Applied Mathematics Unit 1.

Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

UNIT 1: VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES

1.1 Scalars and Vectors; Located and Position Vectors in ℝ2 and ℝ 3

A. Scalars and Vectors

In physics, a scalar quantity (or just a scalar) is a physical quantity that can be completely
described by “magnitude” alone. It does not require direction for its description. For example: distance,
speed, mass, time, area, volume, density, pressure, temperature, etc. are scalar quantities. In mathematics
the term scalar is synonymous with the term number. More generally, a scalar (in mathematics) is any
element of a field (1).

In physics, a vector quantity (or just a vector) is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. For example: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, electric field, etc.., are vector
quantities. In mathematics we can define the term vector in various equivalent ways. In geometry, a
vector is a directed line segment, i.e., a line segment to which direction is assigned. Since, a line segment
is determined by its endpoints, so we can also view a geometric vector is an ordered pair (A, B) of points.
In algebra a vector is a finite sequence of real numbers. A finite sequence (a1, a2… an) of n real numbers is
called an n-dimensional vector or an n-tuple. This definition is sometimes called the component wise or
analytic definition of a vector. And such a vector is sometimes called a list vector. More generally, a
vector (in algebra) is any element of a vector space (1). Thus we can treat a vector as a quantity, as a
figure, as a sequence of numbers or as an element of a vector space. In this course we treat vectors mainly
as algebraic objects. But where it is necessary, we shall also consider them as geometrical objects.

Definition 1 (vector):

a) A two dimensional vector is an ordered pair (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) of real numbers.

b) A three dimensional vector is an ordered triple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) of real numbers.

c) An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n- tuple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 ) of real numbers.

Example 1: (-4, 1) is a 2-dimensional vector; (1, 3, 7) is a 3-dimensional vector and (2, 2, 2, 2) is a 4-

dimensional vector.

When a vector is described in component form, we sometimes write the components inside the angular
bracket 〈 , 〉 rather than in parenthesis, as for example, 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉. Geometrically, we can visualize
vector 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 as the line segment in ℝ3 directed from the origin to the point (a, b, c).

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(1) The definitions of the terms field and vector space are given in section 1.6.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

In this course, we deal mainly with three dimensional (3D) vectors and so by a vector we mean 3D vector,
unless specified otherwise. But, in most cases, the notions and results which we give for 3D vectors can
be easily extended to vectors of other dimensions.

Notation: In print, vectors are usually denoted by bold face letters such as a, b, u, v, x, etc. or italics
letters such as a, b, u, v, etc. By hand, a vector is usually denoted by placing a small arrow over a letter

such as a ,𝑏⃗, etc. We write a = (a1, a2, a3), for example. The numbers a1, a2, a3 are called the components
of a. More precisely a1 is called the x-component, a2 is called the y-component and a3 is called the z-
component of a.

Methodological Note (Analogy): Objects that form a set are called elements; objects that form a matrix
are called entries; numbers that represent a point are called coordinates; numbers that from a vector are
called components.

Notation: We denote the set of all n-dimensional vectors by ℝ𝑛 .

Since ℝ1 is equivalent to a line, ℝ2 is equivalent to a plane and ℝ3 is equivalent to the usual space
(physical space), so we can identify ℝ1 with a line,ℝ2 with a plane and ℝ3 with the space.

Note: One important difference between a vector and a point is that the components of a vector do not
depend on the coordinate system used, whereas the coordinates of a point depend.

Definition 2 (zero vector): A vector each of whose components is zero is called a zero vector (null

vector). It is denoted by 0 or 0. Geometrically, the null vector is just a point.

Example 2: The vector (0, 0, 0) is three dimensional zero vector.


Definition 3 (norm): The magnitude (also called length, norm, modulus) of a = (a1, a2, a3) is a non-
negative number given by


a1  a2  a3
2 2 3
 a  =

 
Example 3: If a = (-2,-3,-1),  a = (2) 2  (3) 2  (1) 2 = 14

Definition 4 (Unit vector): A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector.

√3 √3 √3
Example 4: The vectors (1,0,0),(0,1,0) , (0,0,1) and 〈 , 〉 are unit vectors. But (1, 1, 1) is not a unit
3 3 3

vector.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Notation: The vectors (1,0,0),(0,1,0) and (0,0,1) are called the standard unit vectors . They have special
 
symbols: i =(1,0,0) , j =(0,1,0) and 𝑘̂ = (0,0,1)

Definition 5 (equal vectors): Two vectors 𝒂 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and b = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 are said to be equal,
written a = b, if their corresponding components are equal, i.e., a1 = b1 , a1 = b1 and a3 = b3.

Geometrically, two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same length and direction.

B. Located Vectors and Position Vectors

A vector is uniquely determined (up to equality) by its components, i.e., there is only one vector having a
given set of components. Similarly an ordered pair of two points determines a unique vector.

Let A and B be two fixed points in xyz-space. The ordered pair (A, B) determines a unique vector which

we denote by AB . This vector is called a located vector (because the end points of the vector are given

fixed locations). The points A and B are respectively called the initial and terminal points of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 .

Pictorially, we view AB as an arrow from A to B. The arrow tail indicates the initial point and the arrow
head indicates the terminal point of the vector. Given two points A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3) in
xyz-space with origin O, then there is a unique point P(x, y, z) such that AB = OP and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ (i.e.,
𝐴𝐵 ∥ 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ). 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the position vector of 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Moreover, the coordinates of P and the components
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are related by the following equations:
of 𝐴𝐵

𝑥 = 𝑏1 – 𝑎1 , 𝑦 = 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 and 𝑧 = 𝑏3 – 𝑎3

Figure 1: Located Vector and Position Vector

Analytic/Algebraic/ Representation of a located vector: If A(a1, a2, a3) and B (b1, b2, b3) are two points
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be expressed algebraically as:
in a Cartesian coordinate space, then 𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵= 〈 𝑏1 – 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 , 𝑏3 – 𝑎3 〉

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ analytically where A = (-1, 2, 5) and B = (1, 2, 4).

Example 5: Express 𝐴𝐵

Solution: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (1 − (−1), 2 − 2, 4 − 5) = (2, 0, −1)


Note that if A is a point in xyz-space, AA has no direction and no dimension. It is just a point. By
convention we view it as a vector and call it the zero vector or null vector.

Exercise 1.1

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for the points 𝑃 (1, −2, 4) and 𝑄(6, 1, −5).

1. Give the coordinate representation of 𝑃𝑄
2. Decide if the following vectors are equal or not.
a. the vector from (5,3) to (6,2) and the vector from (1,-2) to (1,1).
b. the vector from (2, 1, 1) to (3, 0, 4) and the vector from (5, 1, 4) to (6, 0, 7)
3. Find 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 such that 〈𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 − 1〉 = 〈1, −1, −1〉.
4. Find the length of each vector.
a. 〈3, 1〉 b. 〈−1, 2〉 c. 〈4,1, 1〉 d. 〈0,0,0〉 e. 〈1, −1,1,0〉
5. Determine whether the following vectors are unit vectors or not.
5
1 √3 1 1 1 1 √2 √5 √2
a. 〈1,0, −1〉 b. 〈2 , 〉 c. 〈2 , 2 , 2 , 2〉 d. 〈1,1,1〉 e. 〈 3 , − , , 0〉 𝑓. 〈√2 − 1, 22 〉
2 3 3
1 1
6. Given the vector 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 2 , 3), give all values for the component a1 such that ∥ a ∥= 1.

7. Is there a real number k so that 𝒖 = 〈1, 𝑘, −1〉 is unit vector?

1.2 Vector Addition, Vector Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication

A vector can be combined with another vector or a scalar in various ways to form a vector or a scalar.
These combination mechanisms are called vector operations. Vector operations include vector addition,
vector subtraction, scalar multiplication, scalar product, vector Product and (orthogonal) projection.
Definition 1 (vector addition, vector subtraction and scalar multiplication):

Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and 𝒃 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be vectors and  be a scalar (number).Then we define

a) 𝒂 + 𝒃: = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )

b) 𝒂 − 𝒃 = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )

c) 𝜆𝒂 ∶= (𝜆𝑎1 , 𝜆𝑎2 , 𝜆𝑎3 )

Note: If 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 )are vectors in ℝ3 and  is a scalar, then a + b, a – b and 
a are also vectors in ℝ3 . Thus the set of all 3-dimensional vectors is closed under vector addition, vector
subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Example 1: Let a= (1, −3, 2) and b= (3, 5, −1).Then find:

a) 𝒂 + 𝒃 b) 𝒂 – 𝒃 c) -7𝒂 d) 𝟐𝒂 − 5𝒃 e) 0 𝒃

Solution:

a) a + b= (1+3, -3+5, 2+ (-1)) = (4, 2, 1).

b) a – b= (1-3, -3-5, 2-(-1)) = (5,-15, 10).
c) -7a= (-7(1), -7(-3), 7(2)) = (-7,-21, 14).
d) 2a -5b= (2,-6, 4) – (15, 25, -5) = (-13, -31, 9).
e) (0(3), 0(5), 0(−1)) = (0,0,0) = 𝟎

Geometrical interpretations (definitions) of vector addition, vector subtraction and scalar multiplication
are illustrated via the following figures.

Vector Addition: Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ). Then 𝒂 + 𝒃 = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 +

𝑏3 ) is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as shown.

a+b
a

b Y

Figure 2.Geometric Interpretation of Vector addition

Vector Subtraction:

Given any vector b, then -b is the vector whose magnitude is the same and whose direction is opposite to
that of b.

-b
b

-b
𝑎−𝑏 a

Figure 3.Geometrical interpretation of vector subtraction

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Note that 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 + −𝒃 (see Figure 2 above)

(c) Scalar Multiplication: Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )  (0,0,0) and  be a scalar. Then  a is:

 The vector with direction same as a and with magnitude  a if  >0.

 The vector with direction opposite to a and with magnitude -  a if  < 0.

 The zero vector if  =0.

2a
-2a
a

½a

Figure 4.Geometric interpretation of scalar multiplication

Theorem 1 (Properties of vector addition): Let 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 be vectors. Then

A1: 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂 (commutatitivity)

A2: (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) (Associtivity)

A3: 𝒂+𝟎 = 𝒂 (property of zero vector)

A4: 𝒂 + (−𝒂) = 𝟎 (existence of additive inverse)

Proof (Exercise):

Theorem 2 (Properties of Scalar multiplication):

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 be vectors and  ,  be scalars.

M 1: (  )𝒂 =  (  𝒂) (Associativity)

M 2: (    )𝒂 =  𝒂 +  𝒂 (Distributivity)

M 3: 𝜆(𝒂 + 𝒃) =  𝒂 +  𝒃 (Distributivity)

M 4: 1𝒂 = 𝒂 (property of 1)

Proof:

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Remark:

(1) The magnitude of a vector satisfies the following properties.

i) ‖𝒂‖ ≥0 and ‖𝒂‖ =0 ⇔ a = 0
ii) ‖𝜆𝒂‖ =|𝜆|‖𝒂‖ for all scalars  and a ϵ ℝ3
iii) ‖𝒂 + 𝒃‖ ≤ ‖𝒂‖ + ‖𝒃‖

(2) Any vector 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) can be expressed as a=a1i + a2j + a3k Where i,j and k are the
three special unit vectors.

Justification:

a= (a1, a2,a3)

= (a1, 0,0) + (0, a2,0 )+( 0, 0,a3)

= a1(1,0,0)+a2(0,1,0)+a3(0,0,1)

= a1i + a2j + a3k ฀

 
(3) Given any vector 𝑎 ≠ 𝟎, the unit vector in the direction of a , denoted by u a , is given by


1
u a =‖𝑎⃗‖ 𝑎

Justification:

1 1
i) ‖𝑢
⃗ 𝑎 ‖= 1. On the other hand ‖‖𝑎⃗‖ 𝑎‖ = ‖𝑎⃗‖ ‖𝑎‖ = 1

1 1   
1
ii) Since 
> 0, 
a and a have the same direction.  u a and ‖𝑎⃗‖ ‖𝑎‖ have the
a a

same direction. From i and ii and the geometric definition of equal vectors the
required follows.


(4) Given any vector a, 𝒂 = a u a

Example 2:

a) Find the unit vector in the direction of -3i + j -2k.


 3i  j  2k 3 1 2
Solution: Let a =-3i + j -2k. u a = = i+ j- k
(3)  (1)  (2)
2 2 2
14 14 14

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

b) Find the vector with norm 3.5 in the direction of the vector 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑘.



a 1 2 3
Solution: Let a =i + 2j +3k and b be the required vector u a = 
= i+ j+ k and
a 14 14 14

 
1 2 3
b= b u b = b u a =3.5 ( i+ j+ k)
14 14 14

Exercise 1.2

1. Let 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 7𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏⃗ = −3𝑖 + 4𝑘 and 𝑐 = 5𝑗 − 8𝑘. Compute 2𝑎 +3𝑏⃗ − 5 𝑐

2. Find the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
3. Find the vector of magnitude 9 in the direction of the vector
a) 𝑎 = 𝑖 b) 𝑎 = 2𝑖 c). 𝑎 = 𝑗 d) 𝑎 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
4. Use vector methods to show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
5. Using vectors prove that the line segment joining the mid points of any two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side.
6. Using vectors prove that the medians of a triangle are concurrent.
7. Determine if the points (2,3,2),(1,-1,-3),(4,5,-1) and (5,9,4) form the vertices of a parallelogram
or not.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

1.3 The Dot Product

A. Definition and Properties of the Dot Product

Definition 1 (Dot Product): Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be two vectors. The dot product
(also called scalar product or inner product) of 𝒂 and 𝒃, denoted by 𝒂  𝒃 or a  b or 〈a, b〉, is the number
defined by:

𝒂  𝒃 ∶ = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3

Example 1: Given 𝒂 = 7𝑖 – 6𝑗 + 8𝑘 and 𝒃 = −5𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘, compute a  b and 𝒃 𝒂

Solution: 𝒂  𝒃 = 7(−5) + −6(3) + 8(2) = −37.

𝒃 𝒂 = −5(7) + 3(−6) + 2(8) = −37

Notes:

1) 𝒊𝒋=𝒊𝒌 = 𝒋𝒌 = 𝟎
2) 𝒂 𝒊 = 𝑎1 , 𝒂 𝒋 = 𝑎2 , 𝒂 𝒌 = 𝑎3
3) 𝒊 𝒊 = 𝒋 𝒋 = 𝒌𝒌 = 𝟏

Theorem 1 (Properties of Dot product):

For any vectors a, b and c in R3 and any scalar 𝜆,

I0: a . b is a scalar.

I1: a  b = b a

I2: (𝜆a)  b= 𝜆(a  b) =a  (𝜆 b)

I3: a (b + c) = a b + a c

I4: (a + b) c = a c + b c

Proof:

Notes:

1) a  b = 0 does not necessarily imply a=0 or b=0.

2) a b = a c does not necessarily imply b=c. (Give a counter example).

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

3) 𝒂. 𝒂 = ‖𝒂‖2

Definition 2: The angle between two nonzero vectors a and b is defined to be the angle  , where 0
 m( )   , formed by the corresponding line segments whose initial points are the origin.

The angle between the vectors in the figure is 750 but not 1050.

105

a b

Figure 5: Angle between two vectors


Example 2: Given 𝑃 = (−1,1) , 𝑄 = (2,4) , 𝑟 = (−2,4), 𝑆 = (5, −4), find the angle between PQ and

RS

Answer: 450

Theorem 2[Dot Product Formula]:

Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be nonzero vectors and let  be the angle between them.

Then 𝒂 𝒃 = a b 𝑐𝑜𝑠 

Figure 6: Derivation of dot product formula via the law of Cosines

Proof: From the law of cosines,

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

‖𝒂 − 𝒃‖2 = ‖𝒂‖2 + ‖𝒃‖2 − 2‖𝒂‖‖𝒃‖cos(𝜃)

This implies that

(𝒂 − 𝒃). (𝒂 − 𝒃) = ‖𝒂‖2 + ‖𝒃‖2 − 2‖𝒂‖‖𝒃‖cos(𝜃)

From the last step and Theorem 1, we get

𝒂. 𝒂 − 2(𝒂. 𝒃) + 𝒃. 𝒃 = ‖𝒂‖2 + ‖𝒃‖2 − 2‖𝒂‖‖𝒃‖cos(𝜃)

This reduces to

𝒂 𝒃 = a b 𝑐𝑜𝑠 
∎

Definition 3 (parallel vectors): Two nonzero vectors 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) are said to be
parallel , written 𝒂 ∥ 𝒃, if one is a scalar multiple of the other (i.e., if there exists a scalar k such that
𝑏1 𝑏 𝑏
(b1,b2,b3)= k(a1,a2,a3) or 𝑎1
= 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 = 𝑘.
2 3

Example 3: The vectors < 1, 2, 3 > and < 2, 4, 6 > are parallel but < 1, 2, 3 > and < 2, 4, 5 > are non-
parallel.

Definition 4 (orthogonal vectors): Two nonzero vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 are said to be perpendicular
(orthogonal), written 𝒂 ⊥ 𝒃 if the measure of the angle between them is 900.

The following corollary can be easily deduced from Theorem 2.

Corollary:

a) Let a and b be nonzero vectors. Then

𝒂 ⊥ 𝒃 ⟺ 𝒂 𝒃 = 0 .
2
b) For any vector a , it holds that 𝒂𝒂 = a

Proof:

From theorem 4 we get that

a b
 = cos 1 ( )
a b

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Example 4: Show that the vectors 𝒂 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝒃 = 3𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 13𝑘 and 𝒄 = 20𝑖 − 29𝑗 + 11𝑘 are
mutually perpendicular.

Example 5: Prove the inequality

|𝒂. 𝒃| ≤ ‖𝒂‖‖𝒃‖ (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)

Example 6: Prove the inequality

(Minkowski’s Inequality or Triangle Inequality)

ab  a  b
Note: One application of vectors is in proving properties of geometric figures. Vectorial methods make
proofs of certain geometry theorems simple.

Example 7: Show the identity

2 2 2 2
a b  a b  2 a  2 b
(Geometrically: the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals of the parallelogram determined by
vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the four sides.)

B. Orthogonal Projection

If a and b are two vectors with common initial point O, then the projection of 𝑏⃗ onto /along ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎 ,written
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑎⃗ (𝑏⃗) or Pr𝑎⃗ 𝑏⃗ , is the vector OD where D is the foot of the perpendicular line segment from the head
of b to the line through ⃗⃗⃗𝑎..

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

b
b
a

O D O a D

D O

Figure 7: Orthogonal projection

If  is the angle between a and b , then


 a a b a a b
OD = Pr a b= OD u a = b cos  . 
=  = 2

a a a
a

Definition 5 (orthogonal projection): Let a be a nonzero vector. The (orthogonal) projection of a vector
b onto (along) a, written Pr a b is the vector defined by

a b
Pr a b= 2
𝒂
a

Example 8: Let 𝒂 = 2𝑖 – 𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝒃 = 𝑖. Find

a) pr a b b) pr b a c) pr 2ab d) pr a 5b

Solution :

𝑎∙𝑏 2(1)+(−1)(0)+2(0) 2 4 2 4
a) pr a b = ‖𝑎‖2
𝒂 =[ ] 𝒂 = 3𝒂 = 3 𝑖 - 3𝑗 + 𝑘
√4+1+4 3

b) Problems (b) to ( d) can be solved in the same way.

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Remarks:

a) Pr𝑐 (𝒂 + 𝒃) = 𝑃𝑟 𝑐 (𝒂) + 𝑃𝑟 𝑐 (𝒃)

b) Pr c (ka) = kPr c (a)
c) Pr 𝑘𝑐 (a) = kPr c (a)

C. Resolution of a Vector

Resolution of a vector is a reverse process of addition of vectors. Resolution of a given vector is the
splitting of the vector into two or more vectors in different directions, whose sum (resultant) is the given
vector.

Let a, b and c be non-coplanar 3D vectors. Then any 3D vector v can be written as:

v=  a +  b +  c

for some numbers  ,  and  .(i.e. any 3D vector can be resolved into vectors parallel to the vectors a, b
and c ). Note that this is a generalization of expressing a vector as a combination of the standard unit
vectors.

In particular if a, b and c are mutually perpendicular, then v can be expressed as

v = pr a v + Pr b v + Pr c v

Similarly if a and b are non-collinear vectors, then any vector v that is coplanar to a and b can be
expressed as

v=  a +  b.

In particular if a and b are perpendicular, v can be expressed as:

v = pr a v + Pr b v

Geometrically, the resolution of a 2D vector along two non-collinear vectors coplanar to it can be done as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ which is coplanar to a
follows. Let a and b be non-collinear vectors., then to express any vector v=𝑂𝐴

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

and b as  a +  b, we can proceed as follows: Draw a line through O parallel to a and the line through
A parallel to b or vice versa. Let this lines meet at P.

Then

𝒗 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐴.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to a and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Since 𝑂𝑃 𝑃𝐴 is parallel to b, so there exist scalars 𝛼 & 𝛽 such that

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =  b.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =  a and 𝑃𝐴
𝑂𝑃

Thus

v=𝛼a +  b.

O
b
v
A

Figure 8: Resolution of a vector

D. Direction Cosines

Definition 6: Let a  0. The angles  ,  and  (0   ,  ,    ) that ‘a’ makes with +x, +y and +z –

axis are called direction angles of a and their cosines (i.e., 𝑐𝑜𝑠  , 𝑐𝑜𝑠  and cos𝛾 )are called the
direction cosines of a.

a1 a a
Note-1: cos  = , cos  = 2 and cos  = 3
a a a

Note-2: a= a (cos  i + cos  j + cos  k)

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Note-3: cos2  + cos2  + cos2  =1

Example 9: An air plane is 4km high, 5km south, and 7km east of an airport. Find the direction angles of
the plane.

Figure 9: Direction cosines of a vector

Solution: Let the airport be at the origin of xyz- coordinate space and let x-, y- and z- axes indicate
South, East and upward directions respectively. Then a = (5, 7, 4) is the position vector of the position
vector. If 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are the direction angles of a with respect to +x, +y and +z axes respectively, then
5 7 4
𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ),𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ).
3√10 3√10 3√10

𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
Example 10: Show that 4 , 6 and 3
cannot be the direction angles of a vector.

𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2 √2 √3 −1
Solution: (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 )2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 )2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) = ( )2 + ( )2 + ( 2 )2 ≠ 1. It follows from note 3 above that
3 2 2

the given angles cannot be direction vectors of a vector.

Exercise1.3:

1. Show that 𝒂. (𝒃 − 𝒄) = 𝒂 . 𝒃 – 𝒂. 𝒄.
2. Suppose 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 and 𝑎 ≠ 𝟎. Is 𝑏⃗ = 𝑐 necessarily?
3. Find the angle between each two, if it is defined.
a) 〈1,2〉 and 〈1,4〉 b) 〈1,2,0〉 and 〈0,4,1〉 c) 〈1, 0, 2〉 and 〈1, −4, −1〉
𝑘 4
4. Find k so that the vectors [ ] and [ ] are
1 3
(a) equal
(b) orthogonal
(c) parallel

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5. Find all unit vectors parallel to 𝑌𝑍 plane and perpendicular to 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌.

6. Find all unit vectors in the plane of the vectors 𝒖 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 and 𝒗 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 that are
perpendicular to 𝑤 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌.

7. Show that the points (2,0,4), (4,1, −1) and (6,7,7) form vertices of a right triangle.
8. Use vector methods to show that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
9. Use vector methods to show that the sum of the squares of the lengths of both diagonals of
a parallelogram equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of all four sides.
10. Find the values of 𝑚 and 𝑛 so that vector 2𝑖⃑ + 2𝑗⃑ + 𝑚𝑘⃗ is parallel to vector 6𝑖 + n j −
21⃗⃗⃗𝑘
1.4 The Cross Product
A. Definition of Cross Product : component-wise approach
Definition 1 (cross product):

The cross product (also called vector product or outer product) a  b of two vector a=a1 i + a2 j + a3k and
b=b1 i + b2 j + b3k is defined by

𝒂  𝒃 = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 𝒊 + (𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 )𝒋 + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌

Note : Unlike other vector operations cross product applies to only 3D vectors. Unlike dot product the
cross product of two vectors is a vector. In some books a  b is denoted by a  b

Example 1: Let 𝒂 = (2, 3, −1) and 𝒃 = (−1, 1, 5). Calculate 𝒂  𝒃 and 𝒃  𝒂.

Solution: a  b= (3× 5 – (-1)× 1)i +(-1× (−1) – 2× 5) j +(2× 1 – 3× (−1)) k = (16, -9, 5). Similarly we
obtain b  a = (-16, 9, -5).

Triple Products

Given three vectors a, b and c consider the expressions 𝒂( 𝒃  𝒄) , 𝒂  (𝒃𝒄) , 𝒂  ( 𝒃  𝒄) and a  (bc)?
The products 𝒂  (𝒃𝒄) and 𝒂  (𝒃𝒄) are meaningless where as the product 𝒂  𝒃  𝒄 could mean
𝒂  ( 𝒃  𝒄) or (𝒂  𝒃)  𝒄. But the later two expressions are different. Hence we need to retain the
parenthesis. The products 𝒂  ( 𝒃  𝒄) and (𝒂  𝒃)  𝒄 are called vector triple products. Similarly 𝒂𝒃  𝒄
could mean 𝒂( 𝒃  𝒄) or (𝒂 𝒃)  𝒄. But the later is undefined. Thus 𝒂𝒃  𝒄 = 𝒂( 𝒃  𝒄) and hence
parenthesis can be dropped. The product ab  c is called scalar triple product.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Triple
products

Scalar triple Vector triple

product product

a.bxc ax(bxc)
axb.c (axb)xc

We can also consider multiple products (i.e., products involving three or more numbers of cross and dot
products). (Read about Quadruple and Quintuple products).

B. Properties of Cross Product

Theorem 1 (Properties of the cross product):

Let a, b and c be nonzero vectors in ℝ3 and 𝛼 be a scalar. Then:

C1: 𝒂  𝒃  𝒂 and 𝒂  𝒃  𝒃

C2: 𝒂 𝒃 = − 𝒃 𝒂

C3: 𝒂  ( 𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂  𝒃) + (𝒂  𝒄) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝒂 + 𝒃)  𝒄 = (𝒂  𝒄) + (𝒃  𝒄)

C4: (𝜆𝒂)  𝒃 = 𝜆(𝒂  𝒃) = 𝒂  (𝜆𝒃)

C5: 𝒂  ( 𝒃  𝒄) = (𝒂𝒄)𝒃 − (𝒂 𝒃)𝒄 and (𝒂  𝒃)  𝒄 = (𝒂𝒄)𝒃 − (𝒃 𝒄)𝒂

C6: (𝒂  𝒃)(𝒂  𝒃) = ( 𝒂𝒂)( 𝒃𝒃) − (𝒂𝒃)𝟐

C7: a  b  a b sin  where  is the angle between a and b.

Proof (Exercise):

Remark (Alternative definition of cross product):Given two vectors a and b, then 𝒂  𝒃 is a vector
whose magnitude is given by the formula a  b  a b sin  and whose direction is determined by the
following rule, called the right hand rule system.

The Right-hand Rule System: Let c= a×b. To find the direction of c one can put the fingers of the right
hand (other than thumb)along the first vector a (as shown in the figure) in such a way that the palm is
towards the second vector, b. Then, the thumb should point along c.

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Figure 10: The Right hand Rule System

Corollary: Let a and b be nonzero vectors. Then

𝒂 ∥ 𝒃 ⟺ a  b=0.

C. Applications of Cross Product

The cross product has various geometrical and physical applications.

Geometrical Applications of Cross Product: The Cross product has applications in computing
geometrical quantities such as the areas of triangles and parallelograms, volume of parallelepipeds and
dihedral angle between two planes.

Area of Parallelogram and Triangle:

Two given non-collinear vectors a and b determine a unique parallelogram as follows. First, let the tails
of a and b coincide. Through the head of vector a draw a line parallel to vector b and through the head of
vector b draw a line parallel to vector a. This forms a parallelogram. Such a parallelogram is called the
parallelogram spanned by (formed by, determined by) a and b).

Theorem 2: The area 𝐴 of the parallelogram with adjacent edges 𝒂 and 𝒃 is given by:

A =‖𝑎 × 𝑏‖.

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Figure 11: Area of the parallelogram spanned by a and b

Derivation:

From geometry, A= (base)(height)=‖𝒂‖ℎ.

From trigonometry, ℎ = ‖𝑏‖sin(𝜃).

Hence, A=‖𝒂‖‖𝒃‖sin(𝜃). ⟹ 𝐴 = ‖𝒂 × 𝒃‖. ∎

Similarly, the area A of the triangle with sides a and b is given by:

‖𝑎×𝑏‖
A= .
2

Figure 12: Area of the triangle determined by vectors and a and b

Volume and Surface Area of Parallel-piped:

A parallel-piped is a 3D figure having three pairs of parallel and congruent parallelogram faces. It is
determined by three non-coplanar vectors as follows. Given three non-coplanar vectors a, b and c, draw
lines through the head of each vector parallel to the other two vectors, as shown.

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Figure 13: The parallel-piped spanned by a, b and c

Theorem 3: The volume 𝑉 of the parallel-piped with adjacent edges 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 is given by:

A =|𝒂 ∙ (𝒃 × 𝒄)|.

Example 2: Find the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors a = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘 and b = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘

Solution: 𝐴 = ‖𝒂 × 𝒃‖ = ‖〈−7, −5, −1〉‖ = √75 //

Example 3: Find the area of the triangle with vertices 𝐴(0,1,2), 𝐵(3, −2,5) and 𝐶(2,3,4).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Solution: Let 𝒂 = 𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑪. Then 𝐚 = 〈𝟑, −𝟑, 𝟑〉 and 𝒃 = 〈2,2,2, 〉. Then

1 1
𝐴 = 2 ‖𝒂 × 𝒃‖ = 2 ‖〈−12, 0,12〉‖ = √2 × 144 = 2√6 sq units //

Example 4: Find the volume V and the surface area S of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors:

a = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘, b = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘 and c = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘.

Solution: 𝑉 = |𝒂. (𝒃 × 𝒄)| = ‖〈−7, −5, −1〉‖ = √75

S= 2‖𝒂 × 𝒃‖ + 2‖𝒃 × 𝒄‖ + 2‖𝒂 × 𝒄‖ = ‖〈−7, −5, −1〉‖ //

The volume formula above can be used to test if four or more points (or three or more vectors) are
coplanar or not. If the vectors a, b and c are coplanar, the volume of the parallelepiped they form is zero
and conversely.

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Detecting collinearity of points:

Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if ‖𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶‖=0

Example 5: Determine if the points (1,0,0), (0,0,1) and (1,1,0) are collinear.

Detecting coplanarity of points and coplanarity of vectors:

a. Four points A, B, C and D are coplanar if and only if ‖𝐴𝐵. (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷‖=0

b. Three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if and only if |𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 × 𝑐)| = 0

Example 6: Determine if

a) the vectors 〈3, −2,1〉, 〈5, −2,1〉 and 〈0,1, −1〉 are coplanar.
b) the points (1,0,0), (0,1,0) , (0,0,1) and (1, −1,2) are coplanar.

Physical Applications of Cross product: Cross product is also used in defining physical quantities such
as moment of a force, Lorenz force, etc.

Exercises 1.4

1. Given 𝒖 = 𝒊 − 2𝒌, 𝒗 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌, 𝒘 = 𝒋 − 𝒌, compute (𝒖 + 𝟐𝒗)  𝒘.

2. Heron’s formula for computing the area 𝐴 of a triangle whose sides have lengths 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 states that
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
A = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) , where s: = . Prove!
2

3. If ‖𝑎‖ = 3, ‖𝑏⃗‖ = 4 and 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 6, then find the area of the parallelogram determined by 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗.
4. Find a vector that is orthogonal to both 𝒖 = 〈−6,4,2〉 and 𝒗 = 〈3,1,5〉.
5. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by
a) 𝒖 = 〈1, −1,2〉 and 𝒗 = 〈0,3,1〉
b) 𝒖 = 〈2,3,0〉 and 𝒗 = 〈−1,2, −2〉
6. Find the area of the triangle with vertices
a) P(2,6,-1) ,Q(1,1,1), R(4,6,2)
b) P(1,-1,2) ,Q(0,3,4), R(6,1,8)
7. Find the volume and surface area of the parallel-piped with sides 𝒖 = 〈2, −6,2〉, 𝒗 = 〈0,4, −2〉 and
𝒘 = 〈2,2, −4〉.
8. Simplify (𝒖 + 𝒗)  (𝒖 − 𝒗).

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1.5 Lines and Planes in Space

In this section we learn the application of vectors in finding various forms of equations of lines and planes
in xyz-coordinate space.

A. Lines in space

Recall that there are different forms of equations of lines in the plane (ℝ2 ) such as the point-point form,
the point – slope form, the slope-intercept form, the intercept form, the general form and the normal form.
In this section we shall learn three more forms namely vector form, parametric form and symmetric form.
First, we summarize some geometrical notions and facts (results) about lines.

Some Notions and Facts about Lines:

a) A nonzero vector v is said to be parallel to a line L, written v ∥L, if and only if v is parallel to
 
P0 P for every two points 𝑃0 and 𝑃 on 𝐿.
b) Any two distinct points determine a line, i.e., there is only one line that contains two given points
in space.
c) Given a point P0 and a vector v, there is only one line through P0 parallel to v.
d) Through a point outside a given line there is only one line parallel to the given line.
e) Given a line L and a point P0 there is only one line through P0 perpendicular to L (if P0 lies on 𝐿)

Equations of Lines in Space: Let 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a fixed/given/stationary point in space; v=

〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉be a given nonzero vector in space; L be the line through P0 parallel to v and P= (x, y, z) be an
arbitrary/moving point on L. Let r0= OP0 where O is the origin of ℝ3  r0=<x0, y0, z0>. Let r= OP
where O is the origin of ℝ3  𝒓 =< 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 >.

v
P0

r0

L r

Figure 14: a line in spaceNow ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃0 𝑃a=〈𝑥
through −𝑷
point 𝑥𝟎0 , 𝑦 𝑦0 , 𝑧 −to𝑧a0 〉)
−parallel
and and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
vector 𝑃0 𝑃 is parallel to v. 
𝒗

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
For each P on L, there exists a scalar t such that 𝑃 0 𝑃 = 𝑡𝒗. On the other hand, r  r0  P0 P 

  
r  r0  t v (1)

This equation is called a vector equation of L. The variable 𝑡 can be any real number and it is called a
parameter.

* You can perceive 𝑃 as the position of a moving particle on L and P0 as a fixed (reference) point on L,
and t as time. Then as 𝑡 varies 𝑃 changes its position.

From the vector equation (1, we get that

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) + 𝑡(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 ( 2)

These equations are called parametric equations of L.

If z0= 0 and c=0 , then l lies in the XY plane and has parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 0

Solving the parametric equations for 𝑡, we get

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
𝑡 = , t= and t= (if a, b, c  0 )
a b c

Thus

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
= =
a b c (3)

These equations are called symmetric equations or Cartesian equations of L.

y  y0 z  z0
If 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏, 𝑐  0 , then the equations are x  x0 , =
b c

If a=b=0 and c  0 , then the equations are x  x0 ,y= y0, z  z 0  ct

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

If 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0, then 𝑣 = 0 and so parallel ness of 𝑣 and 𝐿 can’t be assumed.

Note that the symmetric equation above is a system of three equations.

Example 1: Find vector equations, parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line L through
the point (-2, 1, 0) and parallel to the vector 3i-j+5k and determine whether or not the origin is on L.


Solution: Let P0= (−2, 1, 0), v =3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 5𝑘 . Let 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be arbitrary point on the line.
Thus the position vectors of P0 and P are respectively r0= (−2, 1, 0) and 𝑟 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

Now the equations are given as:

Vector equation

r = r0 + tv  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (−2,1,0 ) + 𝑡(3, −1,5)

Parametric Equations

𝑥 = −2 + 3𝑡
{ 𝑦 =1−𝑡
𝑦 = 5𝑡

Symmetric equations

x  2 y 1 z
 
3 1 5

Example 2: Find parametric equations of the line containing the points P1(−1,1,0) and

P2 (−2, 5, 7).


Solution: Let P0= (−1, 1, 0), v = P1P2 and 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on the line.


Clearly, v is parallel to the line. Thus

𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝑡𝑣  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (−1,1,0) + 𝑡(−1,4,7)

 𝑥 = −1 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 1 + 4 , 𝑧 = 7𝑡 //

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

B. Planes in Space

Intuitively, a plane is a flat/straight surface that extends indefinitely in all directions. Pictorially, it is
usually represented by a ‘parallelogram- like’ picture. A plane is usually represented by three capital
letters or by a single Greek letter. If a plane is placed in an xyz-coordinate system then it can be expressed
by an equation involving x, y and z. Let us first recall the following Euclidean geometry notions and facts
about planes.

Some Terminologies and Geometric Facts about Planes in Space:

a) A line is said to be parallel to a plane if the direction vector of the line is orthogonal to the
normal vector of the plane.
b) A vector and a plane are said to be parallel if the vector is orthogonal to the normal vector of the
plane.
c) A line is perpendicular to a plane if it has only one point in common with the plane and is
perpendicular to every line on the plane passing through that point
⃗ is said to be perpendicular (normal or orthogonal) to a plane 𝜋 if for every two
d) A vector 𝑁
⃗ ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
distinct points P and Q on 𝜋, 𝑁 𝑃𝑄 .
e) The angle between a line 𝐿 and a plane ABC is defined to be the angle between 𝐿 and any line on
the plane through the point of intersection of 𝐿 and ABC.
f) The angle between two planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.
g) Two planes are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.
h) Two planes are said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular.
i) Two distinct lines perpendicular to the same plane must be parallel to each other.
j) Through three non collinear points one and only one plane can pass.
k) Given two non-parallel and nonzero vectors and a point, there is one and only one plane through
the point parallel to the given vectors.
l) Given a point and a vector there is one and only one plane through the point perpendicular to the
vector.
m) Through a point not on a given line there is one and only one plane perpendicular to the given
line.
n) Through two intersecting lines/ two parallel lines / there is only one plane.
o) Through a point not on a given plane there is one and only one plane parallel to the given plane.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

p) Given line l and two points P and Q such that PQ and l are skew, there is one and only one plane
through P and Q parallel to l.

Equations of Planes:

(a) Parametric Form

Let - U= ( u1, u2,u3) and V= (v1,v2,v3) be two given nonzero and nonparallel vectors in R3

- 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a fixed point in R3

-  be the plane through P0 parallel to U and V

- 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on 

P0

Figure 15: A plane  through P0 parallel to vectors U and V

Recall that: If U,V and X are coplanar vectors such that U and V are nonzero and nonparallel, then there
exist scalars 𝑠 and 𝑡 such that:

𝑋 = 𝑡𝑈 + 𝑠𝑉  ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃= 𝑡𝑈 + 𝑠𝑉

   
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
If 𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗0 , then r  r0  P0 P
𝑟0 = 𝑂𝑃

   
 r  r0  (t u  s v )  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (x0,y0,z0) + t( u1,u2,u3) + s(v1,v2,v3)

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

 x=x0 + tu1 + sv1, y= y0 + tu2 + sv2, z= z0 + tu3 + sv3 (4)

These equations are called parametric equations of  .

(b) Normal Form

P0 P

Figure 16: A plane  through P0 and perpendicular to vector N

Let

𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a given point

𝑁 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) be a given nonzero vector

 be the plane through P0 and perpendicular to N

𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on 

Now P0P = (x-x0, y-y0, z-z0) and P0P  N (why?)

 P0P  N = 0

 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + ( 𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 (5)

If 𝑑 = 𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 , equation (5) reduces to:

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑

This equation is called a Normal Form of the equation of plane  .

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Remark:

1. Every plane in space has equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 and conversely every linear
equation in x, y and z represents a plane in space. Recall that a line on a plane and the linear equation
ax + by = c has analogous relationships.
2. A normal equation (and for that matter parametric equations) of an equation is not unique.  The
same plane can have infinitely many Normal Forms of equations b/c the vector N and point P0 are not
unique. Thus we can’t say the normal equation of a plane, but say a normal equation.
3. The nature of the graph of an equation is determined by the space in which the graph is drawn, i.e., the
same equation can represent different geometric figures depending on in which space it is sketched.
For instance: If 𝑐 is a constant, the graph of the equation "𝑥 = 𝑐" is:

. a point in one dimensional space (on number line)

. a line in 2-dimensional space(XY plane)

. a plane in 3-dimensional space(XYZ space)

Example 6: Find an equation of the plane that contains the point (−2, 4, 5) and that has a normal vector
7𝑖 − 6𝑗.

Solution:

⃗ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 = 〈7, −6,0〉.

Given: 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (−2,4,5), 𝑁

⟹ 𝑥0 = −2, 𝑦0 = 4 , 𝑧0 = 5 , 𝑎 = 7, 𝑏 = −6 & 𝑧0 = 0.

From the last step and equation (5) we obtain the equation of the plane, which is:

7𝑥 − 6𝑦 = −38 //

Example 7: Find an equation of the plane passing through the three points 𝑃1 (1,2, −1), 𝑃2 (−1,1,4) and
𝑃3 (1,3, −2).

Solution: As 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) take 𝑃1 so that 𝑥0 = 1, 𝑦0 = 2 and 𝑧0 = −1. As a normal vector to the plane
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
take 𝑁 = 𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
1 𝑃2 × 𝑃1 𝑃3 . ⟹𝑁 = 〈−2, −1,5〉 × 〈0,1, −1〉 = 〈−4, −2, −2〉. By substituting, 𝑎 = −4, 𝑏 =

−2. 𝑐 = −2, 𝑥0 = 1, 𝑦0 = 2 and 𝑧0 = −1 in equation (5), we get

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

−4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −4(1) + (−2)(2) + (−2)(−1) ⟹ 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6 //

C. Distances between Points, Lines and Planes

(a) Distance from a point to a Line (in Space): What does it mean to say the distance from a point
to a line? Recall that how to find the distance between two points on xy-plane or in xyz-in space
and the distance between a point and a line in on xy-plane. The following theorem gives a
formula for finding the distance from a point to a line in xyz-space.

Theorem 1(Distance From a point to a Line (in Space): Let L be a line parallel to a vector v and let P1
be a point not on L. Then the distance D between P1 and L is given by:

 
v  P0 P
D= 
v

Where P0 is any point on L.

Proof: Let  be any angle between v and P0P1. 0    

P1
L
D

P0
v

Figure 17: Distance from a point to a line

Now D= P0 P sin  (*)

On the other hand, v  P0 P1 = v P0 P1 sin 


D

 v  P0 P = v D (by *)

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

‖𝑉×𝑃0 𝑃‖
 D= ‖𝑣‖
∎

Example 3: Find the distance D from the origin to the line that contains the point (−3, −3, −3) and is
parallel to the vector 2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 5𝑘.

Solution:

Given: P0=(0,0,0), P1=(-3,-3,-3) ,v=2i-3j+5k

v  P0 P1 (2,3,5)  (3,3,3) 3 39
Thus D= = =
v (2,3,5) 19 //

Example 4: The set of points whose distances from a given line L are all the same a  0 is called a
circular cylinder. L is called the axis. If L = Z-axis, show that the equation of the cylinder is
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2

Solution: Let P0 = (0,0,0) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on the cylinder. Then

the distance a from P to L is:

k  ( x, y, z )
a= (why?)
k

(  y , x ,0 )
 a=
1

a= (  y ) 2  x 2

 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2

Example 5: Find an equation of the cylinder with radius 5 whose axis is the line with
equations 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧.

Solution: Let P0=(0,0,0) and P(x,y,z) be an arbitrary point on the cylinder. Then

the distance a from P to L is:

(1,1,1)  ( x, y, z )
a= (why?)
(1,1,1)

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

( z  y, x  z , y  x)
5=
3

 125 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑧)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑧)2 //

(b) Distance from a point to a Plane in Space: By a distance from a point to a plane we mean the
shortest distance from the point to the plane.

Theorem 2(distance from a point to plane): Let  be a plane with normal vector N , and let P1 be any
point not on  . Then the distance D between P1 and  is given by:

 
N . P0 P
D= 
N

Where P0 is any point on 

Proof: Let  be any angle between N and P0P1. 0    

P1
N

Case-1: 0 <90(N and P1

P0
are on same side of )

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 Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Case-2: 90<   180(N and P1 are

𝑃0 on opposite sides of  )

P1

Figure 18: Distance from a Point to a plane

Case-1: 0   <90(N and P1 are on same side of  )

Now D= P0 P1 cos  (*)


On the other hand, N  P0 P1 =  N P0 P1 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = N P0 P1 cos

D


 N  P0 P1 = N D (by *)

 
N . P0 P
 D= 
N

Case-2: 90<   180(N and P1 are on opposite sides of  )

(Exercise)

Example 8: Find the distance 𝑑 between the point (3, −1, 4) and the plane 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Example 9: Show that the distance D between the origin and the plane ax +by + cz =d is D=
d
a2  b2  c2
(c) Distance between two Lines: The distance between two parallel lines is the distance from any
point on one of the lines to the other line.
(d) Distance between two Planes : The distance between two parallel planes is the distance from
any point on one of the planes to the other plane.

(e) Distance between a Line and Plane: The distance from a plane to a line parallel to it is the
distance from the plane to any point on the line

Example 10: Find the distance between the pair of parallel planes 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 and 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 +
3𝑧 = 1.
𝑥−1 𝑦−2 𝑧+5
Example 11: Find the distance between the line 2
= 4
= 2
and the plane 3x − 2y + z = −2.

D. Relationships between Lines and Planes

(a) Relationships between Lines:
- Two lines in the two-dimensional plane have three possible relationships; they are equal,
parallel but not equal, or they intersect in a single point. In three dimensions, a fourth case is
possible. If two lines in space are not parallel, but do not intersect, then the lines are said to
be skew lines. (Recall that two lines are said to be parallel if they lie in the same plane and do
not intersect.)
- We can determine the relationship between two lines in 3D space based on whether their
direction vectors are parallel and whether they share a common point as shown in the next
table.
Relationship b/n two Share a common point? Have parallel direction
of Lines vectors?
equal Yes Yes
parallel No Yes
Intersecting Yes No
skew No No

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Example 12 (classifying types of relationships b/n two lines): For each pair of lines, determine whether
the lines are equal, parallel but not equal, skew, or intersecting.
(a) 𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 2𝑡 − 1, 𝑦 = 𝑡 − 1, 𝑧 = 𝑡 − 4 & 𝐿2 : 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 3, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 + 8, 𝑧 = 5 − 2𝑡
𝑥−3
(b) 𝐿1 : 𝑥 = −𝑦 = 𝑧 & 𝐿2 : 2
=𝑦 =𝑧−2
𝑥−4 𝑦+3 𝑧−1
(c) 𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 6𝑡 − 1, 𝑦 = −2𝑡, 𝑧 = 3𝑡 + 1 & 𝐿2 : = =
6 −2 3

(d) 𝐿1 ∶𝑥 = 1 − 4𝑠, 𝑦 = 3 + 𝑠, 𝑧 = 8 − 6𝑠 & 𝐿2 : 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑠, 𝑦 = 2𝑠, 𝑧 = −1 − 3𝑠.

Answer:

(b) Relationships between Planes:

There are three possible relationships between two planes in a three-dimensional space; they can
be parallel, identical, or they can be intersecting. A special case of intersecting planes is when they are
orthogonal. We can determine the type of relationship by comparing the normal vectors of the two
planes. If the normal vectors are parallel and share a common point, then the two planes are identical. If
the normal vectors are parallel and the lines do not share a common point, then the two planes are
parallel but not identical. If the normal vectors are not parallel, then the two planes meet and make a line
of intersection, which is the set of points that are on both planes.

Example 13 (parallel planes and orthogonal planes): Determine whether each pair of planes is parallel,
orthogonal, or neither. If the planes are intersecting, but not orthogonal, find the measure of the angle
between them. Give the answer in radians and round to two decimal places.

a. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 8 and 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 Answer. The planes are parallel.

b. 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 and 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1 Answer: The planes are orthogonal.

c. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 1 Answer:: Neither parallel nor orthogonal.

(c) Relationships between Lines and Planes

There are three possibilities pertaining to the relationships between a line and a plane in a three-
dimensional space:

(i) the line lies totally within the plane

(ii) the line is incident with the plane at a single point. If the angle at which the line is
incident to the plane is 90^0 then the line and the plane are orthogonal.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

(iii) the line and the plane do not intersect (they are parallel)

Example 14: Determine if line L and the plane P are parallel or intersecting:

(a) 𝐿 ∶ 𝑥 = 15 + 7𝑡, 𝑦 = 10 + 12𝑡, 𝑧 = 5 − 4𝑡 and 𝑃 ∶ 12𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 10,

(b) 𝐿 ∶ 𝑥 = 15 − 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 6 − 5𝑡, 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑡 𝑃 ∶ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 20

Solution (a): The normal vector of 𝑃 is 𝑛 = (12, −5, 6) and the line L is parallel to 𝑣 = (7, 12, −4). As
the dot product 𝑵 · 𝑽 = (7)(12) + (−5)(12) + 6(−4) = 84 − 60 − 24 = 0, L and P are
parallel to each other. We need to see if the two objects intersect. Since L is parallel to P, if L intersects
P, then any point of L should be in P. Thus we only have to check if, when t = 0, the point (15, 10, 5) is
on P. Note that 12(15) − 5(10) + 6(6) = 180 − 50 + 36 6 = 10, and so L and P do not intersect

Solution (b): The normal vector of 𝑃 is 𝑛 = (2, 3, 4) and the line 𝐿 is parallel to 𝑣 = (−3, −5, 3). As
the dot product 𝑵 · 𝑽 = (2)(−3) + (3)(−5) + 4(3) = −6 − 15 + 12 6 = 0, L and P are not
parallel to each other. We need to see where the two objects intersect. Substitute the parametric equations
of L into the equation of P and solve the resulting equation for 𝑡: 2(15 − 3𝑡) + 3(6 − 5𝑡) + 4(2 +
3𝑡) = 20 =⇒ −9𝑡 = −36 =⇒ 𝑡 = 4. Substitute 𝑡 = 4 in the parametric equations of L to get the
point of intersection at (3, −14, 14).

E. Hyper lines, Hyper Planes and Hyper Spheres; Other Curves and Surfaces in Space

Though sketching their graphs is impossible we can extend the notions of line, plane and sphere to vectors
having dimensions beyond 3. In those spaces they are respectively called hyper lines, hyper planes and
hyper spheres.

In any Euclidean space, an equation of the line parallel to a given vector V and passing through a given
point P0 is 𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑡𝑉; 𝑡 ∈ ℝ. Similarly an equation of the plane normal to a given vector N and
passing through a given point P0 is N.P = N. P0. And an equation of the sphere with center P0 and radius r
is ‖𝑃 − 𝑃0 ‖ = r.

In addition to lines, planes and spheres we can also consider other curves and surfaces in ℝ3 and other
spaces.

Exercise 1.5:

1. Find parametric equations for the line that contains the point (3,-1,2) and is parallel to the line
x 1 y  3
with equations  z
4 2
2. Find the equation of the line passing through 𝑃(1,1,1) and perpendicular to XY plane.
3. Are the points (1,4,2), (4, −3, −5) and (−5, −10, −8) collinear?

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

4. Show that the line containing the points (5,7,9) and (4,11,9) is parallel to line with equations
x 1 y  2
 ,z  5
3 12
5. Two nonparallel and nonintersecting lines in space are called skew lines. Two skew lines always
lie on parallel planes. Determine whether the two lines L1 and L2 are parallel, skew or
intersecting:
1
1 1 1
a) L1 : 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑦 + 1) = (𝑧 − 3) and L2: 3 (𝑥 − 5) = (𝑦 − 1) = 𝑧 − 4
2 3 2

1 1 1 1 1
b) L1 : (𝑥 − 11) = 𝑦 − 6 = - (𝑧 + 5) and L2: (𝑥 − 13) = - (y-2)= (𝑧 − 5)
4 2 6 3 8

6. Find an equation of the plane passing through the point (−1,2,3) and is:
a) Parallel to the XY plane.
b) Perpendicular to the Y-axis
7. Find parametric equations of the line segment between the points 𝑃(2,1,4) and Q(3, −1,3).
8. Find, if possible, an equation of the plane that contains the lines:
x 1 y 1 z  5 x3 y4 z
a)   and  
3 2 4 3 2 4

1 1 1 1
b ) 𝑥 − 2= (y+1)= (𝑧 − 3) and (𝑥 − 5) = (𝑦 − 1) = 𝑧 − 4
2 3 3 2

1 1 1 1 1
c) (𝑥 − 11) = 𝑦 − 6 = - (𝑧 + 5) and (𝑥 − 13) = - (y-2)= (𝑧 − 5)
4 2 6 3 8

9. Determine whether the points (2,3,2), (1, −1, −3), (1,0, −1) and (5,9,5) are coplanar.
10. The planes 𝑥 − 𝑧 = 1 and 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 intersect in a line. Find a third plane that contains this line
and is perpendicular to the plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1.
11. Find the distance from the point 𝑃(1,3, −2) to the line through 𝐴(1,2, −1)with direction vector
𝑣 = 〈1, −1,0〉.
12. Find the point 𝑀 of intersection of the plane 𝜋: 4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 𝑧 − 9 = 0 and the line L through
𝑃(3,2, −5) perpendicular to 𝜋.
13. Find the line that passes through the point (2,5,3) and is perpendicular to the plane 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 +
4𝑧 + 7 = 0.

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14. Find the line that passing through the point P(7,3,4) is perpendicular to the plane that passes
through the points (8,0,0), (3,0,2) and (5,4,0). Obtain the intersection point between the line and
the plane.
15. Find the intersection, if any, of the line 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡; 𝑦 = −4𝑡; 𝑧 = 5 + 𝑡 and the plane
4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 18.
16. Determine whether the lines ⟨1,1,1⟩ + 𝑡⟨1,2, −1⟩ and ⟨3,2,1⟩ + 𝑡⟨−1, −5,3⟩ are parallel lines,
intersecting lines or skew lines.
17. Sketch the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6.
18. Given two planes 𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 and 𝜋2 : 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1.
Find (a) the line of intersection of the two planes, and (b) the angle between two planes.
19. Find the angle between the two planes with equations 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1.
1.6 Vector spaces and Subspaces
A. Field and Vector Space

Recall that the real number system is the set of real numbers together with addition and multiplication of
real numbers, written (R, +, ∙) and it satisfies the following 11 algebraic properties. ((See the note after
Definition 1 for the meaning of a mathematical system).

1. For all x, y  ℝ, x +y  ℝ. (Closure property)

2. For all x, y  ℝ, x + y=y + x. (Commutative Property)
3. For all x, y, z  ℝ, (x + y) +z=x+(y + z). (Associative Property)
4. x + 0= x for all x  ℝ. (Identity)
(0 is called the identity element of ℝ with respect to addition).
5. For all x  ℝ , x + (-x)=0. (Invertibility)
(–x is called the additive inverse of x).
6. For all x, y  ℝ, x y  ℝ. (Closure property)
7. For all x, y  ℝ, x y=y x. (Commutative Property)
8. For all x, y, z  ℝ, (x y) z=x (yz). (Associative Property)
9. x (1)= x for all x  ℝ. (Identity)
(1 is called the identity element of ℝ with respect to multiplication).
1
10. For all x  ℝ \{0}, x (𝑥) =1. (Invertibility)
1
(𝑥 is called the multiplicative inverse of x).

11. For all x, y, z  ℝ, (x+ y) z=x (y + z). (Distributive property)

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In general if a nonempty set F and two binary operations on F satisfy the same properties satisfied by the
real number system, (R, +, .), then it is called a field. Thus a field is a generalization of the real number
system.

Definition 1 (field): Let 𝐹 be a non-empty set. Let “+” and “.“ be binary operations on 𝐹 (We call these
operations (field) addition and (field) multiplication respectively, though they may not be the usual
addition and multiplication of numbers). The system (𝐹, +, . ) (i.e., the set F together with the binary
operations ‘+’ and ‘.’ ) is said to be a field if it satisfies the following 11 rules (axioms):

1)  x, y  F, x + y  F.

2)  x, y  F, x + y= y +x.

3)  x, y, z  F, (x + y) + z=x + (y+z)

4) There is a special element in F denoted by 0 such that x + 0=x  x  F

[Such an element is called an identity element for the field addition, +.]

5)  x  F,  x*  F such that x + x* = e.

[x* is called a negative or an additive inverse or an opposite of x]

6)  x, y  F, x . y  F.

7)  x, y  F, x .y= y .x.

8)  x, y, z  F, (x . y) . z=x. (y. z)

9) There is a special element in F denoted by 1 such that x. 1 =x,  x  F

[Such an element is called an identity element for the field multiplication, .]

10)  x  F \ {0},  x**  F such that x . x ** = f.

[x** is called a reciprocal/multiplicative inverse of x]

11)  x, y, z  F, x.( y + z) .=x .y + x . z

Remark: Be aware that the rules defining a field are given in 3 parts: part I is about addition, part II is
about multiplication and Part III is about both.

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Note: In mathematics, a system (also called, space or structure) is a set along with some other
mathematical object (s) satisfying certain prescribed rules (axioms). Eg. Real number system

Example 1[field]:

a) (ℝ, +, .) is a field
b) (ℂ, +, .) is a field.
c) (ℚ, +, .) is a field.
d) (ℤ, +, .) is not a field (because rule 10 fails).
e) Let ℤ𝑛 = {0,1,…, n-1} .Define addition and multiplication on ℤ𝑛 =as follows:
Addition: x ⊕y ≡ the remainder of x plus y divided by n. This is called addition modulo n.
Multiplication: x⊙y ≡ the remainder of x times y divided by n. This is called multiplication modulo
n.
Then (ℤ𝑛 ,⊕ ,⊙) is a field.
Theorems 1.1 and 1.2 show that the set R3 of three dimensional vectors satisfies 5 properties with respect
to vector addition and another 5 properties with respect to scalar multiplication (if we include closure
properties). Note that R3 is not the only set of vectors that fulfils these rules. R2 also satisfies the same
rules. In fact, for any natural number n, Rn satisfies these 10 rules.

In general if a nonempty set V and two binary operations satisfy the same properties satisfied by the set
R3 of three dimensional vectors, then it is called a vector space. Thus a vector space is a generalization of
R3.
More formally:

Definition 2 (vector space): Let V be a nonempty set and let (F, +, ∙) be a field. Let + : 𝑉 × 𝑉 → 𝑉 and
let ∘ : F× 𝑉 → 𝑉 . Let us denote +(X, Y) by X + Y and ∘ (𝛼, X) by 𝛼X. These operations are respectively
called vector addition and scalar multiplication. Then V is said to be a vector space over F (with respect
to these operations) if:

A0) For every X,Y  V, X +Y  V

A1) For every X,Y  V, X+Y=Y+X

A2) For every X,Y,Z  V, (X+Y)+Z=X+(Y+Z)

A3) There exists an element of V (denoted it by 0) such that X + 0= X for all X  V. (Such element is
called a zero element of V).

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A4) For every x  V, there exists an element x* of V such that x + x*=0

M 0) For every X  V and for every k ∈F, kX  V

M 1) For every X,Y  V and for every k  F, k(X+Y)=kX + kY

M 2) For every X  V and for every  ,   F, (  +  )x=  X+  X

M 3) For every x  V and for every  ,   F, (   )x=  (  x)

M 4) For all X  V, then 1X=X (where 1 is the identity element for multiplication in F)

Remarks:

1) Briefly speaking, a vector space is a mathematical system that satisfies the same rules satisfied by
the usual 3D vectors with vector addition (VA) and scalar multiplication (SM).
2) Elements of V are called vectors regardless of whether they are the usual vectors or not. Because
they behave as usual vectors.
3) Elements of F are called scalars (numbers) regardless of whether they are the usual numbers or
not. Because they behave as numbers.
4) A vector space is also called a linear space.
5) If 𝐹 = ℝ, the vector space is called real vector space and if F=ℂ it is called a complex vector
space.
Example 2[vector space]:

a) R3 is a vector space over R under the usual vector addition and scalar multiplication of three
dimensional vectors.
In general for any natural number n, Rn is a vector space over R under the following operations:
For 𝑋 = 〈𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 〉, 𝑌 = 〈𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑛 〉 and 𝜆𝜖 R, define:
𝑋 + 𝑌 ≔ 〈𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 〉 and 𝜆𝑋: = 〈𝜆𝑥1 , … , 𝜆𝑥𝑛 〉.
In particular R is a vector space over R.
b) R3 is not a vector space over R with respect to the usual addition and the following scalar
multiplication: 𝐾(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑘𝑥 , 𝑦, 𝑧) for all k  R and (x,y)  V (because M2 fails ).
c) R is a vector space over Q under the usual addition and multiplication of numbers. But Q is not a
vector space over R under the usual addition and multiplication of numbers (because M0 fails).
d) Let P2 represent the set of all polynomials of degree at most 2. Then P2 is a vector space over R.

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In general if Pn represents the set of all polynomials of degree at most n, then Pn is a vector space
over R.
e) Let P represent the set of all polynomials. Then P is a vector space over R.
f) Let 𝑉 = {𝑓: ℝ ⟶ ℝ where f is continuous}  the set of all real valued continuous functions on
domain R. Then, 𝑉 is a vector space w.r.t the usual addition and constant multiplication of
functions.
g) Let 𝑉 represents the set of all real valued functions. Then 𝑉 is a vector space on R under the usual
addition and constant multiple of real valued functions.
The following theorem gives some easy consequences of the vector space axioms. These rules are
sometimes called calculation rules.

Theorem 1 (Elementary Consequences of the Vector space Axioms):

Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹. Then:

a) V has a unique zero element.

b) Each element x of V has a unique additive inverse.
c) ∀x 𝜖V, 0x = 0
d) ∀𝜆 ∈ 𝐹 , 𝜆 0 = 0.
e) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 and ∀𝜆 ∈ 𝐹,

(−𝜆)𝑥 = 𝜆 (−𝑥) = − (𝜆 𝑥)

f) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 and ∀𝜆 ∈ 𝐹,

𝜆 x = 0 ⟹ 𝜆 = 0 or x = 0

g) ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑉,

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑧.

h) h) ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑉 and ∀𝜆 ∈ 𝐹\{0},

𝜆𝑥 = 𝜆𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦.
i) ∀𝑥𝜖𝑉 and ∀α, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹 ,
𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥 and 𝑥 ≠0 ⇒ 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥.

Proof:

c) 0x = 0x + 0 = 0x + (0x + -(0x)) =( 0x + 0x)+ -(0x) = (0 + 0)x + -(0x) = 0x + -(0x) = 0

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B. Subspace:

A nonempty subset W of a vector space V which is a vector space on its own right is called a subspace of
V.

Definition 3 (subspace): Let V be a vector space over a field F. A nonempty set W is called a subspace
of V if W  V and W itself is a vector space over F with respect to the same operations.

Remark:
a) For every vector space V, the sets {0} and V are subspaces of V. These subspaces are called the
trivial or improper subspaces of V. All other subspaces of V are called nontrivial or proper
subspaces.
b) In view of Remark (a), every vector space V has a subspace.

Theorem 2(A simple criterion for testing a subspace):

Let 𝑊 be a nonempty subset of a vector space 𝑉 over 𝐹. Then 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉 iff:

a) If 𝑥, 𝑦  𝑊, then 𝑥 + 𝑦  𝑊

b) If 𝑥  𝑊 and 𝑘  𝐹, then 𝑘𝑥  𝑊

Proof:

Remark: The above theorem suggests that in order to show that a set W is a subspace of a vector space
V, it suffices to show that

i) W  V
ii) W   . (To this end show that 0  W)
iii) x, y  W x + y  W
iv) x  W and 𝜆  𝐹 𝜆𝑥  𝑊

Example 3 [subspaces]:

a) Let V=ℝ2 , F = ℝ and 𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦 ) 𝜖 ℝ2 : y=2x} . Then show that L is a subspace of V over F. (Note
that L represents a line through the origin. In general, every line through the origin is a subspace of
the plane.)

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Solution:
(i) Clearly L is a subset of ℝ2
(ii) Since 0=2(0), so (0,0)𝜖𝐿. Thus L ≠ ∅.
(iii) Let (𝑥1 . 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝐿.
y1 = 2𝑥1 & 𝑦2 = 2𝑥2 .
y1 + 𝑦2 = 2(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ).
 (x1 + y2 , y1 + 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝐿.
 (x1 , y1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝐿.
(iv) Let (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐿 and let 𝜆 be a scalar.
Since(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐿 (by assumption), so y = 2𝑥 (by the definition of L). This implies 𝜆y = 𝜆2𝑥.
𝜆(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐿.
b) Let V=ℝ3 , F = ℝ and W= {(a1, a2, a3 ) 𝜖 ℝ3: a1 + a2 + a3 = 0} . Show that W is a subspace of V over
F. (Note that W is a plane through the origin. In general, every that passes plane through the origin is
a subspace ofℝ3 .)
Solution:
i) Clearly W is a subset of V.
ii) Since (0, 0, 0) 𝜖 ℝ3 and 0+0+0=0, so (0, 0, 0) 𝜖 𝑊.⇒ W is nonempty.
iii) Let (x1, x2, x3 ) , ( y1, y2, y3)𝜖 𝑊. This implies that x1+ x2+ x3 =0 and y1+ y2+ y3=0.
Then (x1, x2, x3 ) + ( y1, y2, y3) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3) and (x1 + y1 )+( x2 + y2 ) +( x3 +
y3)=0. Therefore, (x1, x2, x3 ) + ( y1, y2, y3)  W.
iv) Let (x1, x2, x3 ) 𝜖 𝑊and 𝛼 ∈ ℝ. This implies that x1+ x2+ x3 =0.
Then 𝛼 (x1, x2, x3 ) = (𝛼x1 , 𝛼x2 , 𝛼x3) and 𝛼x1 + 𝛼x2 + 𝛼x3 =𝛼 (x1+ x2+x3 ) = 0. Therefore
𝛼 (x1, x2, x3 ) 𝜖 𝑊.
c) The set of all continuous functions from ℝ to ℝ is a subspace of the set of all real valued
functions from ℝ to ℝ. (Show!)

Theorem 3: The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V is a sub space of V.

C. Linear Combinations and Linear Spans

Definition 4 (linear combination of a finite set):

Let 𝑉 be a vector space over 𝐹 and let 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑛 }  𝑉. Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be scalars. An

expression of the form

𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + … + 𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑛

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is called a linear combination of S (or a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2… vn)

An element v of a vector space V is said to be expressed or written as a linear combination of S or a

linear combination of the vectors v1, v2… vn if there exists scalars a1, a2… an such that

v= a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn.

Remarks:

1) Some vectors cannot be expressed as a linear combination of a given set of vectors.

2) A representation of a vector as a linear combination of a given set of vectors may/may not be unique.

Definition 5 (linear combination of an arbitrary set): Let 𝑉 be a vector space over 𝐹, let 𝑆  𝑉 and let
B= {a1, a2,… ,an }  F.

An expression of the form a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn is called a (finite) linear combination of elements of S

* A linear combination of a set S is always a finite sum (whether S is finite or infinite). An element x of V
is said to be (expressed as) a linear combination of S if there exists vectors v1, v2 …., vn in S and scalars
a1, a2, …, an such that x = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn.

Definition 6(linear span): Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S≠ 𝜙 .The set of all
linear combinations of elements of S is denoted by Span(S) or L(S) and it is called the linear span of S.
Thus

Span(S) = {∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑐𝑘 𝑣𝑘 |𝑐𝑘 𝜖𝐹 & 𝑣𝑘 𝜖𝑆}.

Remark: Let V be a vector space over F and S  V. Then

d) S⊆ Span(S)
e) Span(S)⊆ V.( In fact Span(S) is a subspace of V as given in the next theorem).

Definition 7: Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S   .. We say S spans or generates

V if Span(S) = V.

Since Span(S)⊆ V by the above remark, so in order to show that S spans or generates V it suffices to
show that V⊆ Span (S), i.e., every element on V is a linear combination of some elements of S.

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Theorem 4: Let 𝑉 be a vector space over 𝐹 and 𝑆  𝑉.

a. 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) is a subspace of 𝑉.
b. If 𝑊 is a subspace of V such that 𝑆  𝑊, then𝐿(𝑆)  𝑊.
(i.e 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) is the smallest subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝑆.)

W
S
L(S)

Figure 19: Comparison of 𝑺, 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒏(𝑺), a subspace 𝑾 containing 𝑺 and 𝑽

Proof:

Example 4 [on linear combination and linear span]:

a. Any vector x= (x1, x2) in R2 can be expressed as x = x1i + x2 j . Hence, {i, j} generates R2.
b. Any vector x= (x1, x2, x3) in R3 can be expressed as x = x1i + x2j + x3k. Hence, {i , j ,k} generates R3.
c. Let V=R2 and S= {v1, v2} where v1= (2, 1), v2= (-4,-2). Can (6, 3) be represented as a linear
combination of S? If yes, is the representation unique?

Solution: We find scalars a1 and a2 such that (6, 3) = a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-2)

2a1  4a 2  6

3a1  2a 2  3

The system has solutions. Hence, (6,3)  Span(S).There are infinite solutions for this system of linear
equations. Hence, there are infinite ways of writing (6,3) as a linear combination of S; some instances are:
(6,3)= 3(2,1) + 0(-4,-2)

3
(6, 3)= 0(2, 1) + (-4,-2). //
2

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d. Let V=R2 and S= {v1, v2} where v1= (2, 1), v2= (-4,-2). Can (3, 5) be represented as a linear
combination of S? If yes, is the representation unique?
Solution: We find scalars a1 and a2 such that (3, 5) = a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-2)

 2a1  4a 2  3
3a1  2a 2  5

a) There is no solution for this system of linear equations.  It is impossible to write (3, 5) as a
linear combination of S. Hence, (3, 5)  Span(S ).
e. Write v=i +13j +k as a linear combination of a=2i-4j + 5k and b=2i +6j +4k.

Answer: v=-a + 3/2 b

f. Show that S = {〈1,2〉, 〈2,1〉} generates ℝ2 .

Solution: First let us show that S spans ℝ2 , i.e., 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑆) = ℝ2. To that end it is enough to show that
ℝ2 ⊆ 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆). Let (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 ℝ2 . We must show that there exist 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ ℝ such that

(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛼 (1,2) + 𝛽(2,1).

𝑥−2𝑦
𝑥 = 𝛼 + 2𝛽 𝛼 = −3
⟹{ ⟹{
𝑦 = 2𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑦−2𝑥
𝛽 = −3

Since the right-hand sides of the last two equations are defined for every real numbers x and y, so

(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛼 (1,2) + 𝛽(2,1).

𝑥−2𝑦 𝑦−2𝑥
where 𝛼 = −3
and 𝛽 = . For instance (4, 5) = 2(1,2) + 1(2,1), (0,0) =
−3

0(1,2)+0(2,1), etc.

Using (f) above as a prototype we can also prove the following.

g. S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0, −2,1〉} generates ℝ3 .

h. S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } is generates 𝒫2 .
i. S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … } generates 𝒫.
j. S={(2,1), (-4,-3)} does not span R2, since there exists elements of R2 (e.g (3,5)) that cannot be
expressed as a linear combination of S.
k.

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D. Linear Dependence and Linear Independence

Definition 8(for finite set): Let V be a vector space over a field F and let 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … 𝑣𝑛 }  𝑉

We say

a) S is a linearly independent (LI) set if for every scalars a1, …, an we have:

𝑎1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑎2 𝒗𝟐 + … + 𝑎𝑛 𝒗𝒏 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝒂𝒊 = 𝟎 ∀ i .

b) S is a linearly dependent (LD) set if it is not linearly independent.

Definition 9(for infinite set): Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field F and let S  V be an infinite set. We
say that 𝑆 is:

a) linearly independent if every finite subset of S is linearly independent.

b) linearly dependent if it is NOT linearly independent.

Example 5[on linear dependence and independence]:

a) S={(2,1), (-4,-3)} is linearly dependent because a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-3) =(0,0) does not necessarily
imply a1= 0 and a2= 0.
b) S={i , j ,k} is linearly independent because a1 i + a2 j + a3 k= (0,0,0) implies a1 = a2 = a3=0.
c) S= {1, x, x2} is linearly independent.
d) S={1,x,x+1,x2+1}is linearly dependent
e) S= {1, x, x2, …}is linearly independent.

Theorem 5 (some elementary properties on linear dependence and independence):

a. The empty set is linearly independent.

b. A singleton set with a nonzero element is linearly independent.
c. 𝑆 = {𝒖, 𝒗} LD 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝒗 = 𝑘𝒖 for some scalar 𝑘.
d. Any subset of a vector space V containing the zero element is LD.
e. If w is a LC of set S, then 𝑆 ∪ {𝑤} is LD.
f. If 𝑆 is LI, then any subset of 𝑆 is LI.
g. If 𝑆 is LD, then any super set of 𝑆 is LD.

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

Proof:

E. Basis and dimension of a vector Space

Definition 10 (basis): Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S   . We say 𝑆 is a basis of
𝑉 if:

i) 𝑆 spans 𝑉 and

ii) 𝑆 is LI.

Remark: By convention the empty set is taken to be the basis of the vector space {0}. This is motivated
by the fact that the only subset of {0} which is not linearly dependent is the empty set.

Theorem 6: Every vector space 𝑉 has a basis.

Theorem 7: Every two bases B1 and B2 of the same vector space V have the same cardinal number
(number of elements).
Thus the number of elements of a basis of a vector space is the characteristic property of the vector space.
Definition 11 (dimension): Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹. The cardinal number of a basis of V is
called the dimension of V and it is denoted by 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑉. A vector space is said to be finite dimensional if its
basis is a finite set; otherwise it is called an infinite dimensional vector space.

Example 6 [on basis and dimension]:

a) S = {〈1,0〉, 〈0,1〉} is a basis of ℝ2

b) S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0,0,1〉} is a basis of ℝ3
c) S = {〈1,2〉, 〈2,1〉} is a basis of ℝ2 .
d) S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0, −2,1〉} is a basis of ℝ3 .
e) S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } is a basis of 𝒫2 .
f) S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … } is a basis of 𝒫.
g) S = {〈1,2〉} is not a basis of ℝ2 because it does not generateℝ2 .
h) S = {〈1,0, 〈0,1〉, 〈1,1〉〉} is not a basis of ℝ2 because it is LD.
i) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 {0} = 0.
j) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 ℝ𝑛 = 𝑛.
k) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝒫𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1.
l) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝒫 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦.

Exercises 1. 6:

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Applied Mathematics Unit 1. Vectors and Vector Spaces Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie(PhD)

1. Which of the following sets are subspaces of ℝ3 ?

a) 𝐴 = {(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ): 𝑎2 𝑎3 = 0}
𝑥
b) B= {(a1, a2, a3 ): 𝑥2 = √2}
1

c) 𝐶 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ): √2x= √3}

d) 𝐷 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ): √2z 𝜖ℤ}
e) 𝐸 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ): x2 = z2}
2. Which of the following sets are subspaces of the vector space 𝒫of all polynomials?
a) 𝐴 = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑝 = 4}
b) 𝐵 = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑝 ≤ 4}
c) 𝐶 = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑝 ≥ 4}
d) 𝐷 = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : 𝑝(1) = 0}
3. Let 𝒖 = 3𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 – 5, 𝒗 = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 – 4 and 𝒘 = 𝑥 2 – 2𝑥 – 3. Write u as a linear
combination of v and w.
4. Determine whether the following sets of vectors are linearly independent or not.
a) (1,2), (3,2) in ℝ𝟐
b) (−3,6), (1, −2) in ℝ𝟐
c) (1,2), (1, 2), (3,4) in ℝ𝟐
d) (1,1,3), (0,2,1) in ℝ𝟑
e) (2,1, 2), (3,2,2), (5,3,0) in ℝ𝟑
f) (1,0,2), (0, 1,1), (1,3,0)in ℝ𝟑
g) {(1, −1,2), (1, −2,1), (1,1,4)} in ℝ𝟑
h) {𝐱 𝟑 + 𝟐𝐱 𝟐 , −𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟑𝐱 + 𝟏, 𝐱 𝟑 − 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟏} 𝐢𝐧 𝐏𝟑 (𝐑)
5. If two vectors from R2 are randomly chosen, what is there probability to be:

a) LD? b) LI?

6. Find a real number 𝑡 so that (2 − 𝑡, 2 + 𝑡) and (2 + 𝑡, 2 − 𝑡) are LI vectors in ℝ𝟐 .

7. Show that 𝑣1 = (1, 1), 𝑣2 = (−1, 2), 𝑣3 = (1, 4)span ℝ𝟐 . Do 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 alone span ℝ𝟐 also?
8. Show that the set of vectors {(1, 2, 3), (3, 4, 5), (4, 5, 6)} does not span ℝ𝟑 .
9. Determine whether the vectors 𝑣1 = (1, −1, 4), 𝑣2 = (−2, 1, 3), and 𝑣3 = (4, −3, 5) span
ℝ𝟑 .
10. If 𝑝1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑝2 (𝑥) = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 3, determine whether 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
lies in 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }.
11. Determine whether the set 𝑆 = {(4,1,2,3), (3,2,1,4), (1,5,5,9), (1,3,9,7)} is a basis of ℝ𝟒 .

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