

4.3 Statistical Analysis and Research Findings 133

4.4 Summary of the Findings 156

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 157

5.1 Introduction 157

5.2 Discussion of Findings 157

5.4 Recommendations of the Study 172

5.5 Suggestions for Future Research 174

5.6 Limitations of the Study 175

5.7 Conclusion 176