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Chapter 6: Cognitive Development, 0 to 3

WHAT’S TO COME
Behaviorist Approach: Basic Mechanics of Learning

Learning Objective 6.1: Describe operant and classical conditioning.
 How does classical conditioning work?

 How does operant conditioning work?
Psychometric Approach: Development and Intelligence Testing

Learning Objective 6.2: Describe how to assess toddlers’ intelligence and summarize relevant
early experiences.
 How do we assess infant development and intelligence?

 What is the impact of the home environment?
 What is the effect of early intervention?
Piagetian Approach: The Sensorimotor Stage

Learning Objective 6.3: Discuss changes in cognition in early childhood and evaluate Piaget’s
theoretical approach for this area.
 What happens during the sensorimotor stage?

 What do infants know about objects and space?
 How accurate was Piaget about the sensorimotor stage?
© 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not
authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated,
forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
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Information-Processing Approach: Perceptions and Representations

Learning Objective 6.4: Summarize how data on intelligence are collected within this approach
and evaluate the data’s value as a predictor of other advances.
 What is habituation?
 What visual processing abilities do infants have?
 Can we predict intelligence?
 Do information processing abilities predict Piagetian abilities?
Cognitive Neuroscience Approach: The Brain’s Cognitive Structures

Learning Objective 6.5: Summarize how the physical structure of the brain is related to cognitive
development.
 What can brain research reveal about the development of cognitive skills?
Social-Contextual Approach: Learning from Interactions with Caregivers

Learning Objective 6.6: Identify some early social and contextual influences on development.
 How does social interaction with adults advance cognitive competence?
Language and Development

Learning Objective 6.7: Summarize the sequence of early language development, identify the
relevant influences, and discuss the relationship to
 What is the sequence of early language development?

 What are the characteristics of early free speech?
 What matters more: nature or nurture?
 What are some of the influences on language development?
 What are the benefits of reading aloud?
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
Chapter 6: Cognitive Development, 0 to 3
Learning Objective 6.1 Discussion Topic 6.1

Describe operant and classical conditioning
Learning Objective 6.2 Lecture Topic 6.1
Discussion Topic 6.2 and 6.3
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Describe how to assess toddlers’

intelligence and summarize relevant early
experiences
Learning Objective 6.3 Lecture Topic 6.2
Discuss changes in cognition in early Knowledge Construction Activity 6.1,
childhood and evaluate Piaget’s theoretical 6.2, and 6.3
approach for this area
Learning Objective 6.4 Knowledge Construction Activity 6.2
Summarize how data on intelligence are and 6.3
collected within this approach and evaluate
the data’s value as a predictor of other
advances
Learning Objective 6.5 Discussion Topic 6.4
Summarize how the physical structure of
the brain is related to cognitive
development
Learning Objective 6.6 Knowledge Construction Activity 6.2
Identify some early social and contextual and 6.4
influences on development
Learning Objective 6.7 Lecture Topic 6.3, 6.4, 6.5
Summarize the sequence of early language Discussion Topic 6.5
development, identify the relevant Independent Study 6.1
influences, and discuss the relationship to Knowledge Construction Activity 6.2,
6.3, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, and 6.8
Applied Activities Applied Activity 6.1, 6.2
EXPANDED OUTLINE
I. Behaviorist Approach: Basic Mechanics of Learning
 The behaviorist approach to cognitive development is concerned with how people learn—
that is, how behavior changes in response to experience.
 Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two important processes behaviorists
study to understand how humans learn.
A. Classical Conditioning
 In classical conditioning, a person learns to make a reflex or involuntary response to a

stimulus that originally did not provoke the response.
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 It enables infants to anticipate an event before it happens by forming associations

between stimuli that regularly occur together.
 Classically conditioned learning becomes extinct, or fades, if it is not reinforced by
repeated association.
B. Operant Conditioning
 In operant conditioning, the learner operates, or acts, on the environment.

 The infant learns to make a certain response to an environmental stimulus to produce a
particular effect.
 Operant conditioning can either involve reinforcements, which increase behaviors, or
punishments, which decrease behaviors.
 Conditioning can also be positive (adding a stimulus to the environment) or negative
(removing a stimulus from the environment).
II. Psychometric Approach: Developmental and Intelligence Testing
 The psychometric approach to child development measures quantitative differences in

abilities that make up intelligences by using tests that indicate or predict these abilities.
 Although there is no clear scientific consensus on a definition of intelligence, most
professionals agree that intelligent behavior is goal oriented and adaptive.
 Intelligence enables people to acquire, remember, and use knowledge; to understand
concepts and relationships; and to solve everyday problems.
 The most well-known approach to intelligence is psychometric.
 The goals of psychometric testing are to measure the factors thought to make up intelligence
and to then predict future performance.
 IQ (intelligence quotient) tests consist of questions or tasks that are supposed to show how
much of the measured abilities a person has, by comparing that person’s performance with
standardized norms.
 Using the psychometric approach, three areas of interest related to cognitive development
during ages 0 to 3 are:
o Intelligence testing
o Assessing the impact of the home environment
o Early intervention
A. Testing Infants and Toddlers
 It is difficult to measure infants’ intelligence.
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 Babies cannot tell others what they know and how they think, so the most obvious way
to gauge their intelligence is to assess what they can do.
 Developmental tests compare a baby’s performance on tasks with established age-
graded norms.
 The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development is a widely used
developmental test designed to assess children from 1 month to 3½ years.
 Scores on the Bayley-III indicate a child’s strengths and weaknesses in five
developmental areas:
o Cognitive
o Language
o Motor
o Social-emotional
o Adaptive behavior
 Separate scores, called developmental quotients (DQs), are calculated for each scale.
 DQs are most useful for early detection of emotional disturbances and sensory,
neurological, and environmental deficits, and in helping parents and professionals plan
for a child’s needs.
B. Assessing the Impact of the Home Environment
 Inheritance and experience both influence intelligence.

 Using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME),
trained observers interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes-or-no checklist the
intellectual stimulation and support observed in a child’s home.
 HOME scores are significantly correlated with measures of cognitive development.
 Factors identified as important include:
o Parental responsiveness
o The number of books in the home
o The presence of playthings that encourage the development of concepts
o Parents’ involvement in children’s play
 These factors have been consistently associated with kindergarten achievement scores,
language competence, and motor and social development.
C. Early Intervention
 Early intervention is a systematic process of planning and providing therapeutic and

educational services for families that need help in meeting infants’, toddlers’, and
preschool children’s developmental needs.
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 The best support for the effectiveness of early intervention programs is from data from
Project CARE and the Abecedarian (ABC) Project.
o The findings of both these projects showed that early educational intervention can
help offset environmental risks and provide significant benefits.
 The most effective early interventions are those that:
o start early and continue throughout the preschool years;
o are time-intensive;
o are based in a child development center and not just in parental training;
o take a comprehensive approach; and
o are tailored to individual needs.
III. Piagetian Approach: The Sensorimotor Stage
 The Piagetian approach to cognitive development looks at changes, or stages, in the quality
of cognitive functioning.
 It is concerned with how the mind structures its activities and adapts to the environment.
 The first of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage.
o During this stage, from birth to approximately age 2, infants learn about themselves and
their world through their developing sensory and motor activity as they change from
creatures who respond primarily through reflexes and random behavior into goal-oriented
toddlers.
A. Sensorimotor Substages
 The sensorimotor stage consists of six substages (Table 6.2).

o During the first five substages, babies learn to coordinate input from their senses and
organize their activities in relation to their environment.
o During the sixth substage, they progress from trial-and-error learning to the use of
symbols and concepts to solve problems.
o Much of this early cognitive growth comes about through circular reactions in which
an infant learns to reproduce pleasurable or interesting events originally discovered
by chance.
 In the first substage (birth to about 1 month), neonates practice reflex behaviors.
 In the second substage (about 1 to 4 months), babies learn to repeat a pleasant bodily
sensation first achieved by chance.
o Piaget called this a primary circular reaction.
 The third substage (about 4 to 8 months) coincides with a new interest in manipulating
objects and learning about their properties.
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o Babies engage in secondary circular reactions: pleasurable intentional actions that

have results beyond the infant’s own body.
 By the time infants reach the fourth substage, coordination of secondary schemes (about
8 to 12 months), they have built on the few schemes they were born with.
o They have learned to generalize from past experience to solve new problems.
o This substage marks the development of complex, goal-directed behavior.
 In the fifth substage (about 12 to 18 months), babies begin to experiment with new
behavior to see what will happen.
o They now engage in tertiary circular reactions, varying an action to test out the result.
o By trial and error, they try out behaviors until they find the best way to attain a goal.
 The sixth substage, mental combinations (about 18 months to 2 years), is a transition
into the preoperational stage of early childhood.
o Representational ability—the ability to mentally represent objects and actions in
memory largely through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental pictures—
frees toddlers from immediate experience.
o They can think about actions before taking them.
o They no longer have to go through laborious trial and error to solve problems.
B. Object Concept
 In his close observations of children, Piaget noted that infants under the age of about 8
months act as if an object no longer exists once it is out of their line of sight.
o This led to his theorizing about the object concept—the understanding that objects
have independent existence, characteristics, and locations in space.
 One aspect of the object concept is object permanence, the realization that something
continues to exist when out of sight.
o At first, infants appear to have no such concept.
o However, by 18 to 24 months, almost all babies understand that objects have
independent existences and will reliably search for hidden objects.
 According to Piaget, object permanence develops gradually during the sensorimotor
stage as children develop the ability to symbolically represent objects.
 There are a number of other explanations for the development of the object concept.
o For example, some research suggests babies may fail to search for hidden objects
because they cannot yet carry out complex sequences of actions.
 Another sign—indeed the most important and obvious one—of a toddler’s emerging
symbolic capacities is language.
C. Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
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 According to Piaget, children do not make the breakthrough to conceptual thought until
the last half of the 2nd year.
 More recent research using simplified tasks and modern tools suggests that certain
limitations Piaget saw in infants’ early cognitive abilities, such as object permanence,
may instead have reflected immature linguistic and motor skills.
 In terms of describing what children do under certain circumstances, and the basic
progression of skills, Piaget was correct.
 However, in some ways infants and toddlers are more cognitively competent than Piaget
imagined.
IV. Information-Processing Approach: Perceptions and Representations
 The information-processing approach focuses on perception, learning, memory, and

problem solving.
 It aims to discover how children process information from the time they encounter it until
they use it.
 Information-processing researchers analyze the separate parts of a complex task to figure out
what abilities are necessary for each part of the task and at what age these abilities develop,
often by using children’s attentional processes to infer what the children know.
 Key aspects of information processing related to the 0 to 3 age range include:
o Habituation
o Visual-processing abilities
o Information processing as a predictor of intelligence
o Information processing and its relationship to the development of Piagetian abilities
A. Habituation
 Much information-processing research with infants is based on habituation, a type of

learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus reduces attention to it.
 Researchers study habituation in newborns by repeatedly presenting a stimulus, usually
a sound or visual pattern, and then monitoring such responses as heart rate, sucking, eye
movements, and brain activity.
 A baby who has been sucking typically stops or sucks less vigorously when the stimulus
is first presented and pays attention to the new stimulus.
o However, after a while, the stimulus loses its novelty and no longer causes the baby
to suck less.
o Resumption of vigorous sucking shows the infant has habituated to the stimulus.
 A new sight or sound, however, will capture the baby’s attention, and the baby will
again stop or reduce sucking.
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o This response to a new stimulus is called dishabituation.

 Researchers gauge the efficiency of infants’ information processing by measuring how
quickly babies habituate, how quickly they reorient to new stimuli, and how much time
they spend looking at the new and the old.
 Liking to look at new things and quickly habituating to them correlates with later signs
of cognitive development.
B. Visual Processing Abilities
 Researchers assume the more time a baby spends looking at something, the more the
baby must like it—an assumption that has been used to develop the visual preference
paradigm.
 Researchers present two stimuli and observe which one babies look at more.
 Visual recognition memory can be examined by using the following method:
o If babies are shown two stimuli side by side and the baby looks longer at a novel
stimulus than a familiar one, it can be assumed that he/she recognized the familiar
stimulus.
o In other words, because the novel stimulus is new, it is more interesting and thus
warrants a better look.
 Contrary to Piaget’s view, this method suggests that babies are able to represent objects
in memory, even before achieving object permanence.
o In addition, babies have individual differences in efficiency of information
processing.
 Vision is particularly important in the development of joint attention, a fundamental
capacity.
 Joint attention, also known as shared attention, involves understanding that you and I
are both looking at the same thing.
 It is key to understanding social interactions, language acquisition, and the
understanding of others’ intentions and mental states.
 Joint attention develops between 10 and 12 months, when babies follow an adults’ gaze
by looking in the same direction.
C. Information Processing as a Predictor of Intelligence
 There is a weak correlation between infants’ scores on developmental tasks, such as the
Bayley Scales, and their later IQ—with the exception of scores for habituation,
attention-recovery, and visual recognition memory abilities.
 In many longitudinal studies, scores during the first 6 months to 1 year of life were
moderately useful in predicting childhood IQ because these measurements are thought
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to indicate attentiveness and processing speed, as well as the tendency to form

expectations based on experience.
 Thus, it seems likely that children who, from the start, are efficient at taking in and
interpreting sensory information later score well on intelligence tests.
 However, other items, for example motor skills, do not seem to relate well to later IQ.
D. Information Processing and the Development of Piagetian Abilities
 Several of the cognitive abilities Piaget identified as developing toward the end of the
sensorimotor stage seem to arise much earlier.
1. Categorization
 According to Piaget, the ability to classify, or group things into categories, does not
appear until the 6th sensorimotor substage, around 18 months.
o Yet by looking longer at items in a new category, even 3-month-olds seem to know,
for example, that a dog is not a cat.
 Infants at first seem to categorize on the basis of perceptual features, such as shape,
color, and pattern, but by 12 to 14 months their categories become conceptual—that is,
they are based on real-world knowledge, particularly knowledge of function.
o As time goes on, broad concepts become more specific.
2. Causality
 Causality involves understanding that one event causes another.

 Piaget maintained that this understanding develops slowly during the 1st year of life.
 At about 4 to 6 months, as infants become able to grasp objects, they begin to
recognize they can act on their environment.
o However, according to Piaget, infants do not yet know that causes must come
before effects; and they do not realize that forces outside of themselves can make
things happen until they are close to 1 year.
 Current research suggests that an understanding of causality does not emerge until at
least the second half of the 1st year.
o Researchers have attributed the growth of causal understanding to a gradual
improvement in information-processing skills.
3. Object Permanence
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 Violation-of-expectations research begins with a familiarization phase in which

infants see an event or series of events happen normally.
o After the infant is habituated to this procedure, the event is changed in a way that
violates normal expectations.
 Using the violation-of-expectations method, Renée Baillargeon found evidence of
object permanence in infants as young as 3½ months.
 Baillargeon’s findings are controversial.
o The fact that an infant looks longer at one scene than another may only show the
infant can see a difference between the two; the longer look at an unexpected event
may simply reflect temporary uncertainty about it.
o It is also possible that in becoming accustomed to the habituation event, an infant
develops the expectations that are then violated by the surprising event and did not
have such knowledge or expectations before.
 However, defenders of violation-of-expectations research insist that a conceptual
interpretation is still the best account for the findings.
4. Number
 Some violation-of-expectations research suggests that an understanding of number

may begin long before Piaget’s sixth substage, when he claimed children first begin to
use symbols.
 Karen Wynn tested whether 5-month-old babies can add and subtract small numbers
of objects and found that the babies could mentally compute the right answers.
 A follow-up to this study found that infants aged 6 to 9 months also had brain activity
that supported violation-of-expectations.
V. Cognitive Neuroscience Approach: The Brain’s Cognitive Structures
 The cognitive neuroscience approach examines the hardware of the central nervous system
to identify what brain structures are involved in specific areas of cognition.
 Brain research supports Piaget’s assumption that neurological maturation is a major factor in
cognitive development.
 Brain growth spurts coincide with changes in cognitive behavior similar to those Piaget
described.
 Some researchers have used brain scans to determine which brain structures affect which
cognitive functions and to chart developmental changes.
 Brain scans provide physical evidence of the location of two separate long-term memory
systems—implicit and explicit.
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 Implicit memory, which develops early in infancy, refers to remembering that occurs
without effort or even conscious awareness; it pertains to habits and skills.
 Explicit memory, also called declarative memory, is conscious or intentional recollection,
usually of facts, names, events, or other things that can be stated or declared.
 In early infancy, when the structures responsible for memory storage are not fully formed,
memories are relatively fleeting.
o This infantile amnesia is tied to brain development.
o The maturing of the hippocampus, a structure deep in the temporal lobes, along with the
development of cortical structures coordinated by the hippocampal formation make
longer-lasting memories possible.
 The prefrontal cortex is believed to control many aspects of cognition.
o During the second half of the 1st year, the prefrontal cortex and associated circuitry
develop the capacity for working memory—short-term storage of information the brain is
processing.
 Although memory systems continue to develop beyond infancy, the early emergence of the
brain’s memory structures shows the importance of environmental stimulation from the first
months of life.
o Social-contextual theorists and researchers pay particular attention to the impact of
environmental influences.
VI. Social-Context Approach: Learning from Interactions with Caregivers
 The social-contextual approach examines the environment’s effects on the learning

process.
 Researchers influenced by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory study how the cultural context
affects early social interactions that may promote cognitive ability, sometimes through the
process of guided participation.
 Guided participation refers to interactions with adults that help structure children’s
activities and bridge the gap between a child’s understanding and an adult’s.
o It often occurs in shared play and in everyday activities in which children learn
informally the skills, knowledge, and values important in their culture, much as an
apprentice would.
 In one cross-cultural study, researchers visited the homes of 14 1- to 2-year-olds in four
different cultures.
o The investigators interviewed caregivers about their child-rearing practices and watched
them help the toddlers learn to dress themselves and play with unfamiliar toys.
o Cultural differences affected the types of guided participation the researchers observed.
o The cultural context influences the way caregivers contribute to cognitive development.
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VII. Language Development
 Language is a communication system based on words and grammar, and it is inextricably

intertwined with cognition.
 A certain level of cognitive development is necessary for language; once language develops,
it promotes cognitive development.
 In the 1950s, a debate raged between two schools of thought on whether linguistic ability is
learned or inborn: one led by B. F. Skinner, the foremost proponent of learning theory, and
the other by the linguist Noam Chomsky.
 Skinner maintained that language learning, like all learning, is based on experience.
o According to Skinner, there is nothing innate about language; rather, children learn
language the same way they learn all things—through environmental influences.
 According to learning theory, children learn language through operant conditioning.
 Linguist Noam Chomsky’s view is called nativism.
o It emphasizes the active role of the learner.
o He proposed that the human brain has an innate capacity for acquiring language; babies
learn to talk as naturally as they learn to walk.
o He suggested that an inborn language acquisition device (LAD) programs children’s
brains to analyze the language they hear and figure out its rules.
o Nativists point out that almost all children master their native language in the same age-
related sequence.
 Most developmental scientists today believe that language acquisition, like most other
aspects of development, depends on an intertwining of nature and nurture.
A. Sequence of Early Language Development
 Before babies can use words, they make their needs and feelings known through sounds
that progress from crying to cooing and babbling, then to accidental imitation, and
finally to deliberate imitation. These sounds are known as prelinguistic speech.
o They go hand in hand with calibration of babies’ perceptual system with their native
language.
o Babies are then ready to engage in language, an ability expressed both with their
gestures as well as their first words and sentences.
1. Early Vocalization
 Crying is a newborn’s first means of communication and has great adaptive value.
o Different pitches, patterns, and intensities signal hunger, sleepiness, or anger.
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 Between 6 weeks and 3 months, babies start cooing when they are happy—squealing,
gurgling, and making vowel sounds.
 At about 3 to 6 months, babies begin to play with speech sounds, matching the sounds
they hear from people around them.
 Babbling—repeating consonant-vowel strings—occurs between 6 and 10 months.
 Imitation is a key to early language development.
 At about 9 to 10 months, infants deliberately imitate sounds without understanding
them.
 Once they have a repertoire of sounds, they string them together in patterns that sound
like language but seem to have no meaning.
 Once infants become familiar with the sounds of words and phrases, they begin to
attach meanings to them.
2. Perceiving Language Sounds and Structure
 Infants’ brains seem to be preset to distinguish basic linguistic units and patterns, and
categorize them as similar or different.
 At first, infants can discriminate the sounds of any language.
o However, starting as early as 6 months for vowels and by 10 months for
consonants, babies lose their sensitivity to sounds that are not part of the language
or languages they usually hear.
o This may help rapid language learning.
o Early experience modifies the neural structure of the brain, which helps with
detection of word patterns in the native language and suppresses attention to
nonnative patterns that would slow native language learning.
 Between 6 and 12 months, babies also begin to become aware of the phonological
rules of their language—how sounds are arranged in speech.
 Long before infants can connect sounds to meanings, they learn to recognize sound
patterns they hear frequently.
3. Gestures
 Before babies can speak, they point.

 Symbolic gestures often emerge around the same time as babies say their first words,
and they function much like words.
o By using them, babies show they understand that symbols can refer to specific
objects, events, desires, and conditions.
 Learning gestures seems to help babies learn to talk.
o Early gestures are a good predictor of later vocabulary size.
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4. First Words
 The average baby says a first word between 10 and 14 months, initiating linguistic
speech—verbal expression that coveys meaning.
o At first an infant’s total verbal repertoire is likely to be “mama” or “dada.”
o Or it may be a simple syllable that has more than one meaning depending on the
context in which the child utters it. For example, “da” may mean “I want that,” “I
want to go out,” or “Where’s Daddy?” A word like this, which expresses a
complete thought, is called a holophrase.
 Addition of new words to the expressive (spoken) vocabulary is slow at first.
o Then, between 16 and 24 months, a “naming explosion” often occurs.
 Passive (receptive or understood) vocabulary continues to grow as verbal
comprehension gradually becomes faster and more accurate and efficient.
o Early language learning is related to later cognitive development.
 Nouns seem to be the easiest type of word for most children to learn.
5. First Sentences
 The next linguistic breakthrough comes when a toddler puts two words together to
express one idea.
o Generally, children do this between 18 and 24 months, but this age range varies
greatly.
 Although prelinguistic speech is closely tied to chronological age, linguistic speech is
not.
o Most children who begin talking fairly late catch up eventually.
 The most common cause of speech delays is a hearing problem.
 A child’s first sentences typically deal with everyday events, things, people, or
activities.
 Children often use telegraphic speech, consisting of only a few essential words.
o Children’s use of telegraphic speech and the form it takes vary, depending on the
language being learned.
 Word order of first sentences generally conforms to what a child hears.
 By about 3, children become increasingly aware of the communicative purpose of
speech and of whether their words are being understood, a sign of growing sensitivity
to the mental lives of others.
o In addition, their speech is fluent, longer, and more complex.
B. Characteristics of Early Speech
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 Early speech has a character all its own.

o Children simplify and use telegraphic speech to say just enough to get their
meaning across.
 Children understand grammatical relationships they cannot yet express.
 Children underextend word meanings and use a word to refer to too small of a
category.
o Children also overextend word meanings and use a word for too large of a category.
 Children also overregularize rules and apply them rigidly, without exception.
C. Influences on Language Development
1. Brain Development
 The tremendous brain growth during the early years of childhood is closely linked
with language development.
 The brain stem and pons, the most primitive parts of the brain and the earliest to
develop, control a newborn’s cries.
 Repetitive babbling may emerge with the maturation of parts of the motor cortex,
which control movements of the face and larynx.
 A brain imaging study points to a link between the brain’s phonetic perception and
motor systems as early as 6 months.
 The development of language actively affects brain networks, helping them recognize
native language sounds.
 In about 98 percent of people, the left hemisphere is dominant for language.
 In toddlers with large vocabularies, brain activation tends to focus on the left temporal
and parietal lobes, whereas in toddlers with smaller vocabularies, brain activation is
more scattered.
 Cortical regions associated with language continue to develop until at least the late
preschool years or beyond.
2. Social Interaction: The Role of Parents and Caregivers
 Language is a social act.

o It takes not only the necessary biological machinery and cognitive capacity, but
also interaction with a live communicative partner.
 Children who grow up without normal social contact and those who are exposed to
language only through television will not develop normal language.
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 Parents or other caregivers play an important role at each stage of language

development providing opportunities and motivation for communicating and providing
models of language use.
 The pace of language acquisition is affected by the:
o Age of parents or caregivers
o Way the parents or caregivers interact with and talk with an infant
o Child’s birth order
o Child care experience
o Schooling
o Peers
o Television exposure
 Adults help an infant at the babbling stage advance toward true speech by repeating
the sounds the baby makes.
o Parents’ imitation of babies’ sounds affects the amount of infant vocalization and
the pace of language learning.
 Caregivers may help babies understand spoken words.
 A strong relationship exists between the frequency of specific words in mothers’
speech and the order in which children learn these words and between mothers’
talkativeness and the size of toddlers’ vocabularies.
o When babies begin to talk, parents or caregivers can boost vocabulary development
by repeating their first words and pronouncing them correctly.
3. Use of Child-Directed Speech
 When talking to an infant or toddler, if someone speaks slowly in a high-pitched voice

with exaggerated ups and downs, simplifies his/her speech, exaggerates vowel sounds,
and uses short words and sentences and much repetition, he or she is using child-
directed speech (CDS), sometimes called parentese or motherese.
o Most adults and even children do it naturally.
 Some investigators challenge the value of CDS, contending that babies speak sooner
and better if they are exposed to more complex adult speech.
o However, most researchers believe CDS helps infants learn their native language or
at least pick it up faster by exaggerating and directing attention to the distinguishing
features of speech sounds.
D. Preparing for Literacy
18
 The frequency with which caregivers read to them can influence how well children
speak and eventually how well and how soon they develop literacy—the ability to read
and write.
 The way parents or caregivers read to children makes a difference.
 Adults tend to have one of three styles of reading to children:
o The describer: A describer focuses on describing what is going on in the pictures
and invites the child to do so as well.
o The comprehender: A comprehender encourages the child to look more deeply at
the meaning of a story and make inferences and predictions.
o The performance-oriented style: A performance-oriented reader reads the story
straight through, introducing the main themes beforehand and asking questions
afterward.
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES
LECTURE TOPICS
Lecture Topic 6.1: Continuity in Infant Mental Development
Many psychologists believe that cognitive development during infancy is a discontinuous

process, and they can cite numerous research studies that suggest little relationship between
measures of infant intelligence and intelligence scores during childhood. Typical of this research
are the correlational studies comparing results of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development and
standard IQ scores during the school years. The correlations are very low until after the age of 5;
at age 5, the correlation between child scores and adult scores is about 0.60, and the correlation
between scores at ages 11 and 18 is about 0.90. The researchers often concluded that intelligence
in infancy is very different from intelligence at later ages.
However, some psychologists believe that mental development is continuous throughout
the life span and that studies fail to show this continuity merely because of the type of
measurements used during infancy. Most infant scales tap sensory and motor capacities, whereas
later childhood scales feature verbal and qualitative abilities. According to these psychologists,
new measures of infant mental capacity are neededand they suggest that these measures
should emphasize attention.
Two aspects of infant attention may be correlated to later intelligence. Decrement of
attention refers to habituation and the turning away of attention from familiar or constant
stimuli. Greater decrements are associated with efficient information processing. Recovery of
attention refers to novelty preference and the attending to discrepant stimuli. “Relatively greater
amounts of looking at novel stimuli, or reciprocally lesser amounts of looking at familiar stimuli,
are generally interpreted as more efficient information processing.” Decrement and recovery of
19
attention are likely to be central mental capacities, related to each other, and perhaps predictive
of childhood cognitive competence. Six-month-old infants’ decrement and recovery of attention
correlate with measures of language ability and standardized intelligence tests of children
between 2 and 8 years of age.
The following abilities have been shown to be related to efficient decrement and recovery
of attention: preference for complexity; advanced sensorimotor development; above-average
play sophistication; quicker problem-solving strategies; and better picture-matching scores.
Research findings resulting from the use of decrement and recovery of attention support
moderate continuity in early cognitive development. Knowledge about mental continuity will
grow as researchers continue to develop better ways of measuring infant responses.
Lecture Topic 6.2: Piaget’s Biography
Piaget’s writings are filled with delightful anecdotes about children’s behavior. However, on first
reading his theory, one often loses this flavor in a discussion of assimilation, accommodation,
schemes, adaptation, equilibrium, disequilibrium, and so on. A biographical look into the life of
this genius may help students appreciate his approach.
Jean Piaget was born in 1896 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. He was a child prodigy who
studied mollusks and published research papers while still in high school. He was even offered a
job as curator of a museum mollusk collection on the basis of his work.
After receiving his doctorate in biological science at the University of Lausanne, he
worked in Binet’s laboratory during the development of the first IQ tests. He was fascinated by
the “wrong” answers children gave. Frustrated by the routine constraints on exactly what and
how questions should be asked in this testing situation, Piaget later developed a clinical
interview approach that has been criticized as unscientific and nonreplicable. A great quantity of
his data also comes from extensively studying his own three children.
The first area of child development investigated by Piaget dealt with the child’s
spontaneous ideas about the physical world: Where does the sun go at night? Where do dreams
come from? The second area of research (1930s) focused on spontaneous cognitive development
in infancy, including such ideas as object permanence. About 1940, Piaget began concentrating
on older children and adolescents. His theory describes the changes that occur in children’s
conceptions of reality and their understanding of adult concepts.
Piaget died in 1980 at the age of 84. His life has been described as very disciplined. He
arose early and wrote several publishable pages daily. Mornings were spent teaching and
attending meetings. In the afternoon, he pondered the current issue of his concern on long walks.
Then in the evening, he read.
During the summer break in the school year, Piaget took the research data that his
assistants had gathered and retired to the Alps. At his retreat, alone in an abandoned farmhouse,
he assimilated the new data and wrote. In the fall, he descended from the mountain like a
modern-day Moses with new books and articles, the product of his “vacation.” He published
20
more than 40 books and hundreds of articles that have drastically changed the fields of
developmental psychology and education.
Lecture Topic 6.3: B. F. Skinner’s “Baby Box”
Skinner’s famous “baby box,” about which there are many legends, could provide the basis of an
interesting discussion in which to clarify the principles of operant conditioning. The major focus
of operant conditioning is the immediate environment. For Skinner’s second child, Deborah, he
built a controlled environment for the purpose of simplifying baby care.
The crib-sized living space called the “baby tender” had a large picture window and
sound-absorbing walls. There was a canvas mattress at the bottom stretched over air filters that
warmed and humidified the air. A long strip of sheet could be moved over the canvas so that a
clean section was always available. Deborah could live in this environment in only a diaper,
regardless of the temperature in the rest of the house. Her movement was unencumbered by
clothing or bedding.
In the baby tender, it was possible to introduce sounds systematically, control exposure to
infection, systematically control temperature, control light and dark, and so forth. (Such an
environment would simplify experimentation with infants, but no experimentation was done with
Deborah.) Popular knowledge of the apparatus came from an article Skinner submitted to Ladies’
Home Journal in 1945. In response to this article, several baby tenders were built on a trial basis,
and marketability of the device was investigated. General Mills Company turned down the
opportunity because it doubted that the item could be patented and there was uncertainty about
public reaction. Another company borrowed money and took advances from customers to
produce “Heir Conditioners.” This firm failed to manufacture the devices, and the owner
absconded. Finally, a furniture company produced a working model, but the selling price was
over $420 a unit. Several later attempts at building an “air crib” also failed. Meanwhile, Deborah
continued to sleep and take naps in the baby tender until she was 2½ years old. Rumors of
Deborah’s psychotic breakdown, her suicide, and her lawsuit against her father are all
unfounded. She is currently a successful artist who lives in London with her husband, Dr. Barry
Buzan.
Lecture Topic 6.4: Language Competency
The appearance of “motherese” some time shortly after the infant’s first birthday as the major
form of language interaction between parent and child highlights the fact that parents are more
interested in conversing with their children than with teaching them language use. In addition to
being fairly simple, highly repetitive, higher-pitched, and in the form of questions, parents’
conversations with their children at this time are generally restricted to the use of concrete nouns
and the present tense and are usually directed to the child’s actions or experiences.
21
Despite the fact that parents are naturally conversational with their infants in a most
beneficial way, parents (and a surprising number of nonparent students) are concerned about how
best to enhance the development of language competency in children. Results from the Language
Indices Project (LIP), which followed the language acquisition of 56 babies, provides
information about some of the key factors.
Principal researcher Paula Menyuk and her associates Martin Schultz and Jacqueline
Liebergott selected a research sample made up half of full-term babies and half of premature
babies. The infants, from four socioeconomic groups, belonged to two-parent families where the
mother did not work outside the home. Major goals of the study were to determine the normal
range of language development during the first 3 years and to study the frequency and style of
verbal interactions exhibited between the mothers and their children. It is important to note that
the study was designed to be a descriptive study, not to teach the mothers how to interact with
their children in order to foster language development. Nonetheless, because the study tended to
focus the mothers’ attention on their children’s language development, and because the
researchers modeled appropriate language interactions when testing the children, the parents
undoubtedly altered their typical “motherese” and practiced with their children between
observation sessions.
One of the most important findings was that the mothers interacted with their children in
a wide variety of ways that were successful in helping the infants to acquire language. Many
individual patterns of development resulted in the children attaining language competency. This
finding suggests that parents should be less concerned about the inevitable comparisons that
occur between their children’s progress and that of others.
A second key finding was that talking to children, rather than at them, is beneficial but
that giving them the opportunity to respond is even more important in successful language
mastery. Even very young children benefit from the chance to have their say, even if their “say”
is prelinguistic speech. An additional finding was that, at 3 years of age, there was little
difference between the children who had been fastest at language mastery and those who
achieved mastery more than 6 months later. Likewise, preemies were not at a disadvantage in
language development by the time they were 3.
The researchers are currently investigating ways to identify early signs of difficulty with
language development. They are also looking for connections between early language
development and later school achievement.
Lecture Topic 6.5: Language Teachability
Language acquisition is assumed to be a universal occurrence for humans. However, some

children do not acquire language on their own and must be explicitly taught. Failure to acquire
language skills diminishes social worlds, decreases learning capabilities and chances for later
academic success, and ultimately reduces opportunities to lead independent, self-fulfilling lives.
22
Mabel Rice, in a review article on language acquisition, points out that the failure to
acquire language skills “should not be automatically equated with limited intelligence, sensory
handicaps, poor parental skills, or impoverished environmental circumstances.” Furthermore, she
maintains that teaching language in these special cases requires specialized strategies that meet
the needs of individual children.
Rice believes that because these children have not learned language while interacting in
ordinary situations, they will not profit from placement in typical preschool situations. Instead,
she believes such children will profit from specially designed preschools where efforts are
concentrated on incorporating the development of language skills within each of the children’s
daily activities and setting specific goals for individual children. Specialized individualized
teaching may be needed for these children throughout their elementary and secondary schooling.
Three components for the teachability of language have been noted by Rice and
Schiefelbusch. First, word meanings, especially those of verbs, are the key elements of language
to teach. Second, the training must balance the skills to be learned and techniques to be used with
the individual’s existing intellectual, perceptual, social, and motor competencies. Third, teaching
new language skills requires convergent strategies that match the child’s language-learning style
with the skills to be learned.
DISCUSSION TOPICS
Discussion Topic 6.1: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning is learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a
particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. Operant conditioning is
learning based on reinforcement and punishment. Ask your students to recall and discuss some
of the lessons that they had learnt using these methods during their childhood.
Discussion Topic 6.2: MRI and Intelligence Testing
With the development of PET scans (positron emission tomography), a new level of observation
for biological functions was created. One of the most sophisticated techniques to be derived from
this new technology is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). With this technique, even specific
chemicals at work in the brain can be identified. MRI may make possible more reliable measures
of differences in intellectual functioning that are based in biological differences. Explore with
your students the ramifications of determining to what degree infant intelligence is based on
biological factors, such as using brain scans for placement in programs.
Discussion Topic 6.3: The Bayley Scales
23
Bring a Bayley kit to class. Show students some of the materials and tell them about the
questions an evaluator might ask a parent. Use the test materials to demonstrate how some skills
develop over the entire period of infancy. For example, the object permanence tasks are useful
for this. You can also show students the language-related items, such as naming the parts of the
body of the doll. Open the discussion by questioning whether these particular infant tasks can
really represent intelligence. This provides a jumping-off point to discuss test reliability, validity,
and the issue of predictive validity for measures of infant intelligence.
Discussion Topic 6.4: Implicit Memory and Explicit Memory
Implicit memory refers to the remembering that occurs without effort or conscious awareness. It
pertains to habits and skills. It is sometimes known as procedural memory. Explicit memory, also
called declarative memory, is conscious or intentional recollection, usually of facts, names, events,
or other things that can be stated or declared. Ask your students to give five examples each of
implicit memory and explicit memory.
Discussion Topic 6.5: Cultural Differences in Language Development
Most people who speak English process isolated vowel sounds mainly in the right hemisphere of
the brain. However, the Japanese (and Americans and Europeans who are reared in Japan) handle
isolated vowel sounds in the left hemisphere. The Japanese language is more heavily dependent
on vowel sounds than other languages are. Language is a determinant of brain organization and
thinking patterns. Discuss the impact that the English and Japanese languages might have on
brain development.
INDEPENDENT STUDIES
Independent Study 6.1: Language Learning
Instruct students to research speech and language therapy programs for developmentally delayed
infants. Encourage then to contact the local early intervention center, speech and language clinic,
or university speech pathology program to seek information. An Internet search on language
development should yield some programs designed for parents.
KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.1: Object Permanence
The following object-permanence tasks can be attempted with infants aged 4 to 8 months, 8 to 12
months, 12 to 18 months, and 18 to 24 months.
24
In observations with the infants, students will present the task and record the results.
Students may work in pairs with one student interacting with the infant and one recording the
data. Alternately, videotapes of caregivers interacting with infants may be presented for class
evaluation.
Task 1: Show each infant an interesting object, such as a rattle. Then cover it with a
piece of cloth. Note the infant’s response. Now move the cloth so that part of the rattle is
exposed. What does the infant do?
Task 2: Show the child the rattle again. Now move it so that it disappears behind a
screen. Does the infant try to find it? Now try this task again, but this time have the toy go
behind one screen and then another one located close by. Again note the child’s response.
Task 3: Show the infant the rattle, then cover it with a small box. Move the box behind
the screen, let the rattle remain behind the screen, and bring the box back into view. Does the
child look behind the screen?
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.2: Application of Terms
This activity will use the principles of generative learning to assist students in gaining a better
understanding of terms. Divide the class into groups of four or five. Assign each group the task
of generating an example for a generative term from this chapter. The example that each group
creates cannot be one that has been used in class or in the book. They must think of a new
application for the term that they are given. Groups are allowed to use their books and notes. By
creating their own example of the term, they demonstrate an understanding of the term to the
level of application. There are several approaches that can be used in this exercise. Students may
be given the entire list at once. Another strategy is to give all of the groups the same term and
then go around the room to discuss outcomes. A third approach is to give each group a different
term and see what examples they can generate.
Some generative terms for Chapter 6
Qualitative development
Primary circular reaction
Secondary circular reaction
Tertiary circular reaction
Object permanence
Schema
Habituation
Guided participation
Holophrase
Telegraphic speech
25
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.3: Evaluate a Baby Toy
With a classmate (if possible) take a field trip to a toy store, baby store, or discount store. Select
an infant toy to evaluate. Consider the following questions:
 Will this toy keep an infant’s attention?

 Can this toy be used for both boys and girls?
 Does this toy allow an infant to use it creatively?
 Is this a toy that will be outgrown?
 Does this toy stimulate sensory development?
 Does this toy stimulate language development?
 Does this toy offer an opportunity for problem solving (thinking)?
 Is this toy safe for infants? How do you know?
 Is this toy good value for the money?
 Would you recommend this toy to parents?
Write a brief paper describing the toy and your evaluation of it. Would you personally want your
child to have this toy?
Knowledge Activity Construction 6.4: Parent Training
Many programs are now being offered to help people become more effective parents and raise
more competent children. These programs are available in many formats (print, video, film) and
are offered by many different groups (day care centers, schools, churches, social services
agencies). Have students make lists of materials and programs that are available to parents in
their community as well as over the Internet. Ask the students to include bilingual information if
available. You can assign groups to research different age ranges: infants, toddlers, preschoolers,
school-age, and adolescents. Have each group appoint a spokesperson to make a class
presentation. Extra credit or community credit might include making the reports available to the
parents in the community.
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.5: Preverbal Communication
Have students observe language and communication patterns of a preverbal child approximately
12 to 18 months old. Here are some interesting things to look for:
a. What sounds is the child capable of producing? Are the sounds limited to those found in
English?
b. What babbling patterns occur, for example, consonant-vowel syllables (da) and syllable
repetition (babababa)?
26
c. Can you detect English intonation patterns? An example is rising intonation for questions
and falling intonation for statements, though the content is entirely babbled syllables.
d. Does the child expect to “carry on a conversation” with whomever is present, and does the
child talk while alone? Talking while alone demonstrates the child’s need to practice what
she is learning. Carrying on a babbled conversation demonstrates the child’s limited
understanding of the social nature of speech.
The student can audio or videotape the child as part of the observation process.
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.6: Your First Word—Were You Really Talking?
Have the student identify his/her first word or, if parents are in class, their child’s first word and
discuss whether it was a real word or babbling. Have them understand that it was a first word if:
(1) it was used only for an object or group of objects; (2) it was used consistently; and, (3) it
occurred at about 1 year of age.
If it was recorded in the baby book or heard before 6 months of age, it was probably
babbling. This is a good time to discuss how information from caregivers is often altered over
time, which is a good example of the flaws of retrospective data collection.
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.7: Language in Baby Books
Instruct students to bring in a variety of books designed for infants and toddlers. These may
include board books (heavy cardboard pages and covers), cloth-covered, or other books designed
to be either read aloud to infants or carried around by the little ones themselves. Students can
find these books at the public library, purchase them at toy stores or bookstores, or bring them
from home.
Have students form small groups to read the books with an eye to the type of language
used in them. Ask them to look for examples of language that are similar to the characteristics of
child-directed speech (repetitive, simple, context-based). Ask them also to evaluate their books
in terms of how well it supports infant language development using either sight-based or
phonetics practices.
Students may recall their favorite books from their childhoods. Most will identify books
from early childhood, but some may remember a classic such as “Goodnight Moon” or “Pat the
Bunny”, as well as the classic Dr. Seuss.
Knowledge Construction Activity 6.8: Observing Infant Storytime
Many public libraries or preschools have story hours for families. Some of these will be
identified as specifically for infants and toddlers. Ask students to attend a story hour for parents
and their very young children. Ask them to take note of the language that is used by adults to
27
adults, and by adults when they are directing their speech to the children. Consider the selection
of the book and how the children respond to it. Did most of the child listen attentively, at least
part of the time? What special things did the reader do to keep the children’s attention? What did
you like best about the experience? Can you offer any suggestions for making it better for
children and their parents?
APPLIED ACTIVITIES
Applied Activity 6.1: Create a Brochure for Parents
In small groups, have students write a brochure for parents who want to do the right things to
encourage their child to learn to speak clearly and correctly. They can use the information given
in the textbook as a starting point, but they will need to consult parenting books and magazines
as well as Internet articles.
Students will submit the following:

1. A reference page listing the sources of their information.
2. A brochure that could be photocopied and given to parents. The brochure should list specific
guidelines for parents to encourage language and literacy. The student can include “warning
signs” of delayed or inadequate language development as well as suggestions for remediation.
For example, a child might have few vocabulary words compared to others in his/her age
range; the parents should encourage the child to ask for things and not respond to grunts or
gestures. Have the student include practical suggestions for all parents, such as limiting TV
time, and instituting a “Read Aloud” quiet time before bed.
Applied Activity 6.2: The Language Acquisition Device and Development of Syntax and
Grammatical Rules
Write the following sentences on the board or present them in a handout.
1. This is a boy who knows how to zib. He is __________.

2. This is a lun; now there are two __________.
3. This is a tass; now there are two __________.
4. This is a girl who knows how to rick. Yesterday she __________.
5. This man knows how to spow. Yesterday he __________.
6. This woman knows how to bing. Yesterday she __________.
At first, the class may not understand what you are asking them to do. Help them by filling in the
first blank. Ask the class how they figured out the word to complete the sentence; what rule of
28
grammar did they use? How does the Language Acquisition Device described by Chomsky work
in this way?
The Ten Minute Test
Answer the questions below utilizing the following terms:
critical period(s) psychometric Piagetian

linguistic sensorimotor habituation
prelinguistic causality information-processing
behaviorist Bayley Scales nativist
1. The __________ approach is concerned with the mental processes of learning and memory.
2. The __________ approach seeks to determine and measure quantitatively the factors that
make up intelligence.
3. The __________ approach is concerned with qualitative stages of cognitive development.
4. The __________ is a standardized test of an infant’s mental and motor development.
5. The __________ period includes crying, cooing, babbling, and imitating language sounds.
6. __________ is a simple form of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows,
or stops a response.
7. Historically, two opposing views about how children acquire language were the __________
theory, which emphasizes the role of reinforcement and imitation, and the __________
theory, which maintains that children have an inborn language acquisition device.
8. Words and phrases form during the __________ period.
9. During the __________ stage, from about birth to 2 years, infants’ cognitive and behavioral
schemes become more elaborate.
10. __________ involves understanding that one event causes another.
Answers to the Ten-Minute Test
1. information-processing
29
2. psychometric
3. Piagetian
4. Bayley Scales
5. prelinguistic
6. habituation
7. behaviorist; nativist
8. linguistic
9. sensorimotor
10. causality
Resources For Instructors
Books and Journal Articles
Childers, J.B. & Tomsello, M. (2002). Two-year-olds learn novel nouns, verbs, and conventional
actions from massed and distilled exposures. Developmental psychology, 38, 967-978.
Chomsky, N.S. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Mash, C., Novak, E., Berthier, N.E., & Keen, R., (2006). What do two-year-olds understand
about hidden-object events? Developmental Psychology, 42(2), 263-271.
Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities
Press.
Rowland, C.F. (2007). Explaining errors in children’s questions. Cognition, 104(1), 106-134.
Saxon, M. (2000). Negative evidence and negative feedback: Immediate effects on the
grammaticality of children’s speech. First Language, 20, 221-252.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behaviors. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Slobin, D.I. (1985). The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition. The Data (Vol 1). Hillside,
N.J.: Erlbaum.
Internet Resources
Child Development Institute. Address:

http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_development.shtml
30
This site provides a chart of language development at different ages.
Chomsky Info: http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/198311--.htm

This site presents an interview with Noam Chomsky about his theory of language development.
Kidsource. Address: www.kidsource.com

This site presents various types of speech and language problems.
Zero to Three. Address: www.zerotothree.org

This is an organization that promotes the healthy development of babies and toddlers.

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SOLUTION MANUAL FOR CHILD 2013 1ST

Chapter 6: Cognitive Development, 0 to 3

Behaviorist Approach: Basic Mechanics of Learning

 How does classical conditioning work?

Psychometric Approach: Development and Intelligence Testing

 How do we assess infant development and intelligence?

Piagetian Approach: The Sensorimotor Stage

 What happens during the sensorimotor stage?

Information-Processing Approach: Perceptions and Representations

Cognitive Neuroscience Approach: The Brain’s Cognitive Structures

Social-Contextual Approach: Learning from Interactions with Caregivers

 How does social interaction with adults advance cognitive competence?

Language and Development

 What is the sequence of early language development?

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

Chapter 6: Cognitive Development, 0 to 3

Learning Objective 6.1 Discussion Topic 6.1

Describe how to assess toddlers’

I. Behaviorist Approach: Basic Mechanics of Learning

 In classical conditioning, a person learns to make a reflex or involuntary response to a

 It enables infants to anticipate an event before it happens by forming associations

 In operant conditioning, the learner operates, or acts, on the environment.

II. Psychometric Approach: Developmental and Intelligence Testing

 The psychometric approach to child development measures quantitative differences in

A. Testing Infants and Toddlers

 It is difficult to measure infants’ intelligence.

B. Assessing the Impact of the Home Environment

 Inheritance and experience both influence intelligence.

 Early intervention is a systematic process of planning and providing therapeutic and

III. Piagetian Approach: The Sensorimotor Stage

 The sensorimotor stage consists of six substages (Table 6.2).

o Babies engage in secondary circular reactions: pleasurable intentional actions that

C. Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

IV. Information-Processing Approach: Perceptions and Representations

 The information-processing approach focuses on perception, learning, memory, and

 Much information-processing research with infants is based on habituation, a type of

o This response to a new stimulus is called dishabituation.

B. Visual Processing Abilities

C. Information Processing as a Predictor of Intelligence

to indicate attentiveness and processing speed, as well as the tendency to form

D. Information Processing and the Development of Piagetian Abilities

 Causality involves understanding that one event causes another.

 Violation-of-expectations research begins with a familiarization phase in which

 Some violation-of-expectations research suggests that an understanding of number

V. Cognitive Neuroscience Approach: The Brain’s Cognitive Structures

VI. Social-Context Approach: Learning from Interactions with Caregivers

 The social-contextual approach examines the environment’s effects on the learning

VII. Language Development

 Language is a communication system based on words and grammar, and it is inextricably

A. Sequence of Early Language Development

2. Perceiving Language Sounds and Structure

 Before babies can speak, they point.

B. Characteristics of Early Speech

 Early speech has a character all its own.

C. Influences on Language Development

2. Social Interaction: The Role of Parents and Caregivers

 Language is a social act.

 Parents or other caregivers play an important role at each stage of language

3. Use of Child-Directed Speech

 When talking to an infant or toddler, if someone speaks slowly in a high-pitched voice

D. Preparing for Literacy

TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES