Children 13th Edition Santrock Solutions Manual Download

Chapter 5 Physical Development in Infancy
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CHAPTER 5: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
Total Teaching Package Outline
Resources
HOW DO INFANTS GROW AND DEVELOP LG #1
PHYSICALLY? CA #6
Patterns of Growth—Cephalocaudal pattern—A ESS #1
developmental sequence in which growth occurs from the WS #1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
head down; sensory and motor development generally
proceed in this manner. Proximodistal pattern—
Development starts at the center of the body and moves
towards the extremities, such as with muscular control in
infancy.
Height and Weight—Ninety-five percent of North
American newborns are between 18 to 22 inches long and
weight between 5.5 and 10 pounds. Infants grow about 1
inch per month during the first year and have nearly tripled
their birth weight by their first birthday. Growth slows
considerably in the second year of life.
The Brain—At birth, infants possess approximately 100 CA #8
billion neurons. The baby’s head should be protected from ESS #2
falls and injuries and the baby must never be shaken.
Extensive brain development continues after birth.
 Mapping the brain— The portion farthest from the
spinal cord is known as the forebrain, and includes
the cerebral cortex and several structures beneath it.
The cerebral cortex is made of 2 hemispheres, each
hemisphere containing 4 lobes with different
activity. Areas of the brain do not mature uniformly.
Also, the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are
not identical in anatomy or function; the term
lateralization refers to the specialization in function
of each hemisphere.
 Changes in neurons—Two significant changes
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involving neurons in the first year of life are changes

in myelination, or the process of encasing axons
with fat cells, and in the connectivity among neurons
to create new neural pathways.
 Changes in regions of the brain—The processes of
dramatic growth and later pruning of synapses in the
visual, auditory, and prefrontal cortex vary
considerably by brain region. The pace of
myelination also varies in different areas of the
brain. The prefrontal cortex has the most prolonged
development of any brain region, with changes
detectable at least into the adolescent years.
 Early experience and the brain—After birth, CA #4
environmental experiences guide the brain’s ESS #3
development and influence the brain’s neural HO #3
connections. In the neuroconstructivist view,
biological processes and environmental conditions
influence the brain’s development.
Sleep— Infants 0 to 2 years of age slept an average of 12.8
hours a day. The most common infant sleep-related
problem reported by parents is nighttime waking.
 REM sleep— About one-half of infant’s sleep is
REM, and infants often begin their sleep cycle with
REM rather than non-REM sleep. By 4 months,
infants have usually moved closer to adult-like sleep
patterns.
 Shared sleeping—Sharing a bed with a mother is a ESS #4
common practice in many cultures. While some
researchers believe that shared sleeping promotes
breast feeding and a quicker response to infants,
others have found that bed sharing is linked with a
greater incidence of SIDS.
 SIDS—Sudden infant death syndrome remains the ESS #5
highest cause of infant death in the United States. WS #3
Risk of SIDS is highest at 4 to 6 weeks of age.
Researchers have found that the risk of SIDS is
reduced when infants sleep on their backs.
Nutrition—Infants triple their weight and increase length by ESS #7
50% in one year.
 Nutritional needs and eating behavior—
Nutritionists recommend that infants consume
approximately 50 calories per day for each pound
they weigh. Poor dietary patterns early in
development can result in infants being overweight.
 Breast versus bottle feeding—The growing CA #7
consensus is that breast feeding is better than bottle ESS #6

feeding for a baby’s health. Benefits associated with
breast feeding include lowered risk of obesity, fewer
allergies, reduction of diarrhea and respiratory
infections, and lower SIDS incidence.
 Malnutrition in infancy—Early weaning of infants
from breast milk to inadequate sources of nutrients
can cause protein deficiency and malnutrition. Two
life-threatening conditions that can result from
malnutrition are marasmus, the wasting away of
body tissues in the infant’s first year, and
kwashiorkor, a condition caused by a protein
deficiency in which a child’s vital organs collects
nutrients while other parts of the body are deprived of
them. LM #3
Health—Immunization and accident prevention are important
aspects of children’s health.
 Immunization—Widespread immunization for
preventable diseases is responsible for a dramatic
advance in infant health in the past four decades.
The recommended schedule for many
immunizations begins in infancy. RP #2
 Accident prevention—Accidents are a major
cause of death in infancy, especially from 6 to 12
months of age. Infants need to be closely monitored
as they gain increased locomotor and manipulative
skills and a curiosity to explore the environment.
LG #2
HOW DO INFANTS DEVELOP MOTOR SKILLS? HO #1
The Dynamic Systems View—According to dynamic
systems theory, motor development is not a passive process
in which genes dictate the unfolding of a sequence of skills
over time. Rather, the infant actively puts together a skill in
order to achieve a goal within the constraints set by the
infant’s body and environment. The infant and the
environment interact as parts of an integrated, ever-changing
system. ESS #8
Reflexes—Reflexes are built-in reactions to stimuli that
govern newborns’ movements and serve as important
building blocks for subsequent purposeful motor activity.
 Rooting reflex—An infant responds to a touch on the
cheek by turning toward the touch.
 Sucking reflex—Newborns automatically suck an object
placed in their mouth.
 Moro reflex—When startled, the newborn arches its
back, throws back its head, and flings out its arms and
legs.
 Grasping reflex—An infant grasps when palms are
touched.
Gross Motor Skills—Example of gross motor skills, which
are skills that involve large-muscle activities, include
moving one’s arms and walking.
 Development of posture—Dynamic process linked with
sensory modalities—skin, muscles, vestibular organs in
the inner ear, and cues from vision and hearing.
 Learning to walk—To walk upright, the baby must be
able both to balance on one leg as the other is swung
forward and to shift the weight from one leg to another.
 The first year—The timing of milestones, especially
later ones such as walking, may vary by as much as 2 to 4
months, and experiences can modify the onset of these
accomplishments. LM #2
 Development in the second year—Toddlers become
more motorically skilled and mobile, and researchers
believe that motor activity during the second year is vital
to the child’s competent development. ESS #9
 Cultural variations—Mothers in developing cultures
tend to stimulate their infants’ motor skills more than
mothers in more advanced cultures. Infants around the
world still reach these motor milestones within a close
age range.
Fine motor skills—Finely tuned movements, such as
grasping a toy or any activity that requires finger dexterity,
demonstrates fine motor skills. Experience and practice play
a role in the development of fine motor skills. LG #3
CA #2, 3
HOW CAN INFANTS’ SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL PA #1
DEVELOPMENT BE CHARACTERIZED? HO #2
What Are Sensation and Perception?—A stimulus activates
a response from the senses, producing sensation, while CA #5
perception is the interpretation of what is sensed.
The Ecological View is that perception brings the organism in
contact with its environment for the purposes of adaptation.
Affordances are opportunities for interactions offered by
objects.
RP #1
Studying Infant Perception ESS #10, 11, 12
 Visual preference method—Studying whether infants
can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring
the length of time they attend to different stimuli.
 Habituation—Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus

after repeated presentations. Research method used with
infants. Dishabituation is the recovery of a habituated
response after a change in stimulation.
 Other methods— To assess an infant’s attention to
sound, researchers often use a method called high-
amplitude sucking, in which infants suck on a nipple
connected to a sound generating system. To determine if
an infant can see or hear a stimulus, researchers might
look for the orienting response, which involves turning
one’s head toward a sight or sound, or to monitor the
infant’s tracking, which consists of eye moments that
follow a moving object.
 Equipment—Videotape equipment, high-speed
computers, and other forms of technology can facilitate
the use of most methods for investigations of infant
perceptual abilities.
Visual Perception
 Visual acuity and human faces—A newborn’s vision is
estimated to be about 20/240 to 20/640 in acuity and
approximates 20/40 by about six months of age. Infants
show an interest in human faces soon after birth.
 Color vision—Infants can discriminate some colors early
in infancy, and by 4 months of age, may have color
preferences that mirror those of adults. Both maturation
and experience are involved in the development of
normal vision.
 Perceptual constancy—Babies as young as 3 months
show some evidence of size constancy, the recognition
that an object remains the same even though the retinal
image of the object changes, and shape constancy, the
recognition that an object remains the same shape even
though its orientation changes.
 Perception of occluded objects: Beginning at about 2
months of age, infants develop the ability to perceive
occluded objects as whole.
 Depth perception—Although researchers do not know
exactly how early in life infants can perceive depth, there
is evidence that infants develop the ability to use
binocular cues by about 3 to 4 months of age.
Other Senses
 Hearing—Newborns prefer some kinds of sounds over
others, and changes in perception of a sound’s loudness,
pitch, and localization take place in the first two years.

Fetuses can hear and learn specific sounds in utero.
 Touch and pain—Newborns respond to touch and feel
pain. Coordination of vision and touch develops over the
first two years.
 Smell—Newborns can differentiate between odors and
show preferences for certain kinds of smells over others.
 Taste—Studies making use of infants’ facial expressions
indicate that newborns can differentiate between tastes
and that taste preferences may change somewhat over the
first few months of life.
Intermodal Perception—The integration of two or more

sensory modalities. Even newborns demonstrate elemental
forms of intermodal perception that become more
sophisticated through experience. LM #1
Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual Development: A full

portrait of perceptual development includes the influence of
nature, nurture, and a developing sensitivity to information.
Perceptual-Motor Coupling—Individuals perceive in order to

move and move in order to perceive. Perceptual and motor
developments do not occur in isolation from one another but
instead are coupled.
Resource Key
LG – Learning Goal ESS – Essay
LM – Lecture Material WS – Web Site Suggestions
CA – Classroom Activity P – Research Project
HO – Handout PA – Personal Application
Learning Goals
5.1 Discuss physical growth and development in infancy.
Patterns of Growth Height and Weight
The Brain
Sleep
Nutrition Health
5.2 Describe infants’ motor development.
The Dynamic Systems View
Reﬂexes
Gross Motor Skills
Fine Motor Skills
5.3 Explain sensory and perceptual development in infancy.
What Are Sensation and Perception?
The Ecological View Visual Perception
Other Senses
Intermodal Perception
Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual Development
Perceptual-Motor Coupling
Key Terms
cephalocaudal pattern grasping reflex
proximodistal pattern gross motor skills
forebrain fine motor skills
cerebral cortex sensation
lateralization perception
neuroconstructist view ecological view
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) affordances
marasmus visual preference method
kwashiorkor habituation
dynamic systems theory dishabituation
reflexes size constancy
rooting reflex shape constancy
sucking reflex intermodal perception
Moro reflex
Biography Highlights
T. Berry Brazelton graduated in 1943 from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.
Over the years, Brazelton has published more than 200 scientific papers and chapters on (1) individual
differences among newborns and the contribution of the neonate to the parent-infant dyad, (2) the
development of attachment between parent and infant over the first four months, (3) cross-cultural studies
of infant behavior and early parenting practices, (4) the importance of early intervention to at-risk infants
and their parents, and (5) the opportunities presented in early infancy for strengthening families. One of
Brazelton's foremost achievements in pediatrics is the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS),
published in 1973 and revised in 1984 and in 1995. Since 1988, Brazelton has held appointments as
Clinical Professor of Pediatrics Emeritus at Harvard Medical School, where he still teaches and conducts
research, and Professor of Psychiatry and Human Development at Brown University. In 1995, Harvard
University Medical School established the T. Berry Brazelton Chair in Pediatrics. Brazelton is actively
involved with The Brazelton Touchpoints, a preventive outreach program that trains professionals
nationwide to better serve families of infants and toddlers. He is also on the faculty of the Brazelton
Institute, where he continues to be involved in teaching and research with the Neonatal Behavioral
Assessment Scale.
Esther Thelen (1941-2004) received her Ph.D. in biology at the University of Missouri, Columbia in
1977 and until 1985 was on the faculty there in the Psychology Department. She was also a visiting
faculty member at the Ben Gurion University, Israel; the University of Sidney; the Ecole des Hautes
Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris; the Free University, Amsterdam; and the Neurosciences Institute, San
Diego. Thelen's research interests centered on the acquisition of perceptual motor skills in infancy: how
infants learn to control their bodies to interact in the world. She also wrote extensively on developmental
theory, and especially the application of dynamic systems theory to developmental issues. She co-
authored or edited four books, and over seventy journal articles and chapters on these topics. As a
consequence of her field-changing discoveries and theories, she received many of the highest honors the
field has to offer, held many national leadership posts, and since 1987 was continuously funded by the
National Institutes of Mental Health. Her work changed the way researchers think and study action and
development.
Karen Adolph is an Associate Professor in the Departments of Psychology and Neural Science at New
York University. Her research examines the role of perception-action linkages and body schema
representations in controlling the development of infant locomotion. Adolph’s studies challenge infants
with novel predicaments, such as going up and down slopes or walking with a weighted vest, to observe
how they adapt to potentially risky conditions. Adolph received her Master's and Ph.D. from Emory
University in 1989 and 1993, respectively. She worked at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and
Carnegie Mellon University before moving to NYU in 1997 as an Associate Professor of Psychology. She
joined the Neural Science department in 2002.
Eleanor (1910-2002) and James J. Gibson (1904-1979) coined the term ecological psychology to
emphasize the importance of animal-environment mutuality for the study of problems of perception. In
1975, Eleanor Gibson was able to establish her own infant study laboratory. This enabled her to devote
her research to ecological psychology, perhaps even more so after James’ death. Eleanor pursued her
work on perceptual development, more recently concentrating on the concept of affordances of events,
objects, and places in the world, and as the way meaningful perception develops. Eleanor Gibson's major
published work is possibly An Odyssey in Learning and Perception (1991), which consolidates much of
her lifetime's work. She also wrote Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development in 1967, for
which she received the Century Award.
William James (1842-1910) is considered by many to be the father of American psychology. He was
born in New York, son of a Swedenborgian theologian, Henry James, Sr. He received an eclectic and
trans-Atlantic education as his eccentric father's son. James received his degree in medicine at Harvard
University, and taught anatomy there from 1872, teaching philosophy after 1882. As a psychologist, he
established America's first psychology laboratory and wrote Principles of Psychology, which described
mental and physical processes, summing up the current state of psychology and introducing new theories.
In philosophy, he sought to reconcile his empiricism with religious faith, founding the pragmatic school,
which argues that the truth of beliefs depend on their consequences. James also did important work in the
study and philosophy of religion, providing a wide-ranging account in The Varieties of Religious
Experience and interpreting them according to his pragmatic leanings. James is one of the two namesakes
of the James-Lange theory of emotion, which he formulated independently of Carl Gustav Lang in the
1880s. The theory holds that emotion is the mind's perception of physiological conditions that result from
some stimulus. http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/jphotos.html
Robert Fantz was a pioneer in research on infant vision. Based on his observation that babies look at
things for different lengths of time, in 1963, Fantz developed the preferential looking technique for
studying visual perception. This remarkably simple technique has been used to investigate visual acuity,
color perception, face recognition, and also how various types of developmental disorders affect
perceptual processing.
Richard Walk studied infant depth perception with Eleanor Gibson by using a small cliff with a drop-off
covered by glass. Walk and Gibson would then place 6- to14-month-old infants on the edge of the visual
cliff to see if they would crawl over the edge. Most infants refused to crawl out on the glass, which
suggested that they could perceive depth and that depth perception is not learned.
Highlights of Research
(These highlights are given here in the order that they appear in the chapter.)
1. Galloway, J. C., & Thelen, E. (2004). Feet first: Object exploration in young infants.
Contrary to long-held beliefs, early leg movements can be precisely controlled, the
development of skilled reaching need not involve lengthy practice, and early motor behaviors
need not develop in a strict cephalocaudal pattern.
2. Bell, M., & Fox, N. (1992). Brain development over the first year of life. Increases in EEG
activity in the frontal lobe occurred at 3 to 4 months, 8 months, and 12 months. Each of these
benchmarks are when the infant is engaging in reaching, crawling, and beginning to walk.
3. Marshall, P. J., Reeb, B. C., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2008). Effects of
early intervention on EEG power and coherence in previously institutionalized children in
Romania. Two groups of Romanian children were compared on spectral power and
coherence in the electroencephalogram (EEG) in early childhood. Earlier age at foster care
placement was associated with increased alpha power and decreased short-distance EEG
coherence.
4. Dalton, T. C., & Bergenn, V. W. (2007). Early experience, the brain, and consciousness: An
historical and interdisciplinary synthesis. The authors propose that neurodevelopment is an
emergent process that enables infants to respond to the challenge of integrating complex
motor and cognitive functions.
5. Super, C., & Harkness, S. (1997). The cultural structuring of child development. In the
Kipsigis culture in the African country of Kenya, infants sleep with their mothers at night and
are permitted to nurse on demand. Kipsigis infants do not sleep through the night.
6. Lenoir, C., Mallet, E., & Calenda, E. (2000). Siblings of sudden infant death syndrome and
near miss in about 30 families. Infants whose siblings have died of SIDS are more likely to
die of SIDS as well.
7. Shea, A. K., & Steiner, M. (2008). Cigarette smoking during pregnancy. Nicotine from
cigarette smoke exerts its effects by affecting placental vasculature, and also by nicotinic
acetylcholine receptor binding in fetal membranes. Consequences involve a cascade of events
causing a dysregulation of the nicotinic, muscarinic, catecholaminergic, and serotonergic
neurotransmitter systems.
8. Grant, J. (1997). State of the world’s children. Comparisons of breastfed and bottle-fed
infants in such countries as Afghanistan, Haiti, Ghana, and Chile document that the death
rate of bottle-fed infants is up to five times greater than that of breastfed infants.
9. Pollitt, E. (1993). Early supplementary feeding and cognition. A longitudinal investigation in
Guatemala found that early nutritional supplements of protein and increased calories have
positive long-term effects on cognitive development.
10. Joh, A. S., & Adolph, K. E. (2006). Learning from falling. The number of children who
showed adult-like, 1-trial learning from falling increased with age. Exploration and
alternative locomotor strategies increased dramatically on learning criterion trials and
displays of negative affect were limited.
11. Balady, D. & Adolph, K. E. (2008). Beyond the average: Walking infants take steps longer
than their leg length. Infants occasionally take large steps exceeding their leg length. These
large steps provide evidence of advanced balance control and strength.
12. Barrett, T. M., & Needham, A. (2008). Developmental differences in infants' use of an
object's shape to grasp it securely. Results highlighted developmental differences in infants'
abilities to correct for less stable hand placements, to maintain control of the objects without
dropping, strategies used to obtain the objects, and latencies to grasp the objects.
13. DeCasper, A., & Spence, M. (1986). Prenatal maternal speech influences newborn’s
perception of speech sounds. Sixteen pregnant women read The Cat in the Hat to their
fetuses twice a day over the last six weeks of their pregnancies. Following birth, the infants
demonstrated signs of recognizing the story they had heard in the womb.
14. Kisilevsky, B. S., Hains, S. M. J., Lee, K., Xie, X., Huang, H., Ye, H. H., Zhang, Z., &
Wang, Z. (2003). Effects of experience on fetal voice recognition. The finding of differential
behavior in response to a familiar versus a novel voice provides evidence that experience
influences fetal voice processing and supports an epigenetic model of speech perception.
Lecture Material
1. Awareness of the World—Nature and Nurture
The physical world, through the eyes of the infant, is not the “blooming, buzzing confusion” that
William James once thought; nor is the infant the “blubbering, befouled” creature in Thomas
Wolfe’s confused blooming, buzzing world. As Santrock notes, the infant’s view of the world of
objects is acutely in line with the laws of physics in that she expects to see objects intact, move
cohesively, and remain continuous.
An infant’s observation of her immediate world means recognizing people and objects with
an awareness that seems to follow a pattern of determination. This begins before birth, as
DeCasper and Spence (1986) proved with their now-famous study using Dr. Seuss’s The Cat in
the Hat, read by 16 pregnant women twice a day for the last six and a half weeks of their
pregnancies. Using the sucking reflex as an indicator of familiarity, the researchers discovered
that the infants who had been read to as a fetus now recognized the story as infants. Babies prefer
the complex drawing to the simple and are strongly interested in the human face—even a
drawing of one.
With this incredible perceptual ability, is it any wonder that the field of evolutionary
psychology is growing? In looking at the color spectrum, infants will more likely group together
two different blues than a blue and a green—an action that is identically repeated in
chimpanzees. In an intermodal frenzy, infants can associate loud noises with bright lights,
objects seen with those felt, even male and female voices with their respective frames. These
abilities are immediate—days and weeks following birth—so that claims of environmental
infusion are hindered. In her work with the newborn in the area of senses, perception, and
emotions, Lois Barclay Murphy has found evidence that although many of the reflexes and sense
preceptors are common to all babies, the individuality of the baby begins to express itself with
the intensity of the bonding and identification with caregivers.
Scientists now believe that a baby’s ability to “see in stereo” isn’t developed before 3 or 4
months of age. Psychologist Richard Held (1993) concludes from his experiments that neurons
receiving input from each eye add up the inputs in a “bunch” rather than discriminating between
the eyes. Gradually, the brain chooses one eye as a “favorite” and within days the child is seeing
in stereo. In studies of animals that had one eye patched during this critical period of
development, the results were total and permanent blindness for the covered eye. This is a clear
support for the balance between nature and nurture as the child’s environment becomes the agent
for visual development.
References
DeCasper, A. J., & Spence, M. (1986). Newborns prefer a familiar story over an unfamiliar one. Infant
Behavior and Development, 9, 133–150.
Held, R. (1993). Two stages in the development of binocular vision and eye alignment. In S. Pinker (Ed.),
The language instinct. New York: Harper-Collins, 138.
2. Temperament and Toilet Training

Society’s expectations about toilet training have changed dramatically in recent decades. In
1928, Dr. John B. Watson advised parents to hold a pot under infants in the weeks after birth and
begin serious potty training at 3 months of age. By 1945, Dr. Benjamin Spock recommended that
potty training start at 7 to 9 months, an age when babies can typically sit up by themselves. After
conducting research on children who rebelled against potty training, Dr. T. Berry Brazelton
argued in 1962 that parents were training children too early. While he advised parents to wait
until children are 24 to 30 months, by 1999 he had revised this estimated starting age to 3 years
or later (Quinn, 2005).
Parents have not always strictly followed the advice of developmental experts. In the 1920s
through 1940s, when Watson was advising preparation for potty training virtually from the
moment of birth, parents reported waiting until around 12 months to begin, while parents in 1945
claimed that they initiated training on average at 18 months. By the 1960s, parents started
training at around 2 years, and today, one-third of children are still in diapers after their third
birthday. Today’s parents can also choose from a variety of accessories designed to facilitate
children’s mastery, such as bed alarms that sense moisture, potties shaped like pianos, and
anatomically correct girl and boy dolls with internal bladders (Quinn, 2005).
Though expectations about toilet training have changed, one idea that has remained
essentially constant is that toilet training success depends on the behavior of parents. Recent
research, however, indicates that children’s temperament may play a larger role in toilet training
than was previously thought. In a study led by Allison Schwonwald, an instructor at Harvard
Medical School in Boston, 46 children who were experiencing difficulty with toilet training were
compared to 62 children of the same age who had successfully mastered the process. The
children and their parents were assessed with measures of temperament, parenting style, and
toilet-training history. Results showed that while there was a normal distribution of
temperaments—easy, intermediate, and difficult—among the comparison children, none of the
children among the difficult toilet trainers displayed an easy temperament. Furthermore, the
children who had difficulty with toilet training were more likely to display characteristics
associated with difficult temperament such as low adaptability to new situations, negative
moods, low persistence, and wariness of novel activities. They were also more likely to
experience constipation than were the comparison children (Schwonwald, Sherritt, Stadtler, &
Bridgemohan, 2004).
According to Dr. David Fleisher of the University of Missouri School of Medicine, “Parents
need to understand that toilet training differs from training in most other areas of behavior
because they cannot oblige their child to perform bodily functions their way” (Warner, 2004).
Schonwald argues that understanding the relationship between temperament and toilet training
can allow parents to help children to overcome their difficulties. A special toilet time activity, for
example, can help children who give up easily stay interested. For children who are reluctant to
try new things, parents might look for ways to make the bathroom more inviting, such as
allowing children to play in the bathroom. Parents can also suggest to a child who asks for a pull-
up that they take it into the bathroom and use it instead of the toilet, which can take pressure off
of the child and allow her to feel successful in a bathroom setting. Concludes Dr. Timothy
Schum, an associate professor of pediatrics at the Medical College of Wisconsin, "Temperament
traits can't be changed very much, but if you are aware of them, as a parent, you can become
more tolerant” (Warner, 2004).
References
Quinn, M. (2005, February 22). Life of the potty. Times Herald-Record. Retrieved May 13,
2009, from http://archive.recordonline.com/archive/2005/02/22/cover22.htm
Schonwald, A., Sherritt, L., Stadtler, A., & Bridgemohan, C. (2004). Factors associated with
difficult toilet training. Pediatrics, 113(6), 1753–1757.
Warner, J. (2004, June 7). Child’s temperament affects potty training. WebMD Medical News. Retrieved
June 30, 2005, from http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/88/99859.htm?pagenumber=1.
3. Crying Babies
Crying is the primary mode of communication between infants and adults. An infant’s cry is an
impetus to anyone within hearing range to do something—anything—that might calm the baby,
and figuring out how to interpret their infants’ needs from cries is a challenging task for new
parents. New parents show more signs of physiological arousal to infants’ cries than do other
adults or experienced parents, and the sound of babies crying can even trigger nursing mothers’
milk to flow (Newton & Newton, 1972). While experienced parents can distinguish between
different types of cries in infants, babies often appear to cry for no obvious reason, and the stress
of an infant persistently crying despite all efforts to ease the distress can be overwhelming for
caretakers.
According to St. James-Roberts and colleagues (1994), crying in infants around the world
increases from birth to around 6 weeks of age and tends to peak in the evenings. Assuming that
the baby is not hungry, does not need a diaper change, does not need to burp, and is dressed
comfortably, what can be done to soothe their “fussiness”? (Ask students for suggestions before
continuing). You may be surprised to know that babies care more about getting picked up than
getting their diapers changed—one study found that babies who were given their wet diapers
back after being picked up stopped crying as much as those who were given new diapers (Wolff,
1969). Rocking, cuddling, patting, massaging, and holding babies to the shoulder are also
effective at calming distressed infants, as is swaddling, or wrapping infants tightly so that they
cannot move their arms and legs, which reduces their overall physiological arousal (Fearon et al.,
1997). Pacifiers are also effective at reducing the distress of young infants (Campos, 1989). As
for giving distressed infants a bottle, plain water won’t help, but sweetened water will quiet them
(Blass, 1997).
Finally, a walk outside or a ride in a stroller or car may help ease infant distress by imposing a
rhythm that disrupts the baby’s crying. As San Francisco Chronicle columnist Jon Carroll notes,
“In my neighborhood, which is filled with children, if I see a parent carrying a child out to the
car in the middle of the day, I do not shout out cheerfully, ‘Going to the zoo?’ I know that they
are going to the Land of Nod” (Carroll, 2002).
References
Blass, E. M. (1997). Infant formula quiets crying human newborns. Journal of Developmental and
Behavioral Pediatrics, 18(3), 162–165.
Campos, R. G. (1989). Soothing pain-elicited distress in infants with swaddling and pacifiers. Child
Development, 60(4), 781–792.
Carroll, J. (2002, November 21). Hidden factors in the fossil-fuel issue. San Francisco Chronicle.
Fearon, I., Kisilevsky, B. S., Hains, S. M. J., Muir, D. W., et al. (1997). Swaddling after heel lance: Age-
specific effects on behavioral recovery in preterm infants. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral
Pediatrics, 18(4), 222–232.
Wolff, P. H. (1969). The natural history of crying and other vocalizations in infancy. In B. M. Foss (Ed.),
Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4). London: Methuen.
Newton, N., & Newton, M. (1972). Lactation: Its psychological component. In J. G. Howells (Ed.),
Modern perspectives in psycho-obstetrics. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

St. James-Roberts, I., Boywer, J., Varghese, S., & Sawdon, J. (1994). Infant crying patterns in Manali and
London. Child: Care, Health & Development, 20(5), 323–337.
Classroom Activities
1. In Handout #1, have students complete the form on their own and with the help of the text.
Following completion, have students check their results with each other and the text. Next, have
the class trace the independence gained by the child as she successfully masters each new skill.
The following questions should help foster discussion on the development of gross and fine
motor skills:
 What cautions must parents exercise while children are mastering these skills?
 How can observation of the child during these stages provide information about health
and development?
 How consistent are these developments in all children of this age?
 What evolutionary aspects of these developments might we speculate on from observing
these developments?
2. In small groups, have students plan a day-care program for infants that would facilitate motor
and perceptual development and that is based on suggestions from current research findings on
infant motor and perceptual development. Have students consider the maturational and
environmental factors that impact perceptual and motor development. It might be necessary for
them to visit the library to search through recent journals on this topic before creating a plan.
Some points you may wish to suggest to them on this project might be:
 Cleanliness and hygiene of the center

 Workers and their credentials
 Schedule for the infants
 Nutritional requirements
 Emergency information
 Security
 Activities appropriate for both motor and perceptual development
3. To illustrate the difference between sensation and perception, use Handout #2 to

demonstrate the Ponzo illusion. In the Ponzo illusion (Figure A), the line on top appears to be
longer than the bottom line, even though the lines are actually the same length (Figure B).
Psychologists explain that the top line appears to be longer because our eyes perceive depth
when the angled lines are present due to linear perspective. Even though the two lines offer the
same sensory information—the size of the retinal image is the same for both lines—our brain
interprets the top line as being larger, because we have learned from experience that if two
objects are the same size and one is further away, the more distant object must be bigger to
appear to be the same size. As perception of the illusion on visual experience with straight lines
and right angles, this illusion has been found to be less prevalent among people who live in less
“carpentered” environments (Leibowitz & Pick, 1972).
Reference
Leibowitz, H. W., & Pick, H. A. (1972). Cross-cultural and educational aspects of the Ponzo Perspective
Illusion. Perception and Psychophysics, 12(5), 430–432.
4. To familiarize students with the concept of synaptic pruning, use Handout #3 to have students
discuss how cultural, environmental, and familial influences may have affected their own
development. Ask students to consider whether synaptic pruning results in a permanent loss of
an opportunity to develop a particular ability. Students may compare and contrast learning in the
domains of language, music, and athletics in childhood vs. adulthood in their responses.
5. Bring in a number of toys made for young infants. For each object, have students explain how
it “affords” the child a particular type of interaction. Ask them also to describe the motor,
sensory, and perceptual skills that playing with the toy involves. Relate their ideas to the material
in the text on the physical, motor, sensory, and perceptual development in infancy.
6. As a review of the chapter material, have students work in groups to create an owner’s manual
for responding to the physical needs of young infants. Students should consider an infant’s need
for nutrition, sleep, and opportunities to develop motor skills, as well as set guidelines for
physical growth and sensory and perceptual development. After students have completed their
work in groups, review their ideas with the class.
7. In Milford, Connecticut, in 1993, a woman was arrested for indecent exposure as she was
breast feeding her baby in public. Since then, Connecticut and 13 other states have passed
legislation protecting a woman’s right to breast feed in public. Have your class debate the issue
of breast feeding in terms of its effect on certain religious or cultural groups who may oppose it.
How would the constitutional rights of both the mother and these groups be in opposition? Also
have students consider the ramifications for working mothers and the possible effects on the
child.
8. For a demonstration of basic neural processes, direct students to the Web site from
PsychScholar, http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neurotut.html, where they will find a complete
tutorial on the structures and functions of the neuron and the human brain. The tutorial presents
the entire process with graphics and also a quiz and glossary.
9. See Handout #4 for students’ personal reflections on two topics covered in this chapter.
Students may choose one of the theories of child development and the research
methods/challenges in the field. Stress to the class that personal reflections are necessary but
may be hypothetical if they are uncomfortable writing about themselves. The reflection should
be no less than 1-1/2 pages double-spaced.
Critique a Child Development Article

Choose one article from any periodical or journal that is relevant to the physical development of
the child from birth to 3 years old. Choose a topic that focuses on one of the following:
 Nutrition and/or height/weight

 Sensory and motor development
 Brain development
Using the questions listed as follows, write a critique of the article from the viewpoint of a
scientist seeking the truth. This paper should be 3 to 6 pages long, double-spaced.
 Who is the audience for the article (e.g., parents, teachers, adolescents)?
 What is the topic of the article? What are some examples of information provided?
 Does the article emphasize heredity (nature) or environment (nurture)?
 To which domain of child development does it refer (physical, socioemotional,
cognitive)?
 Does the article rely on scientific findings, expert opinion, or case example?
 Do the conclusions of the article seem valid?
In a concluding paragraph(s), give your personal evaluation of what was covered in the article,
and whether it advances our knowledge and understanding of child development.
Research Projects
1. Conducting research on the physical abilities and capacities of newborns and young infants
sometimes poses methodological challenges for researchers. Apply your knowledge about the
scientific method by designing a study to assess a motor capacity of newborns. In your report,
address the following questions:
 What is the specific problem or question that you wish to study?

 What predictions would you make and test in your study?
 Which measures would you use (e.g., naturalistic observation, laboratory observation,
interviews and surveys, case studies, physiological measures) and how would you use
them?
 What would be the design of your research (e.g., correlational vs. experimental, cross-
sectional vs. longitudinal)?
 What ethical considerations must you address before you could begin this research?
2. This chapter discusses accident prevention. Accidents are the leading cause of death for
infants and young children. Research the latest statistics on death and injuries to young children.
Find at least TWO studies that present data on the nature of the accidents (which type are more
prevalent, what is the context, etc.), and whether one cohort is more or less likely to be involved
in these accidents.
Present your summations of the articles and their findings. Give your own analysis of the
causes and prevention, focusing on whether existing programs for education are effective.
Personal Application
1. If I Could Read Your Mind
This exercise gets students thinking more in-depth about infant sensory experiences and the
research methods used to study them. Until quite recently, babies have been believed to
experience the world in limited ways. This belief most likely resulted because people relied only
on what they could see babies do overtly. Some amazing developments have been made with
regard to assessing the early experiences of infants, and we now know that even in utero, babies
are capable of sensing and encoding sensory information.
• Instructions for Students: Read through your text and familiarize yourself with infants’
sensory functioning and the studies psychologists have done to learn more about this
amazing area. Choose a behavior you would like to explore with an infant, and write up how
you would go about studying it. Use a journal article format to write up your proposal,
beginning with the behavior of interest, why it is of interest, and your methodology. Base
your results section on what you expect you might find, and conclude with any questions you
may have that would lead to additional scientific investigation.
Essays
1. Define cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of development, and give an example of
each in early infancy.
2. Discuss brain development in the first year and the significance of the process of synaptic
“blooming and pruning.”
3. Analyze the results of Rosenzweig’s (1969) research on the effects of an enriched

environment on the brains of animals. Discuss the implications of this research for young
infants.
4. Discuss cultural variations in infant sleeping arrangements. In what ways do these sleeping
arrangements reflect cultural values?
5. Suggest some possible reasons why there has been a marked decrease in sudden infant death
syndrome (SIDS) deaths since 1992.
6. Discuss the benefits of breast feeding over bottle feeding. Why is the issue of whether to
breast feed considered to be controversial?
7. Discuss research evidence regarding the relationship between nutrition and cognitive
development in early childhood.
8. Describe at least three reflexes, and explain their importance to infant survival.
9. Evaluate the claim that cultural variations in guiding infants’ motor developments make a
difference in the physical development of infants.
10. Evaluate William James’ statement that the newborn’s perceptual world is a “blooming,
buzzing confusion.” Support your arguments with references to research.
11. Discuss major changes in visual perception in the first year. Compare and contrast the vision
of a newborn with that of an older infant.
12. From the readings in the text, you learned that a baby’s depth perception is tested using the
“visual cliff.” Give your interpretation and analysis of why a baby hesitates (and in most
cases, refuses) to cross onto the clear glass. Consider the nature aspect of this phenomenon.
Web Site Suggestions

1. http://www.apa.org/topics/children/index.aspx
American Psychological Association—main site as the lead organization in psychology. This site
is excellent for background material on historical and current issues in developmental
psychology.
2. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infantandtoddlerdevelopment.html
Infant and toddler development links from MEDLINE.
3. http://www.naeyc.org
The main site for the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). The
site provides outlines to some of their journals as well as links to other sites on child
development. Membership is required for complete article downloads.
4. http://www.zerotothree.org
Links to dozens of topics relative to children age birth to 3 years. Among some topics are SIDS,
child abuse, cultural diversity, drug abuse, and brain development. Many of these sites are
parents’ information lists.
5. http://www.parentingme.com/motordev.htm
Information for parents on motor development in early childhood.
Assets Available in Connect
A selection of resources assignable and assessable within Connect.
Page
Asset Type Asset Title Learning Objective
Number
Growth Pattern, Amalia and Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Milestones Krista, 2wks-5yrs 110 development in infancy.
Milestones: Brain
Development, Colin, 8- Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Milestones 24wks 111 development in infancy.
Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Concept Clip Infant Brain Development 105 development in infancy.
Influences on Infant Brain Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Video Development 111 development in infancy.
Interactive Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Activity Structure of Neurons 112 development in infancy.
Video REM Sleep at 2 Weeks 116 development in infancy.
Sudden Infant Death Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Video Syndrome: Expert Interview 116 development in infancy.
Milestones: Eating Habits, Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Milestones Atlas, 4-18mos 117 development in infancy.
Video Breast vs. Bottle Feeding 118 development in infancy.
Nutritional Benefits of Discuss the patterns of physical growth and
Video Feeding 118 development in infancy.
Milestones: Bi-Pedal
Posture and Dynamic
Systems Theory, Colin,
Milestones 2wks-14mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Infant Reflexes,
Milestones Amalia, 2wks - 7mos 123 Describe infants’ motor development.
Video Sucking Reflex at 2 Weeks 123 Describe infants’ motor development.
Video Moro Reflex at 2 Weeks 123 Describe infants’ motor development.

Milestones: Gross Motor
Milestones Skills, Colin, 2-14wks 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones Skills, Amalia, 2-28wks 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Lifting the Head at 10
Video Weeks-1 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Lifting the Head at 10

Video Weeks-2 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones Control, Kestrel, 5-12mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones Control, Del, 6-12mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones Control, Amalia, 7-36mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones Skills, Atlas, 8-10mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Locomotion,
Milestones Esme, 10-16mos 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Early Gross Motor Ability -
Video Standing 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Video Walking with Support 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Video Early Steps 124 Describe infants’ motor development.
Gross Motor Ability at One
Video Year 125 Describe infants’ motor development.
Gross Motor Development
Video in the First Year 125 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Range of Motor
Development, Yovani, 2-
Milestones 16mos 125 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Fine Motor
Milestones Control, Atlas, 3-10mos 127 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Second Year
Fine Motor Development,
Milestones Atlas, 20-32mos 127 Describe infants’ motor development.
Milestones: Sensation and
Perception, Felana, 13- Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones 18mos 128 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Ecological
View of Perception, Kestrel, Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones 6-9mos 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Affordances, Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones Felana, 13mos-2yrs 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Visual Acuity, Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones Colin, 1wk-12mos 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Interactive Visual System Summarize the course of sensory and
Activity Development in Infants 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Visual and Auditory Summarize the course of sensory and
Video Tracking at 3 Weeks 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Visual and Auditory Summarize the course of sensory and
Video Tracking at 10 Weeks 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Summarize the course of sensory and

Video Infant Perception 129 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Sound
Sensitivity, Yovani, 2mos- Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones 2yrs 134 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Development
of Taste Perception, Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones Amalia, 4-20mos 136 perceptual development in infancy.
Milestones: Musical
Understanding, Felana, 12- Summarize the course of sensory and
Milestones 20mos 137 perceptual development in infancy.
HANDOUT #1
GROSS AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS

In the following chart, place a check in the appropriate motor skill column next to each skill and
write the age at which the skill should appear:
THE SKILL FINE GROSS AGE

MOTOR MOTOR
Lies prone—lifts head
Lifts chest up, uses arms
Rolls over
Supports some weight with legs
Sits without support
Stands with support
Pulls self to stand
Walks with help of furniture support
Stands alone easily
Walks alone easily
Holds rattle briefly
Glances to objects
Plays with rattle
Puts object to mouth
Hand to hand with object
Stretches to grasp objects
Pulls string to obtain an object
Shows hand preference; searches for toys
Picks up small object with thumb and forefinger
Places one block on top of another
Scribbles with large crayon
Holds pencil and makes a mark
Turns knobs on doors
Unscrews a lid
Places large pegs in a pegboard
Zips and unzips large zipper
Adapted from Santrock, J. W. Child development, 8th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Figure
5.10.
HANDOUT #2
THE PONZO ILLUSION

Figure A
Figure B
_____
_____
HANDOUT #3
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

1. How has growing up in your particular culture influenced your development? What abilities
do you have or not have as a result of living in this culture?
2. How has growing up in your particular city influenced your development? What abilities do
you have or not have as a result of living in this city?
3. How has growing up in your particular family influenced your development? What abilities do
you have or not have as a result of living in this family?
HANDOUT #4
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
on the themes presented in this chapter
Review the learning goals and the summaries following each as presented throughout the
chapter. From these, glean what you consider to be the two major themes of this chapter. (You
may choose more than two, if you like.)
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
On a separate sheet of paper, write your personal reflections of child development relative to
ONE of these themes. You will be writing about impressions of what has been discussed in class
and presenting your own views using personal experiences or those of people you have known.
(Note: Writing about your personal experiences is voluntary and not required for this assignment.
You may use hypothetical situations or write about the experiences of people you know or have
known.)
Be sure to conclude by writing a general statement regarding child development that would
summarize one of the themes of this chapter.

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Chapter 5 Physical Development in Infancy

Solution Manual for Children 13th Edition by Santrock

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 1

involving neurons in the first year of life are changes

consensus is that breast feeding is better than bottle ESS #6

 Habituation—Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus

pitch, and localization take place in the first two years.

Intermodal Perception—The integration of two or more

Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual Development: A full

Perceptual-Motor Coupling—Individuals perceive in order to

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 6

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 10

2. Temperament and Toilet Training

Modern perspectives in psycho-obstetrics. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 14

 Cleanliness and hygiene of the center

3. To illustrate the difference between sensation and perception, use Handout #2 to

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 15

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 16

Critique a Child Development Article

 Nutrition and/or height/weight

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 17

 What is the specific problem or question that you wish to study?

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 18

1. If I Could Read Your Mind

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 19

3. Analyze the results of Rosenzweig’s (1969) research on the effects of an enriched

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 20

Web Site Suggestions

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 21

Assets Available in Connect

A selection of resources assignable and assessable within Connect.

Video Sucking Reflex at 2 Weeks 123 Describe infants’ motor development.

Video Moro Reflex at 2 Weeks 123 Describe infants’ motor development.

Lifting the Head at 10

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 23

Summarize the course of sensory and

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 24

GROSS AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS

THE SKILL FINE GROSS AGE

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 25

THE PONZO ILLUSION

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 26

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 27

Santrock: Children, 13e IM-5 | 28

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