ALSTOM Course PC3, Dubai Application of Protective Relaying to - Distribution and Sub-Transmission Systems 25" - 29" March 2000 Current Transformer Requirements for Protection (Additional Notes)Page 1 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS - STEADY STATE BEHAVIOUR Current transformers are among the most commonly used items of electrical apparatus and yet, surprisingly, there seems to be a general lack of even the most elementary knowledge concerning their characteristics, performance and Timitations among those engineers who are continually using them. The importance of current transformers in the transmission and distribution of electrical energy cannot be over emphasised because it is upon the efficiency of current transformers, and the associated voltage transformers, that the accurate metering and effective protection of those distribution circuits and plant depend. Current and voltage transformers insulate the secondary (relay, instrument and meter) circuits from the primary (power) circuit and provide quantities in the Secondary which are proportional to those in the primary. The role of a transformer in protective relaying is not as readily defined as that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the essential role of a measuring transformer is to deliver from its secondary winding a quantity accurately representative of that which is applied to the primary side, a protective transformer varies in its role according to the type of protective gear it serves. Failure of a protective system to perform its function correctly is often due to incorrect selection of the associated current transformers. Hence, current and voltage transformers must be regarded as constituting part of the protective system and carefully matched with the relays to fulfil the essential requirements of the protection system. There is no great difference between a protective voltage transformer and a measuring voltage transformer the difference being only in the nature of the voltage transformed. Normally the same transformer can serve both purposes: for provided the protective voltage transformer transforms reasonably accurately its duty will have been fulfilled. This cannot be said for current transformers as the requirements for protective current transformers are often radically different from those of metering. It is true that in some cases the same transformer may serve both purposes but in modern practice this is the exception rather than the rule The primary difference is that the measuring current transformer is required to retain a specified accuracy over the normal range of load currents, whereas the protective current transformer must be capable of providing an adequate outout over a wide range of fault conditions, from a fraction of full load to many times full load. CURRENT TRANSFORMER THEORY. A current transformer consists essentially of an iron core with two windings. One winding is connected in the circuit whose current is to be measured and fs called the primary and the other winding is connected to the burden, and Called the secondary. The flow of current in the primary winding produces an alternating flux in the core and this flux induces an e.m.f. in the secondary winding which results in the flow of secondary current when this winding is Connected to an external closed circuit. The magnetic effect of the secondary current, in accordance with fundamental principles, is in opposition to that of the primary and the value of the secondary current automatically adjusts ftself to such a value, that the resultant magnetic effect of the primary and secondary currents, produces a flux required to induce the e.m.f. necessaryPage 2 to drive the secondary current through the impedance of the secondary. In an fdeal transformer, the primary ampere-turns are always exactly equal to the secondary ampere-turns and the secondary current is, therefore, always proportional to the primary current. In an actual current transformer, however, this is never the case. All core materials, so far discovered, require a certain number of ampere-turns to induce the magnetic flux required to induce the necessary voltage. This can be illustrated as shown in the diagram. Ep and Es are the voltages in the primary and secondary windings, respectively, which must be in anti~ phase or 180° apart. In order to maintain the flux the primary current must Supply a current Ic in phase with the voltage, to overcome the iron loss (made up of hysteresis and eddy currents) and a current Im at right angles to the voltage and in phase with the flux, to magnetise the core. These two currents Combine to form the exciting current Ie. If a burden is connected to the Secondary and draws a current I, lagging behind the voltage by an angle 8a corresponding current I,' must flow in the primary. The total primary current. Ip is, therefore, the sum of I~ and Is'. Phasor Diagram FIG 1 If the primary current reduces, the secondary current will also automatically reduce, and since the secondary impedance is fixed, the secondary voltage and flux in the core will be reduced in the same proportion. However, due to the non linearity of the magnetisation curve of the core iron, the exciting current Ip decreases in a different ratio. This results in the current error and phase°error not being directly proportional to the current level, indeed the errors rise significantly at lower primary current levels. That is, with a given impedance in the secondary circuit, the exciting ampere-turns form a larger proportion of the total at small primary currents than at large, and it is the exciting current required to magnetise the core which causes the ‘errors.Page 3 The most accurate current transformer is one in which the exciting ampere- turns are least in proportion to the secondary ampere-turns. Exciting ampere- turns may be reduced in three principal ways: 1. By improving the quality of the magnetic material. Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel (C.R.0.S.S.) has a magnetisation characteristic with a knee point at 1.6 tesla. Nickel steel (Proprietary name Mumetal) has a knee point of 0.7 tesla. 2. By decreasing the mean magnetic path of the core. 3. By reducing the flux density in the core. Over any one period of time the quality of the available magnetic material (1) is fixed. ERROR eal error phase error PRIMARY CURRENT Fig 2. R CURRENT TRANSFORMERS BASIC FOMULAE Protective relays are designed to operate from secondary quantities supplied from current transformers and from voltage (or potential) transformers. The secondary output of these devices is the information used by the relays to determine the conditions existing in the plant being protected. It is necessary, therefore, that the secondary output of current and voltage present a true picture to the relays of the conditions in the primary circuit during faults as well as during normal loads. Or, alternatively, that their performance be known under extreme conditions so that any error in reproduction in the secondary circuit can be partially or completely compensated for in the setting and characteristics of the relay.Page 4 In many applications, core saturation will almost inevitably occur during the transient phase of a heavy short circuit. The performance of the associated instrument transformers during faults is, therefore, an important consideration in providing an effective relaying scheme. The relays and their associated current transformers must be considered as.a unit in determining the overall performance of the protective scheme. Consequently, the characteristic of the current and potential transformers at high currents and Jow voltage, respectively, must be known. In any current transformer the first consideration is the highest secondary winding voltage possible prior to core saturation. Taking a maximum value of flux density (B) as 1.6 tesla this may be calculated from :~ Ey = 4.44 x BAT N volts = 4.44 x 1.6 A FN volts ~ —-1 where E_ = secondary induced volts (rms value, known as the knee-point voltage) N number of secondary turns f = system frequency in hertz A~net core cross-sectional area in sq metres This induced voltage causes the maximum current to flow through the external burden whilst still maintaining a virtually sinusoidal secondary current. Any higher value of primary current demanding further increase in secondary current would, due to core saturation, tend to produce a distorted secondary current, The relevant circuit voltage required is typically f= I, gts + 2) -2 where I, = secondary current of c.t. in amps (assume nominal value, usually 1A or 5A) Zp = the connected external burden in ohms Zs = the c.t. secondary winding impedance in ohms ZL = the resistance of any associated connecting leads. In any given case, several of these quantities are known or can usually be estimated in order to predict the performance of the transformers. From the ae magnetisation characteristic, commonly plotted in secondary volts versus exciting current, E, can be determined for a minimum exciting current. Equation 2 then indicates whether the voltage required is adequate. EXAMPLE. Assume that a bar primary type 2000/SA (CROSS core) current transformer having a core csa area of 20 sq.cms. is available with a secondary resistance of 0.31 ‘ohm. The maximum current up to which the transformer must maintain its current ratio is 40,000 amperes. It is required to determine the maximum Secondary burden permissible if core saturation is to be avoided. AssumePage 5 that the current transformer core will start to saturate at 1.6 tesla. From the data given N = 2000/5 = 400 turns f = 50 Hz. Secondary current (Is) with a primary current of 40,000A is given by:— Ig = 40,000 x 100 amps 2000 Knee point voltage Vk is given for expression 1 as follows:~ E = 4.44 x 1.6 x 20 x 50 x 400 10’ = 284 volts Maximum burden permissible (including c.t. secondary resistance and lead burden) is equal to 284 / 100 = 2.84 ohms. Consequently, the connected burden including that of the pilots can be as high as 2.84 ~ 0.31 = 2.53 ohms for negligible saturation in the core. Thus, it may be seen that the secondary burden and the maximum available fault current are two important criteria in determining the performance of a given current ‘transformer. A current transformer may operate satisfactorily a) at a high primary current where the connected secondary burden is low b) at a lower primary current where the secondary burden is high CURRENT TRANSFORMER MAGNETISATION CURVE. The primary current contains two components. These are respectively the secondary current which is transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio and an exciting current, which supplies the eddy and hysteresis losses and magnetises the core. This latter current flows in the primary winding only and therefore, is the cause of the transformer errors. It is, therefore, not sufficient to assume a value of secondary current and to work backwards to determine the value of primary current by invoking the constant ampere-turns rule, since this approach does not take into account the exciting current. From this observation it may be concluded that certain values of secondary current could never be produced whatever the value of primary current and this fs of course, the case when the core saturates and a disproportionate amount of primary current is required to magnetise the core. The amount of exciting current drawn by a current transformer depends upon the core material and the amount of flux which must be developed in the core to satisfy the burden requirements of the current transformer. The appropriate current may be obtained directly from the exciting characteristic of the transformer since the secondary e.m.f. and therefore the flux developed is proportional to the product of secondary current and burden impedance.Page 6 The general shape of the exciting characteristic for a typical grade of CROSS (cold rolled grain orientated silicon steel) is shown. The characteristic is divided into three regions, defined by the ‘ankle-point' and the‘knee-point, The working range of a protective current transformer extends over the full range between the 'ankle-point' and the 'knee-point' and beyond, while a measuring current transformer usually only operates in the region of the ‘ankle-point'. The difference in working ranges between metering and protective current transformers stems from the radical difference in their functions. Metering current transformers work over the range 10% to 120% full load and it is even fan advantage if the current transformer saturates for currents above this range in order to provide thermal protection for the instruments. Protection Current transformers on the other hand are required to operate correctly at many times rated current. oint FLUX DENSITY feslas ankle point MMF ampere-turns per metre FIG 3. The current transformer magnetization curve, is usually expressed in terms of Kv and Ki which when multiplied by the flux density in teslas and ampere-turns per cm respectively gives corresponding volts and amperes. E,= 4.44 f BAN volts. In this equation, the flux density B is in teslas and the core cross-sectional area is in square metres.Page 7 When the flux density B is in teslas and the cross-sectional area is in square centimetres Es = 444x590 xBxA XN : im = 222 BAN 104 But ky = Es a ky = AN arc The exciting current Ie in amps can be obtained from the MMF using the relationshi MME The units of Ki will depend on the units of MMF. If the MNF is in ampere-turns per metre; Kj = L where L is in metres JL = mean N Jmagnetic Jpath If the MMF is in ampere-turns per cm; Kj = L where L is in cms N 4 EXAMPLE. Consider the case of a current transformer ratio 100/SA connected to an earth fault relay type CDGI1. Relay burden at minimum tap setting of 10% of rated current is given as 2 VA (See Publication). Calculate the required values of Ky and K; to provide the necessary output up to 10 times the plug setting, with (i) a bar primary type current transformer and with (ii) a wound primary (5 turns) current transformer. Assume the use of a C.R.0.S.S. core, Vq = 1.6 tesla. (4) RING TYPE CURRENT TRANSFORMER (BAR PRIMARY) Relay COG11 current setting = 0.5 ampere: i.e. 10% of SA. Volts required to operate relay = 2_ = 4 volts 05 Volts required at 10 times the plug setting = 4 x 10 = 40 volts ignoring lead burden and C.T. secondary winding resistance. Therefore, 40 volts must correspond to the knee-point of the saturation curve, which represents a flux density of 1.6 tesla.Page 8 With a bar primary, secondary number of turns = 20 E,= 4.44 f BAN 40 4.44 x 50 x 1.6 x Ax 20 x10 .(A in cm?) 56.3 cm? A= 40 0.71 Assume stacking factor = 0.92 Gross CSA = 56.3/0.92 = 61.2 cm@ assuming I.0. = 18 cms. 0.0, = 30 cms. Depth = 10.2 cms. -——30 cms————1 Y AN = 56:3x 20 = 25 5 45 yA 4 Kj = L = 240 = 3.77 cm/turn N20 (if) WOUND PRIMARY C.T. Assume current transformer is wound with § primary turns Secondary turns = 5 x 100 = 100 5 40 = 4.44 x 50x 1.6 x 100xA. 1074 (A in cm?) A = 11.26 cm? ie, Gross area = 11.26 = 12.24 cm? 0.92 assuming 1.0. = 18 cm. 0.0.= 30 cm Depth = 2.04 cm FIG 4 (b)Page 9 = 26: 2s = 2arr = 0.754 em/turn 100 KNEE-POINT The knee-point of the excitation characteristic is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in exciting current. It may, therefore, be regarded as a practical limit beyond which a specified current ratio may not be maintained. Beyond the knee-point the current transformer is said to enter saturation. In this region the major part of the primary current is utilised to maintain the core flux and since the shunt admittance is not linear, both the exciting and secondary currents depart from a sine wave. For example, in the case of a wholly resistive burden, correct transformation takes place until saturation flux density is reached. The secondary volts and current then collapse instantly to zero, where they remain until next primary current zero is reached. This process is repeated each half cycle and results in a pulse waveform as shown. Prinany Curaenr. Fux t Fux Dewar, vs s / / mem Marcu EnSAric Seeomoner Cusseur pmo VouTAGE. Ampere. - Tuts, Pen Cone Lene Mean Macwene FATA Fig 5. Waveform of steady state currents and flux density in a current transformer that saturates with a resistive burden. OPEN CIRCUITED SECONDARY WINDING The secondary circuit of a current transformer should never be left open~ circuited whilst primary current continues to flow. In these circumstances only the primary winding is effective and thus the current transformer behaves as a highly saturated choke (induction) to the flow of primary winding current. Thus a peaky and relatively high value of voltage appears at the Secondary output of terminals, endangering life, not to mention the possible resulting breakdown of secondary circuit insulation.Page 10 In those cases where current transformers are associated with the “high impedance type" earth fault relay the secondary circuit burden may have ohmic values up to several thousands of ohms. In these circumstances the maximum crest value of any secondary over voltage which may occur may be computed by the following expression. Vp = 2.2 . [We -VK)-VK Where Vg ~ the rms voltage required to circulate the maximum available current which would flow in the secondary circuit if core saturation had not occurred. = Swgr rating amps e,€. ratio joint voltage of the current transformers x Znelay cel, 2 setting VK Kn Where the value of Vp exceeds 3kV it is considered prudent to connect a non- linear resistor (METROSIL) across the secondary output terminals. From what has been discussed above it will be evident that:- “where a current transformer is not in use but where its primary winding is till energised it is important to ensure that the secondary winding is left: SHORT CIRCUITED". EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT The errors of a current transformer may be considered as due to the whole of the primary current not being transformed, a component thereof being required to excite the core. Alternatively, we may consider that the whole of the primary current is transformed without loss, but that the secondary current is shunted by a parallel circuit the impedance of which is such that the equivalent of the exciting current flows there in. The circuit shown is the equivalent circuit of the current transformer. The primary current is assumed to be transformed perfectly, with no ratio or phase angle error, to a current Ip/N which is often called ‘the primary current referred to the secondary’. A part of the current may be considered consumed in exciting the core, and this Current Ip is called the secondary excitation current. The remainder Ts is the true secondary current. It will be evident that the excitation current is a function of the secondary excitation voltage Es and the secondary excitation impedance Ze. It will also be evident that the secondary current is a function of Eg and the total impedance in the secondary circuit. This total impedance consists of the effective resistance (and any leakage reactance) of the secondary winding and the impedance of the burden. I 7s —Page 11 ip = primary current in amperes N= current transformer ratio (primary to secondary amperes) burden impedance of relays in ohms (r+jx) F " Ig = current transformer secondary winding impedance in ohms (r+jx) Z_ = secondary excitation impedance in ohms (jx) Ie = secondary excitation current in amperes Ig = secondary current in amperes E, = secondary excitation voltage in volts Vp = secondary terminal voltage in volts across the current transformer terminals (input to the relay or burden) ACCURACY REQUIREMENTS Current Transformer Errors The errors associated with current transformers are the current error and the phase error. AS shown by the tables, the errors for metering and protection Current transformers are quite different, those for protection transformers being less exacting, as might be expected. It follows that a high permeability core material with a low saturation level is most suitable for measuring current transformers, whereas the principal requirement in protection current transformers is a high saturation level. The core materials most suitable for measuring applications are nickel iron alloys as these have by far the lowest exciting ampere turns per unit length of core and the knee-point occurs at a relatively low flux density. Grain orientated silicon steels are used in protection current transformers as although they exhibit a poorer exciting ampere-turns rating, they offer the advantage of a significantly higher knee-point flux density. METERING CURRENT TRANSFORMERS. LIMITS OF CURRENT ERROR AND PHASE DISPLACEMENT. For Classes 0.1 to 1 the current error and phase displacement at rated frequency shail not exceed the values given in Table 1 when the secondary burden is any value from 25% to 100% of the rated burden. For Class 3 and Class 5, the current error at rated frequency shall not exceed the values given in Table 2 when the secondary burden is any value from 50% to 100% of the rated burden. The secondary burden used for test purposes shall have a power factor of 0.8 lagging, except where a burden is less than 5VA a power factor of 1 shall be used. In no case shall the test burden be less than AWA.Page 12 TABLE 1. LIMITS OF ERROR FOR ACCURACY CLASSES 0.1 TO 1. + % RATIO ERROR + PHASE DISPLACEMENT AT PERCENTAGE AT PERCENTAGE OF OF RATED CURRENT SHOWN BELOW RATED CURRENT CLASS] SHOWN BELOW MINUTES CENTIRADIANS 10 upto | 20 UPTO} 100 | 10 UPTO | 20 UPTO| 100 | 10 UPTO | 20 UPTO| 100 BUT NOT | BUT NOT | UPTO| BUT NOT | BUT NOT| UPTO | BUT NOT | BUT NOT) UPTO INCL. | INCL. | 120} INCL. | INCL. | 120 | INCL. INCL. | 120 20 100 20 100 20 100 0.1 | 0.25 0.2 0.1 | 10 8 5 10.3 0.24 | 0.15 0.2 | 0.5 0.35 0.2 | 20 15 10 | 0.6 0.45 0.3 0.5 | 1.0 0.75 0.5 |60 45 30 | 1.8 1.35 0.9 1 2.0 15 1.0 | 120 90 60 | 3.6 2.7 1.8 TABLE 2 LIMITS OF ERROR FOR ACCURACY CLASSES 3 AND S CLASS | 4% RATIO ERROR AT PERCENTAGE OF RATED CURRENT ‘SHOWN BELOW 50 120 3 3 3 5 5 5 PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS LIMITS OF ERROR. At rated frequency and with rated burden connected the current error, phase displacement and composite error shall not exceed the values given in Table 3. permissible. For test purposes, when determining the current error and phase displacement, the burden shall have a power factor of 0.8 inductive except where the burden is less than SVA a power factor of 1.0 isPage 13 TABLE 3. LIMITS OF ERROR FOR ACCURACY CLASS 5P AND CLASS 10P. ‘ACCURACY | CURRENT ERROR PHASE DISPLACEMENT AT | COMPOSITE ERROR AT CLASS AT RATED PRIMARY | RATED PRIMARY CURRENT | RATED ACCURACY CURRENT (%) LIMIT PRIMARY MINUTES | CENTIRADIANS | CURRENT (%) 5P #1 +60 [21.8 5 10P +3 10 Considering the excitation impedance (Ze) as a constant, the vectorial relationships between the fundamental frequency currents are typically as shown in Fig 761 The vectorial difference between Ip and Is is Ie. Ie constitutes the current error and Iq the component of Ie in quadrature with I, which results in the phase difference. If Ze were in fact a constant impedance, the vectorial error Ip of the diagram would be the composite error, but in practice the magnetising impedance Ze is not constant with the result that the exciting current I, contains some harmonics of the fundamental frequency which increases its r.m.s. value and thus increases the composite error. This effect is most noticeable in the region approaching saturation of the core when the wave-forms of the primary, secondary and exciting currents would be somewhat as shown. FIG Te) FIG 7h) FIG Te)Page 14 CLASS X PROTECTIVE C.T. The performance of Class X current transformers of the low (secondary) reactance type shall be specified in terms of each of the following characteristics: (i) Rated primary current (ii) Turns ratio. (The error in turns ratio shall not exceed + 0.25%) Knee-point voltage Exciting current at the knee-point voltage and/or at a stated percentage thereof. (v) Resistance of secondary winding RATIO ERROR (CURRENT ERROR) The ratio error is defined as the error in the secondary current due to the incorrect ratio and is expressed as a percentage, by the expression (Knls = Ip)100 Tp where Kq is the nominal ratio (rated primary current/rated secondary current) I is the actual secondary current Ip is the actual primary current ‘The ratio is considered positive when the actual secondary current of the ‘transformer is larger than the rated current PHASE ANGLE ERROR The phase angle error is the angle by which the secondary current vector, when reversed, differs in phase from the primary current. This angle is considered as positive if the reversed secondary current vector leads the primary current vector. On very low burden power factors the phase angle error may be negative. Only on rare occasions is it necessary to determine the phase error of a C.T. used for relaying. These occasions occur when very low circuit settings i.e. 1%-5% of rated current, are used in relays which are directionalised by voltage transformer inputs. For exampie sensitive reverse power relays may require taking phase error into account in order to ensure correct directional operation where very low power factor primary currents are involved e.g. 16-3% power when certain types of prime movers are being motored eg, steam turbines and hydro sets.Page 15 RATED OVERCURRENT FACTOR Is the ratio of the maximum current that can pass through the transformer without exceeding the designed electromagnetic forces to the rated primary Current of the circuit (the ratio of the rated short time current to the rated primary current). RATED ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR (SATURATION FACTOR) A current transformer is designed to maintain its ratio within specified limits up to a certain value of primary current, expressed as a multiple of its rated primary current. This multiple is termed its rated accuracy limit factor. In determining the accuracy limit factor it is necessary to consider the maximum value of primary current up to which the current transformer is required to maintain its ratio. (The ratio of accuracy limit primary current to the rated primary current). CHOICE OF C.T. RATIO The total secondary burden of a current transformer includes not only the internal impedance of the secondary winding, the impedance of the instruments and relays which are connected to it, but also that of the secondary leads. In modern outdoor switchgear, the distance between the current transformers and the relay panels may be considerable and with a rated secondary current of 5 amperes, the impedance of these leads constitutes a considerable burden. Because the losses vary as the square of the current, they are reduced to 1/25 at 1 ampere and to 1/100 at 0.5A. In most installations, the use of 1 ampere Secondaries is sufficient to keep the pilot losses within reasonable limits and 0.5 anpere should be used only in very special cases. N-B. The same pilot cable size (7/029 or 2.5 mm ) is used for both 1A and 5A CT's. Generally speaking, the usual value of rated secondary current is 5 amperes provided that the length of the pilots between the current transformers and the connected apparatus does not exceed about 25 yards. Up to this length the additional burden due to the resistance of the pilots is reasonably small in relation to the total output of the transformer. CURRENT TRANSFORMER BURDEN All cut. accuracy considerations require knowledge of the c.t. burden, which is the load applied to the secondary of the c.t. and should preferably be expressed in terms of the impedance of the load and its resistance and reactance components. In practice it is usual to quote the relay burdens, in the first place, in terms of V.A. (volt-amperes) and power factor. A burden of 12.5VA at SA'would have an ohmic value of:- 12,5 = 0.5-ohm 5 In some cases the c.t. burden impedance decreases as the secondary current increases, because of saturation in any magnetic circuits of relays. Hence, a given burden may apply only for a particular value of secondary current. The ferminology of VA at 5 amperes may be confusing in this respect since it isPage 16 not necessarily the actual VA with 5 amperes flowing but what the VA would be at S amperes if there were no saturation. At high saturation the impedance approaches the resistance. Neglecting the reduction in impedance with saturation makes it appear that a c.t. will be more inaccurate than it will actually be. It is usually sufficiently accurate to add series burden impedance arithmetically. The results will be slightly pessimistic, indicating slightly greater than actual c.t. ratio inaccuracy. But if a given application fs so border line that vector addition of impedance is necessary to prove that the c.t. will be suitable then a larger c.t. should be recommended. $ Fig.8 Phasor diagram for URF. burden. - Ip Ig Ip If the impedance at pick up of a tapped overcurrent relay coil is known for a given pick-up tap, it can be estimated for pick up current aF any other tap. ‘he reactance of & tapped coil varies as the square of the coil turns and the resistance varies approximately as the turns. ‘At pick up, there is negligible saturation and the resistance is small compared with the reactance. Therefore, it is usually sufficiently accurate to assume that the impedance varies as the square of the turns. The number of coil turns is inversely proportional to the pick up current and therefore the impedance varies jnversely approximately as the square of the pick up current. If the impedance of a coil is Z1 at pick-up current Ij the impedance of the coil at pick-up current Iz will be =u (ye Ig Suppose Z1 = 1 ohm at 1] = 5 amperes Therefore, the relay coil impedance at current Iz = 1 ampere will be Zz = 1 (8)2 = 25ohms 1 If the primary of an auxiliary c.t. is to be connected into the secondary of a c.t. whose accuracy is being studied, the impedance of the auxiliary c.t. viewed from its primary (with its secondary short circuited) must be known. To this value of impedance must be added the impedance of the auxiliary c.t. burden as viewed from the primary side of the auxiliary c.t. To obtain this impedance multiply the actual burden impedance by the square of the ratio of primary to secondary turns of the auxiliary c.t. It will become evident that with an auxiliary c.t. that steps-up the magnitude of its current from primary =Page 17 to secondary, high burden impedances, when viewed from the primary, may result. When the individual burdens are expressed in ohms, the total burden is obtained by the addition of the individual burdens. The total ohmic burden Should then be converted to a VA burden at the rated secondary current of the Ct. The VA burden of relays and instruments are usually given at the setting Current. That is, a 1 VA relay set at 20% of rated current will have an effective burden on the c.t. at rated current of 1 ampere equal to 1. iy = igo = 25VA A current transformer for overcurrent and earth fault protection is usually Specified in terms of rated burden, class and accuracy limit factor. Thus, a cptrent transformer, specified as 10P15 with connected rated burden will have Composite error of 10% or less for values of primary current corresponding to 1S times rated current. At rated current the current error will be limited to 3% (see Table 3). An example of a protective current transformer specified in accordance with Table 3, is as follows:~ 15VA 10P20 je. with an external secondary burden of 15VA the composite error will be 10% or less for primary currents up to 20 times rated current. To convert from VA and ‘accuracy limit factor’ (ALF) into volts, we can use the expression Vk = VA. ALF IN or when the internal voltage drop in the ct needs to be taken into account Vq = (ALF) CInRet + » N MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS A distinction must be made between the terms a) current error, and b) — phase error. Current error is measured by using that component only of the total exciting current corresponding to the fron loss in the transformer core. Phase error, where relevant, 1s measured by using that component only of the exciting Current corresponding to the core magnetising quantity. Fig]. illustrates this. The two quantities mentioned above are normally treated as sinusoidal, indeed jf this were not so, they would be out of place on a phasor diagram as in Fig |. Whilst in practice the exciting current wave-shape is significantlyPage 18 distorted, the fundamental frequencies only, of the iron loss and magnetising components, are measured. This is seen to be so in Fig. where the Arnold Bridge is illustrated as a method of measuring these two components. The nulling device of the Arnold Bridge is normally tuned to rated frequency by means of a vibration galvonometer. Thus measurements taken consititute the only fundamental frequency. ARNOLD CURRENT TRANSFORMER TESTING APPARATUS A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ITS OPERATING FUNCTION The Arnold method of measuring the accuracy of current transformers is based ‘on the comparison of the CT under test with a ‘standard or reference CT, the errors of which are known. The transformer under test is measured for ratio or ‘current’ error and for phase angle error against the standard CT which must be of nominally similar ratio. The Arnold Apparatus forms the ‘comparator’ in this function. It is essentially a basic AC Potentiometer arranged so that the ratio and phase differences between 'test' and ‘standard’ secondary windings can be determined when a common current is passed through the primary windings of both CTs which are connected in series for this purpose. The secondaries are connected in a closed loop incorporating the respective burden resistors and also a unity ratio isolating CT which is located on the standard CT side of the loop. The loop is divided in two by means of a connection made from between the secondary windings and the bottom of the Toop. This connection carries the ‘spill’ or error current due to the relative difference in performance of the two CT's. In this connection are placed the ‘error range’ resistors, known as the COMMON RESISTORS. These can be individually selected for a value of 0.01 ohm, 0.1 ohm or 1 ohm. In use, the value selected is that which will develop an ‘error! voltage from the spill current flowing, such as to give the highest resolution on the measuring scales of the AC Potentiometer. Stamoazs CT CT unnen test oon. cima pat earate tuaven ker M = Matual inductor. RA> fever current Fig 4, Aroto Circuit foe MeasuatwnT ta: fatinerer oF RaTio auo PHASE ERmoRs oF ops ConaeuT TRausroameRsPage 19 Thus, in a normal situation, the magnitude of the spill current directly relates to the accuracy class of the CT under test. CT's of high Specification will cause only a small spill current to flow, requiring the Selection of a higher value of Common Resistor and vice versa. ‘A current from the secondary side of the isolating or auxiliary transformer ‘supplies the components of the AC Potentiometer circuit. These consist of a precision non-inductive Slidewire (calibrated in percent ratio error) and a precision variable Mutual Inductor (calibrated in minutes phase angle error). The ‘error voltage! from the Common Resistor is applied to the Potentiometer via a sensitive ac detector and can be ‘backed off', in terms of both magnitude and phase by alternately adjusting the Mutual Inductor and the Slidewire until the’ lowest detector deflection is obtained. Scale readings from the Slidewire will be in Percent x the range factor as Shown against the Common Resistor in use. Similarly, scale readings from the Mutual Inductor will be in Minutes of Phase x the same factor. In certificates of calibration for current transformers, issued by the UK National Physical Laboratory, current error is defined as: "the error in magnitude of the secondary current, expressed as a percentage, as given by the formula:~ Current Error % = 100 (kq ts - Ip)/Ip where kq is the rated transformation ratio, Ip the actual primary current and Tz the actual secondary current when Ip is flowing under conditions of measurement". The sign of the current error is such that when positive the secondary current is higher (and when negative lower) than the nominal rated value. Phase error is defined as: “the displacement in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the direction of the vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for a perfect transformer. The phase error is said to be positive when the secondary current vector leads the primary current vector". CHOICE OF C.T. PRIMARY RATING The c.t. primary rating is usually chosen to be equal to or greater than the normal full load current of the protected circuit. Standard primary ratings are given in B.S. 3938:1973. Generally speaking, the maximum ratio of c.t.s is usually limited to about 3000/1. This is due to (i) limitation of size of c.t. and more importantly (ii) the fact that the open circuit volts would be dangerously high for large c.t. primary ratings, such as those encountered on Jarge turbo alternators, e.g. 5,000 amperes. It is standard practice in such applications to use a cascade arrangement of say 5,000/20A together with 20/1A interposing auxiliary c.t.Page 20 INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS Class P method of specification will suffice. A secondary accuracy limit current greatly in excess of the value to cause relay operation serves no Useful purpose and a rated accuracy limit of 5 will usually be adequate. When Such relays are set to operate at high values of overcurrent, say from 8 to 18 times the rated current of the transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as the value of the setting current used in order to ensure fast relay operation. Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated accuracy limit factor with a lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of these two exceeds 150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of unduly large dimensions. OVERCURRENT RELAYS WITH INVERSE AND DEFINITE MINIMUM TIME LAG CHARACTERISTIC In general, for both directional and non-directional relays class 10P current transformers should be used. EARTH FAULT RELAYS WITH INVERSE TIME CHARACTERISTICS (i) Schemes in which phase fault current stability and_accurate time ‘grading are not required. Class 10P current transformers are generally recommended in which the product of rated output and rated accuracy limit factor approaches 150 provided that the earth fault relay is not set below 20% of the rated current of the associated current transformer and that the burden of the relay at its setting current does not exceed 4VA. (41) Schemes in which phase fault stability and/or where time grading is critical. Class 5P current transformers in which the product of rated output and accuracy limit factor approaches 150 should be used. They are in general suitable for ensuring phase fault stability up to 10 times the rated primary current and for maintaining time grading of the earth fault relays, up to current values of the order of 10 times the earth fault setting provided that the phase burden effectively imposed on each current transformer does not exceed 50% of its rated burden The rated accuracy limit factor is not less than 10 The earth fault relay is not set below 30% The burden of the relay at its setting does not exceed 4VA When system conditions demand the maintenance of time grading up to values of current in excess of 10 times the earth fault setting, Consideration should be given to one or more of the following courses:Page 21 The use of a higher relay setting The use of an earth fault relay having a burden of less than 4VA at its setting The use of current transformers having a product of rated output and rated accuracy factor in excess of 150. CLASS 'X' CURRENT TRANSFORMERS Protection current transformers specified in terms of complying with Class 'X! specification (see page 1 ) are generally applicable to unit systems where balancing of outputs from each end of the protected plant is vital. This balance, or stability during through fault conditions, is essentially of a transient nature and thus the extent of the unsaturated (or linear) zone is of paranount importance. Hence a statement of kneepoint voltage is the parameter of prime importance and it is normal to derive, from heavy current fest results, a formula stating the lowest permissible value of Vk if stable operation is to be guaranteed, e.g. Vk = Kin (Ret + 2RL + Ro) where K - is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests In 7 tated current of C.T. and relay Act ~ secondary winding resistance of the Tine current transformers RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms Ro CONSTANT VA VARIABLE OPERATING CURRENT RELAYS any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit Relays often have constant VA with constant ampere-turns, the operating current being varied by taps on the relay coil. Assuming that such a relay forns the secondary circuit burden and neglecting the effect of the impedance of the current transformer secondary winding and lead burden, let Ig = C.t. secondary current Ig = Relay impedance at the setting Ip = Relay current setting Va = Voltage which has to be applied to the relay when set at IR to cause operation I = Magnetising current of current transformer corresponding to VR Y = Magnetising admittance of current transformer (1/ZM) VA = Volt-amperes required to operate relayPage 22 Now, for a minimum value of Is 1- WA. Y=0 TR2 Ip? = VA. Y Ip =JVAY Substituting Ig in equation (1) Ts (min) = {VAY + y {Wa = 2]VAY Also Ty = Ip={VA-¥ Since Is (min) = 2 [ VA. Y and In = [ VA. ¥ 1 = Vp. Y= Zp. ¥ R/ER * The minimum primary current for which the relay will function as the operating setting is varied, will occur when the shunt magnetising impedance ord the velay impedance are matched. This also corresponds to the minimum possible VA output to the relay. k=l, FIG 10.Page 23 In the treatment 'Y' has been considered constant or linear whereas in general it is non-linear with respect to voltage. If we assume that the Gurrent transformer can be represented by the circuit shown with the losses neglected (i.e. as a pure reactance) we can establish the magnetising current Ty from the excitation characteristic for each relay operating voltage. The voltage required to operate a constant VA relay (of negligible resistance) with taps providing the constant ampere-turns characteristic can be calculated for each current setting Ip. The CT secondary current requiredto operate the relay will be Ig + corresponding value of Iy. Anpere-turns wor om om Current required for operation (Ip) I 1/2 3 Wh Turns on relay TO oa aT aT Reactance of relay proportional to (turns)2 x 4X 9K 16K Volts required to operate relay IX 2Ik 3X 41x vA 2 2 2 2 Ix Ix Ik IX s x Fig Exci tation Characteristic nN x Output Voltage — Vp es ~< x 1 magnetising current — Iq ()Page 24 The basic vector diagram for the current transformer is shown in diagram (a) and for the particular case assumed in diagram (b). If the current transformer core loss and the resistance of the relay coil are neglected angle 8 = 0 and @ = 90° and therefore, the magnetising current of the transformer is in phase with the relay current. Thus, the primary current required to operate the relay is Ip = (Is + IM) N Es FIG12. The relationship between the primary and the relay currents can be plotted on a graph to show how the best relay performance (ie minimum primary operating current) is obtained at some intermediate tap setting on the relay and not at the minimum current setting. Tp = (LatTn)n \ Pama Cusrent —> ma Reay OreraTine Current I FIG 13.