Electricity - Part 2

KHALID YOUSEF AL HINDI _AS NOTES _ELECTRICITY
PART 2 (Topic 3.2) : Complete electrical circuits

A . Series circuits.
• Three resistors are connected in series , the following is applied

Ignoring the internal resistance of the supply ( r ) , the resistance of
wires , and the resistance of ammeter.
1. Due to conservation of electric charge , the current is the same
at all points in the circuit as :
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
2. Due to conservation of energy , energy transferred from the

power supply equals to energy transferred to loads as:
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑅1 + 𝑊𝑅2 + 𝑊𝑅3

𝑄𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑉1 + 𝑄𝑉2 + 𝑄𝑉3
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
In the above , we used

𝐸
𝑉= , E : energy and Q : electric charge.
𝑄
Page 1 of 22
3. Using Ohms law V=IR

And using the energy conservation law , we can derive the law
by which the total resistance could be found as
𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑅1 + 𝑊𝑅2 + 𝑊𝑅3

𝑄𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄𝑉1 + 𝑄𝑉2 + 𝑄𝑉3
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝐼𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Note :
Any emf could be considered to be a pure emf with a small resistive

potential difference acting in series with emf.
As we mentioned in Part 1 , the terminal voltage is that which is
across the terminals of the supply ( outwards) , it is the voltage
supplied to the circuit.
B. Parallel circuits
Page 2 of 22
• Three resistors are connected in parallel , the following is

applied,
Ignoring the internal resistance of the supply ( r ) , the resistance of
wires , and the resistance of ammeter.
1. The three loads are connected to the same points A,B so the
potential difference across each one is the same.
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
2. Conservation of charge
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 𝑡 + 𝐼2 𝑡 + 𝐼3 𝑡
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
3. Total resistance or effective resistance or equivalent resistance
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3
𝑜𝑟
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡 = ( + + )−1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Cases
1. Two loads in parallel
𝑅1 × 𝑅2
𝑅𝑡 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
2. For (n) identical resistors in parallel
𝑅
𝑅𝑡 = n : number of identical resistors , R : the common
𝑛
value .
Page 3 of 22
• In the above, A and B ( series and parallel ) , we included the

current that flows across the terminals only (outside circuits) ,
not the total current in the circuit or the main current.
➢ Consider a circuit of total resistance across the terminal 𝑅𝑡 ,
the emf ( 𝜀) , and the internal resistance ( r ) , then
𝜀 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼 (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟)
𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅𝑡 + 𝑟
Notes :
1. Current is maximum when Rt is zero ( circuit is shorted) .
𝜀
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =
𝑟
And here ( r ) controls the current from the supply as :
o When large current are required to function or to start
any machine , r must be very small. Such case is like
the current required to start the machine of the car (
12 V battery , r ≈ 0.01 Ω ).
o In extra -high-tension (e.h.t) , the power supply is with
more than 5000 V , these have a large internal
resistance ≈ 1 × 106 𝑡𝑜 1 × 107 Ω to limit the current
to a fraction of milliampere for safety precautions.
End of discussion
Page 4 of 22
Measuring the emf and the internal resistance of a cell

Circuit :
o Set up the VR at maximum and close the switch

o Record values of current and terminal voltage for different
values of variable resistors.
o Plot a graph between terminal voltage and current.
o The following graph can be plotted
End of discussion
Page 5 of 22
Voltmeters , Ammeters , and Ohmmeters

1. Voltmeter :device used to measure the potential difference
across a component , it must be connected in parallel with the
component. Voltmeters must have a high resistance to keep
the current flowing through it as small as possible.
2. Ammeter: device used to measure the current that flows
through a component , it must be connected in series with the
component . Ammeters must have a very small resistance so
that the PD across its terminal is as small as
possible(neglected).
3. Ohmmeter : devise to measure the resistance of a component.
It must be connected in parallel to the component.
• An ammeter and a voltmeter can be used together t measure
the resistance of a component.
• Sensors of current and voltage can be connected to computers
to record the values of current and voltage , this improves the
data because
1. More readings can be recorded than human with fewer
errors and more frequent of time intervals.
2. Soft wear of computer produces graphs easily.
End of discission
Page 6 of 22
Potential Divider
• A potential divider is a device that consists essentially of two
resistors , a current flows through two resistors and the effect
of this is a split or divide the PD across the resistors in two
values. ( not essentially of the same values).
Applying Ohms law

• 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑉
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = × 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = × 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = ×𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Page 7 of 22
𝑅1
𝑉1 ×𝑉 𝑅1
•
𝑅1 +𝑅2
= 𝑅2 =
𝑉2 ×𝑉 𝑅2
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉1 𝑅1
So in potential divider =
𝑉2 𝑅2
• Potentiometer : using a variable resistor (rheostat) across a

voltage (supply) , we can get a the following potentiometer
o Potentiometer can be used to obtain variable range of output

voltage (V0) from 0 V to the maximum value (V) by moving the
slider from A to B.
o At point A : V0 = 0
o At point B : V0 = V (maximum).
o Potentiometers are used to control the intensity of light in
some switches and used to control the volume of music
systems .
End of discussion
Page 8 of 22
Ohm’s law ( in details)

Definition : Ohm’s law : the current through a component is directly
proportional to the voltage across it , providing the temperature
remains the same.
• Materials that obey Ohm’s law are called Ohmic materials ,
these materials have constant resistance with a variation of
current and voltage until a certain limit which is when the
current increases to high values and causes heating up of the
material. ( this is to be explained later in questions).
• Mathematical model od ohm’s law
• The following experiments is based on ohms law ( Very

important)
1. Finding the resistance of a metal conductor.
o Keep the VR value at maximum switch ON the switch.

o Take a set of readings of current and voltage by changing
the VR
o Plot the I-V graph using the Data recorded.
Page 9 of 22
2. Checking if the electrical component is Ohmic or not.

Fact : if the graph between I and V is straight then component
is Ohmic , if not , the component is Non-ohmic.
Circuit used :
✓ Set the slider at point C and switch on the switch.

✓ Vary the slider position from C to A and record the sets of
reading of current and voltage.
Page 10 of 22
✓ Reverse the battery (supply polarity) and repeat step 1

✓ Plot the I-V graph and notice the following
Case 1: if the graph is straight line through origin , then the electrical
component is an ohmic material.
Case 2: if the graph Is not a straight line , its is like the one below
o Electrical component is : filament lamp ( semiconductor)

o Non-ohmic material
o Its resistance increases as PD across it increases ( not in
straight line)
o Curvature is towards voltage axis.
Page 11 of 22
Case 3: if the graph is not straight line , but looks like one below
o Component : negative temperature coefficient thermistor (ntc

thermistor).
o As temperature increases , resistance of thermistor decreases
o Thermistor is Non-ohmic material.
Page 12 of 22
o Its resistance decreases as the PD across it increases.

o It’s made of semiconductor.
o Thermistor can be used to build up a potential divider which
depends on temperature charge.
As temperature increases , resistance of thermistor decreases ,

current increases , reading of voltmeter increases.
o A graph could be plotted between resistance of thermistor and
temperature as follows
From the graph , the relation is inversely proportional.

Question : Explain how the resistance decreases as heat amount
increases. ( or why the thermistor conducts better at high temp.?)
Note: thermistors are made of semiconductor material, as heat is
absorbed by the material can boost electrons from the valence
energy band to the conduction band , increasing the number of
conduction electrons , this makes the thermistor conduct better so it
will show a lower resistance.
Page 13 of 22
Case 4 : if the is not straight , but looks like the one below
o Component is : Diode
o Non-ohmic material
o It requires a threshold voltage (minimum voltage) to operate ,
this threshold voltage is between 0.6 to 0.7 volt.
o Threshold voltage : minimum voltage (PD) across the terminals
of the diode to make the diode conduct in the forward bias.
o Diodes are made by joining different types of semiconductors
which create an energy barrier at the junction between them,
blocking the movement of charge carrier across the barrier.
This barrier can be overcome in the FORWARD direction if small
voltage is applied , in the REVERSE direction , few charge
carriers can pass through. Once the reverse voltage becomes
very large , charge carriers can overcome the large reverse
energy barrier and force the conduction process in the opposite
direction. ( a graph will be displayed later in this discussion).
Page 14 of 22
o Connection of diode in circuits

1. Forward bias/biased: diodes have low resistance to charge
carrier, current flows when the threshold voltage of diode is
applied , current flows at low voltage.
2. Reversed bias/biased: diodes have a very high resistance to
charge carrier, current will not flow even when high voltages
are applied ( before the breaking voltage).
• In the reversed bias , if a very high voltage is applied , charge
carrier can flow , no need to apply more voltage after the
reverse breakdown voltage to allow current to flow.
Page 15 of 22
End of discussion
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
o LDRs have the property that their resistance depends on the
light level around them.
o In brighter conditions , the LDR will have a lower resistance. So
as light intensity increases , the resistance decreases.
✓ Explanation : LDRs are made of semiconductor material,
as light landing on the material can boost electrons from
the valence energy band to the conduction band ,
increasing the number of conduction electrons , this
makes the LDR conduct better so it will show a lower
resistance.
Note : the above is a copy-paste of
{ Question : Explain how the resistance decreases as heat amount
increases. ( or why the thermistor conducts better at high temp.?)
Note: thermistors are made of semiconductor material, as heat is
absorbed by the material can boost electrons from the valence
energy band to the conduction band , increasing the number of
conduction electrons , this makes the thermistor conduct better so it
will show a lower resistance. }
o Symbol :
o LDR can be used to build up a potential divider that depends on

the amount of incident light as shown below
End of discussion
Page 16 of 22
General notes.
1. LED , light emitting diode :
Diode that emits light when it conducts current.
2. LCD : liquid Crystal Display : A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a

flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical
device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid
crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit
light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce
images in colour or monochrome. ( for your information only)
3. Insulators have a large gap between valance band and
conduction band. There are zero electrons in the conduction
band. A very large input energy is required to make the
material conduct , often this results in melting or damage the
material.
Page 17 of 22
4. Superconductivity : electrical property of the material having

zero resistivity.
( for your information only)
5. Solar cell : device that generates a PD when a certain

wavelength of EMW is incident on it
This is to be explained in details in the chapter of light later.
Page 18 of 22
Important graphs
o This graph shows that the maximum power is delivered at one

value of the load. This value is the internal resistance of the
cell.
o A battery delivers maximum power to a circuit when the load
resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the battery.
o Remember
𝜀
𝐼= 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝑅 : 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
Page 19 of 22
✓ Power dissipated across an ohmic conductor varies with

the PD across the conductor .
Remember , this is like 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 graph.

✓ Same graph is applied to power and current as 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
____________________________________________________
Page 20 of 22
The variation of current with temperature graph of the thermistor in this

circuit is
Relation between current and VR at constant temperature when a

steady PD is applied across the VR.
Page 21 of 22
Page 22 of 22

Electricity - Part 2

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Electricity - Part 2

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KHALID YOUSEF AL HINDI _AS NOTES _ELECTRICITY

PART 2 (Topic 3.2) : Complete electrical circuits

• Three resistors are connected in series , the following is applied

2. Due to conservation of energy , energy transferred from the

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑅1 + 𝑊𝑅2 + 𝑊𝑅3

In the above , we used

3. Using Ohms law V=IR

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = 𝑊𝑅1 + 𝑊𝑅2 + 𝑊𝑅3

Any emf could be considered to be a pure emf with a small resistive

• Three resistors are connected in parallel , the following is

• In the above, A and B ( series and parallel ) , we included the

𝜀 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Measuring the emf and the internal resistance of a cell

o Set up the VR at maximum and close the switch

Voltmeters , Ammeters , and Ohmmeters

Applying Ohms law

• Potentiometer : using a variable resistor (rheostat) across a

o Potentiometer can be used to obtain variable range of output

Ohm’s law ( in details)

• The following experiments is based on ohms law ( Very

o Keep the VR value at maximum switch ON the switch.

2. Checking if the electrical component is Ohmic or not.

✓ Set the slider at point C and switch on the switch.

✓ Reverse the battery (supply polarity) and repeat step 1

o Electrical component is : filament lamp ( semiconductor)

o Component : negative temperature coefficient thermistor (ntc

o Thermistor is Non-ohmic material.

o Its resistance decreases as the PD across it increases.

As temperature increases , resistance of thermistor decreases ,

From the graph , the relation is inversely proportional.

o Connection of diode in circuits

o LDR can be used to build up a potential divider that depends on

1. LED , light emitting diode :

Diode that emits light when it conducts current.

2. LCD : liquid Crystal Display : A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a

4. Superconductivity : electrical property of the material having

( for your information only)

5. Solar cell : device that generates a PD when a certain

This is to be explained in details in the chapter of light later.

o This graph shows that the maximum power is delivered at one

✓ Power dissipated across an ohmic conductor varies with

Remember , this is like 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 graph.

The variation of current with temperature graph of the thermistor in this

Relation between current and VR at constant temperature when a

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