Test Bank for Human Anatomy 4th Edition Saladin

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Chapter 6: The Skeletal System I: Bone Tissue

Chapter Overview
The skull and crossbones is a popular motif to signify death. A static skull in the
laboratory or depicted in art does not reflect the dynamic processes that occur in the
living skeleton. Variation due to age, sex, disease and trauma is written in the bones, and
the skeleton of each individual is so unique that a forensic specialist may identify
someone solely by examining their bones. The skeleton primarily serves as scaffolding
that supports soft tissues, including skeletal muscle. Together, the skeleton and muscles
determine potential for movement. As humans, our skeleton is adapted for bipedalism, a
unique locomotor mode that is reflected in the shape of our bones. Bones are the primary
organ of the skeletal system, which also contains cartilage and ligaments.
The most obvious functions of the skeleton are support of soft tissue and
movement, but it does much more.
 Support
The skeleton provides shape and support for soft tissues such as muscle. The basic
form of our vertebrate body is determined by bone.
 Movement
The skeleton is a key part of locomotor anatomy. Muscles attach to bones to perform
movement.
 Protection
Bones protect soft organs such as the brain and lungs.
 Blood Formation
Red bone marrow produces blood cells.
 Electrolyte Balance and Acid-base Balance
Minerals such as calcium and phosphate are released when necessary to support
cellular function throughout the body. Absorption or release of calcium phosphate
helps to buffer the blood against changes in pH.
 Detoxification
Bone tissue removes heavy metal and other foreign elements from the blood and
reduces their toxic effect on other tissues.
The term “bone” can refer either to osseous tissue or to organs such as the
humerus or femur that are composed of osseous tissue, blood, adipose tissue, nervous
tissue, and fibrous connective tissue. Osseous tissue is a connective tissue where the
matrix has been hardened by the deposition of calcium and other minerals. Bones are
organs made up of numerous tissues.
Bones are classified into four groups according to their shapes. Long bones are
longer than they are wide and act as levers that are pulled on by muscles. Other bones
are classified as short, flat, or irregular.

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 Bones are composed of compact (dense) bone and more loosely organized spongy
(cancellous) bone. Long bones have a shaft (diaphysis) and an epiphysis (expanded
head) at either end. The diaphysis consists of compact bone on the surface that surrounds
an inner space, the medullary cavity, which is filled with bone marrow. The epiphysis is
filled with spongy bone.
Periosteum is a sheath that covers most of the bone. It consists of an outer fibrous layer
of collagen that provides strong attachment for muscle tendons. The inner layer of
endosteum contains cells that deposit and dissolve osseous tissue. The joint surfaces of
bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, a smooth tissue that prevents bone ends from
directly rubbing against one another during movement.
Osseous tissue is composed of cells surrounded by a hardened matrix. Bone cells
include osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells, stem cells that arise from embryonic
mesenchyme that constantly undergo mitosis and give rise to osteoblasts. Osteoblasts
synthesize organic matter of the matrix and therefore form bone. Osteoblasts become
osteocytes as they mature. Osteocytes become trapped in tiny caves called lacunae that
are connected by tunnels called cannaliculi. Slender extensions from the osteocytes
snake through the cannaliculi and enable the osteocytes to pass nutrients and chemical
signals to one another. Osteocytes do not deposit or resorb bone but are able to
communicate with osteoblasts via gap junctions when they detect stress or strain. In
response, the osteoblasts deposit bone where needed.
Osteoblasts signal osteoclasts to remove bone. Osteoclasts are macrophages that
develop from stem cells in the bone marrow. Several cells fuse together to form the huge
osteoclasts, which then produce hydrochloric acid. The acid dissolves bone mineral,
while lysosomal enzymes released by osteoclasts digest organic components of the
matrix. In healthy bone, there is a balance between activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
The dry weight of bone matrix is 1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic. The organic
component is primarily collagen. Most of the inorganic matrix is hydroxyapatite,
crystallized calcium phosphate salt. The combination of collagen and minerals forms a
composite that gives bone remarkable flexibility and strength. The mineral resists
compression while the collagen gives flexibility to resist tension.
Compact bone and spongy bone differ in their structure. Under the microscope,
dry, ground up compact bone has structures that look like tree rings. The round
concentric rings are lamellae, layers of matrix arranged around a central (haversian)
canal. The central canal carries blood vessels and nerves. The central canal combined
with the lamellae is an osteon (haversian system). The osteon is the basic structural unit
of compact bone.
From a longitudinal perspective, the osteon is a cylinder. The rings we see in the
microscope are a cross-section, similar to the concentric rings we see in a tree that has
been felled. In each lamella, collagen fibers are laid down in a helical pattern. The
helices go in different directions to provide increased strength in the bone.
The skeleton is well supplied with blood. Blood vessels and nerves enter bone
tissue through a nutrient foramen on the surface that opens to narrow perforating
(Volkmann) canals that cross the matrix and lead to central canals. Osteocytes around
the central canals receive nutrients and pass them along through gap junctions to
neighboring osteocytes whose extensions reach into the tiny canaliculi. Thus, the series

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of passageways and the cytoplasmic extensions of the osteocytes ensure a two-way flow
of materials among the bone cells.
Spongy bone consists of a lattice of thin plates, trabeculae, and rods or spines
called spicules. In life, the spaces are filled with bone marrow. The matrix is arranged in
lamellae but there are few osteons. There are no central canals; each osteocyte is close to
the blood supply in the marrow. The trabeculae are not arranged randomly but rather are
laid down in response to forces that pass through the joints. The pattern gives strength to
bone without adding too much weight.
Bone marrow occupies the medullary cavity of long bones and spaces amidst the
trabeculae in spongy bone and larger central canals. Children have more red marrow,
hemopoietic tissue that produces blood cells. With age, the red marrow is gradually
replaced with yellow bone marrow with numerous adipocytes. Yellow bone marrow no
longer produces blood cells. In adults, red marrow is still found in the vertebrae,
sternum, ribs, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and the proximal femur and humerus.
Bone formation occurs through the process of ossification (osteogenesis). Bones
form through either intramembranous or endochondral ossification.
Intramembranous ossification produces the flat bones of the skull and most of the
clavicle. Embryonic mesenchyme condenses into a sheet of tissue. Some cells
differentiate into osteogenic cells that become osteoblasts and deposit osteoid tissue.
Calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix and some osteoblasts become trapped in
lacunae where they differentiate to osteocytes. A honeycomb of trabeculae may persist
as spongy bone, or be remodeled to form the medullary cavity and compact bone. The
process produces a sandwich of spongy bone between two layers of compact bone.
Most bones develop through the process of endochondral ossification. First,
embryonic mesenchyme condenses to a hyaline cartilage model that resembles the shape
of the bone to come. A perichondrium forms around the hyaline cartilage model and
produces chondrocytes and, eventually, osteoblasts. The osteoblasts produce a bony
collar that surrounds the cartilage model.
At the primary ossification center near the middle of the model, chondrocytes
swell and eventually die. A primary marrow cavity forms in the center of the bone and
becomes lined with osteoblasts that deposit the organic matrix (osteoid tissue). A network
of calcified trabeculae forms. Osteoclasts break down the trabeculae and enlarge the
marrow space. Combined activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts causes the bone to
enlarge.
The secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses. Here too, the
cartilage is replaced by bone. Hyaline cartilage persists on the articular surfaces and, in
childhood, at the junction between the diaphysis and epiphysis where it is the epiphyseal
plate. On either side of the epiphyseal plate cartilage is transformed to bone in the
metaphysis. By the late teens to early twenties, the gap between the epiphysis and
diaphysis closes and adult length has been achieved.
Growth in length occurs at the metaphysis. A microscopic analysis of the
metaphysis reveals five specific zones that underlie the transformation of cartilage to
bone. The zone of reserve cartilage is found furthest from the marrow cavity and
consists of typical hyaline cartilage. As one moves toward the medullary cavity,
chondrocytes in the zone of cell proliferation undergo mitosis and are arranged in
longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae. The chondrocytes enlarge in the zone of cell

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hypertrophy, then the matrix between columns of lacunae is mineralized in the zone of
calcification. Finally, chondrocytes in the columns die, blood vessels and osteoblasts
enter the channels, and osseous tissue replaces the cartilage. The multiplication and
enlargement of chondrocytes push the zone of reserve cartilage towards the end of the
bone and results in growth in length.
Growth in diameter and thickness is achieved through deposition of new tissue at
the surface, a process called appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the inner layer of
periosteum deposit osteoid on the bone surface, which becomes calcified, much like the
process of intramembranous ossification.
Bones grow and remodel through life, changing in response to demands that are
placed upon them. In children, long bones grow in length, skull bones curve to
accommodate brain growth, and bony features develop in response to muscle use. Bone
adapts to mechanical stress by means of deposition of new bone by osteoblasts and
absorption of old bone by osteoclasts.
Because of remodeling, skeletons vary among individuals. Athletes and people
who engage in heavy manual labor develop rugged surface features and increased bone
density in response to stress. Anthropologists use their knowledge of osteology to draw
conclusions about age, sex and height, and ethnicity and can gather other information
about past injuries and diseases. They use information gleaned from bones to solve
forensic cases or to examine ancient populations. Dead bones do tell tales.
Nutrients and hormones influence bone deposition. Obviously, adequate amounts
of calcium and phosphate are needed as raw material to build ground substance.
Vitamins A and C are essential for maintaining organic components of bone matrix.
Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption. Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland,
stimulates osteoblast activity and promotes bone deposition (mainly in pregnant women
and children), while parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands,
stimulates osteoclasts and leads to bone resorption. Sex steroids and growth hormone
promote long bone growth.
Unfortunately, bones may break if they are subjected to extreme mechanical
stress, or if they are weakened by disease. Fractures are classified as stress fractures,
caused by trauma such as a fall, or pathologic fractures, caused by diseases such as
cancer. Fractures are usually set by closed reduction where bones are realigned without
surgery but, if necessary, surgery (open reduction) is performed to realign the bones with
screws or plates. Bones are stabilized with casts during healing, which may take from 8
to 12 weeks or more.
Aging is characterized by loss of bone mass and strength. Peak bone mass is
achieved between age 30 to 40 in both men and women, after which osteoblast activity
declines and osteoclasts become more active. The resulting loss of bone density is
osteopenia. Osteoporosis is a clinical condition where bones become so porous that
activity and health are impaired. Osteoporosis especially affects spongy bone, which
becomes weakened and may lead to pathologic fractures, especially in the hip, wrist, and
vertebral column. Hip fractures are associated with a high rate of mortality. Those who
survive face a long, costly recovery. Vertebrae lose spongy bone and become
compressed, leading to a “dowager’s hump” or kyphosis, a pronounced curve in the
thoracic region.

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 Postmenopausal white women are at the greatest risk for osteoporosis. They start
out with less bone mass than men and lose bone rapidly after menopause when the
ovaries no longer produce estrogen. Women of African descent have more bone mass
than white women so although they lose bone mass after menopause they do not have the
same risk for the pathological threshold. Young women who have eating disorders or are
extremely athletic may also be at risk for osteoporosis because their percentage of body
fat is so low that it interferes with estrogen production, and they may suffer from dietary
deficiencies. Men also lose bone mass with age. Prevention is the best defense against
osteoporosis. It is important to get adequate exercise and calcium early in life when the
skeleton is still building mass, and to mechanically stress bones by continuing to exercise
as one ages.

Key Concepts
 Skeletal System
Consists of bones, cartilages, and ligaments.
 Osseous Tissue
Connective tissue where the matrix is hardened by the deposition of calcium
phosphate and other minerals.
 Mineralization, Calcification
Process whereby bone is hardened by the deposition of minerals.
 Compact Bone
Dense white osseous tissue that forms hard outer shell of bones.
 Spongy Bone
Also called cancellous bone, this appears to be a loosely organized osseous tissue that
consists of thin plates called trabeculae.
 Diaphysis
Shaft of a long bone.
 Epiphysis
Expanded heads at the ends of long bones.
 Metaphysis
Transitional area between the diaphysis and epiphysis where cartilage is transformed
to bone.
 Medullary Cavity
Space in center of long bone filled with bone marrow.
 Periosteum
A strong sheath that forms the outer covering of bone.
 Osteogenic Cells
Stem cells that arise from embryonic fibroblasts that may give rise to osteoblasts.
 Osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells that synthesize the organic part of the matrix.
 Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that have become trapped in spaces (lacunae) in the matrix they
have secreted.
 Osteoclasts
Large, phagocytic cells that dissolve bone.
 Osteon

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 The basic structural unit of compact bone.
 Endochondral Ossification
Process in which a bone develops from a hyaline cartilage model.
 Intramembranous Ossification
Process in which flat bones originate from mesenchyme.
 Osteopenia
Loss of bone mineral that typically occurs as individuals age.
 Osteoporosis
Condition where bone mineral declines so much that an individual is at risk for
pathological fractures.

Learning Strategies/Teaching Tips

 Review appropriate sections of Anatomy & Physiology Revealed with students and
direct them to relevant sections for them to study on their own.
 If possible, show the students a long bone that has been sectioned longitudinally so
that they can see the difference between compact and spongy bone. Fresh animal
bones can be obtained at meat counters, and friendly butchers will often cut them
longitudinally with a meat saw.
 Show skulls and pelves (even good photographs, if necessary) of males and females
to students and discuss how a forensic scientist would determine sex of the individual.
Ask students to identify which part of the skeleton would be most diagnostic for the
determination of sex (e.g. the pelvis) and ask them to explain why (e.g. the female
pelvis accommodates both locomotion and reproduction).

Additional Reading
White, Tim. 1999. Human Osteology, 2nd ed., Academic Press.

Rosen, Clifford J. 2003. Restoring Aging Bones. Scientific American, March 2003.

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