C A M B R I D G E U N VE R S I T Y I P RE SS

C F
. . C LAY , M ANA G ER

10111
101
1: F ETT E R LAN E E C , .

10 0 P R INCE S S T REET

fi s h) mm : C P P T NAM S SON
. . U
’
S
iB um b a g . G a l m t t a a m] mama s : M M AC I L LA N A N D C o LT D
M D N T D SONS
.
. .

mor on ic : J . . E AN , LT D .

Gra iny) : TH E M A R U Z E N - KAB U S H IRI- KAI S H A

A ll r ig h t s y es e r v e d
Ch ip p e w a Ch i f
e
 T H E A M E R I CA N
I N DI A N S
N O RTH OF M E" I C O

W . H . M I N ER
M e m be r of t he A m e r ic a n A n t hr o p o l o g ic a lA s soc ia t io n

C a m b r idg e
at t he U n iv e r s it y P r e s s
 WOO D R OW WI L SON
P RE S I D E NT OF UN I TED S TATE S
 PRE FACE

HE RE are two reasons for o ffering this

little volume on the Indians of North
America north of the Mexican border At
, .

present there is not before the public a readable

,

c omprehensive or authentic account of the

origin al inhabitants of the American continent ,

which m ay in any way be termed popular .

Monographs of varying excellence have appeared ,

covering many phases of the subj ect as well as

,

numerous extensive and learned treatises bearing

up on nearly all branches of American ethnology ,

but with t h e exception of several indifferent

,

attempts at historical wri t ing and one or two

elementary works there is nothing tha t can b e
,

referred to a s desirable or satisfactory to the

general reader I t is not however a dearth of
.
, ,

m aterial that confronts the student but rather

a want of system atic arrangement which h a s

heretofore been lacking ; this want it is hoped
, ,
 PRE FACE
may in par t a t least be supplied by this
, ,

volume .

In t h e second place it is readily to h e ,

remark e d t ha t in t er e s t in t h e s t udy bo t h ,

cult ural and descrip t ive of t his branch of t h e

,

world s family is particularly in America

’
, , ,

constan t ly incr e asing As the original da t a

.

disappear s o do n e w genera t ions realise the

,

valu e of W ha t has passed and every portion of ,

his t ory or folklor e t hus pr e served and studied

becom e s t o t h e highe st degre e valuable and
in t e r e s t ing .

Many Am e ricans of t o—day esp e cially t hos e ,

of t h e middle and far w e s t may b e direc t ,

d e sc e ndan t s of t hose hardy pioneers or fron t iers

men who w e r e b u t a few years since ei t her
, ,

friends or fo e s of t h e original inhabi t ants of t h e

lands they now occupy Thes e or like instances .

are for t h e mos t par t well wi t hin t h e m e mory

, ,

of t h e living and t his in t eres t already well

, ,

advanced will continually develop

, .

Obviously what is included within the scope

,

of the presen t work can be little more than an

 PR E FACE
introductory sketch Wha t has of necessity
.

been omitted would readily fill many larger

V olumes On the other hand if it induces the
.
,

reader to follow the subj ect at greater leng t h ,

it will have achieved the aim of many e ffor t s

of a more elabora t e nature .

The S pecial work in this particular field now

being c arried on en t husias t ically and wi t h
thoroughness by the Bureau of American
E thnology and t h e Carnegie Institution in
Washington the F ield Columbian Museum o f
,
-

C hicago the Peabody Museum of Harvard

,

University the American Museum of Natural

,

History in New York and many of t h e research

, ,

an d his t orical dep ar t ments of t h e larger American

Universities as well as numerous American
,

Historical S ocieties is of inestimable value to

,

the future historian of the American ab origines ,

and must under no circumstances be overlooked .

To make acknowledgement even remotely here

to those to whom I am indebted for assistance ,

w ould be quite impossible The bibliography

.

included as an appendix is the best possible form

 P RE FACE
wherein to denote those who have indirectly
helped .

I wish a t t h is time especially to express my

gratitude to Mr F W Hodge of the Bureau . .

of American Ethnology who has always held ,

himself in readiness to assist and who as , ,

editor of that encyclopaedic work H a n dbook ,

o
f N or ik A m e r ic a n I n dia n s h a s done more ,

t o present a clear understanding of the first

Americans than h a s any other among present

day e thnologists To Dr Peter G iles Master
.
,

of Emmanuel Col lege Cambridge my sincere , ,

t hanks are due for careful supervision of the

proof and much valuable assistance and advice .

W H M
. . .

R E STH O L M E ,
C D R R DS
E A API
,

I w U SA
o a
,
. . .

Oc t ob e r 12
,
1
9 16 .
 CONTENTS

CH I PP E WA CH I E F F r on t is p ie c e

P . P AC E

I N T RODU CT I O N T

G N RAL FA C T S
E E

I N D I AN S O C I OLO G Y
TH E P LA I N S I ND I AN S
TH E I N D I AN S OF TH E S OU T H W S T
-
E

I N D I AN M YT H OLO G Y
N OTES
B I B L I O G RA P H Y
IND E"

MA P to ill u s t r a t e t h e l in g u is t ic s t oc k s a m on g
t h e N o r t h A m e r ic a n I n d ia n s fa c in g p a g e 20
 CH APTE R I

I NT R O D U C TI O N
T o obtain even a cursory knowledge of the
native races of the North American con t inen t a
general idea of the country in which this branch
of m ankind is autochthonous is wholly essential .

Under the general term Indian many who ,

are not students of anthropology or allied

sciences are apt to confuse not only the in
habitants of North Central and S ou t h America
, ,

but also the northern tribes of the Canadian

arctic region as well a s those of Mexico To a
,
.

great extent this definition is correct yet the ,

di fferences are in many instances s o great for ,

example between the short heavy set Eskimo

, ,

of the north and the tall slender men of the

,

T imucuan or K a r a n k a w a n families of the Gulf

o f M exico that it may seem at times difficult to
,

reconcile many facts as we understand them .

I t is well therefore in approaching the

,

subj ect t o define briefly the general character

,

is t ic s of the countries now desi g nat e d as the

. M I
.
 INTRODUCTION
Uni t ed States and the Dominion of Canada and
to outline briefly n o t only the reason for the
apparent diversity of races on the con t inent but
also t h e m e t hod by which the study of the
original inhabitan t s is now being pursued a s ,

well as the causes or reasons that have led to

this form of procedure .

Considering t hat por t ion of the North Ameri

can continen t lying from 2 9 N to t h e Arc t ic
°
.

Circle we find included t h e whole of Canada and

,

the greater por t ion of t h e United States This.

S pace therefore is ampl e for the purpose of

, ,

studying climatic e nvironment and it will be

r e adily appr e ciated that such an area can pro
duce marked racial groupings Thus the physio
.

graphic features of the country are of interes t

and especially do t hese assist in deducing many
facts which have to do with migrations while ,

again they suggest various reasons for the

preference of Indian tribes for certain localities ,

as the desirability of mountain plain or wood

,

land a c c or din g t o choice

.

The matter of the coastal formation of a

country is of prime importance It means much
.

to an invader and but little less to the colonist ,

hence it is indirectly a matter of close a ffil iation

in the stud y of the I ndian T he American
.
4 INTRODUCTION

b eing drained into the G ulf of Mexico by the

Apalac hi cola and minor s t reams which j oin t h e
Mississippi in its lower course .

The far wes t has its own s o called watershed

-

running without regular course through the

Rocky Mountain chain to the west of whi ch
,

all drainage is to the Pacific with few e xc e p

tions. Th e foremos t str e ams of this section
are the Yukon flowing in t o t h e B e hring Sea the ,

F raser a n d Columbia into t h e Pacific and t h e

,

Colorado river of t h e west which empties in t o

the G ulf of California.

These sys t ems of wa t e rways exerted a

consid e rabl e influence on t h e habitat of the
Am e rican Indian and nex t inde e d if not of
,

equal importance for varying reasons are the

, ,

highlands or mo un t ain ranges As means of.

modifying conditions of cl ima t e or ac t ing a s

impedimenta to the advance or spread of p e oples
the great mountain ranges should be carefully
considered Three systems are in North America
.

and may be t hought of in t h e order here noted .

First t h e Cordilleras an extraordinary chain

, ,

extending along the whole western section of

the country from Alaska to Central America .

These in fact comprise a vast plateau with an

average breadth of nearly one thousand miles in
I
] I NT RODU CTION 5

parts of the United States and with an eleva

210 11 of from
1
5 0 0 to
0 fee t from t h e base ,

of which rise num e rous moun t ain ranges extend

ing in a direction generally north and south and
variously designated as the Rocky Mountains ,

the S ierra Nevada and t h e Cascade Range of

,

Oregon Washington and t h e Canadian Nor t h

,

west Among these is t o be found t h e highest

.

peak on t h e con t inen t Mt Mc Kin l e y rising to an

, ,

altitude of fe e t Second the Coas t Range

.
,

is to the extreme wes t .

Toward t h e A t lantic and across the great

central b asin is the eastern or Appalachian
,

System attaining no great height a t any point

,

yet filled with tradi t ion as having borne a most

imp or t an t p art in the country s history Ex ’
.

tending from eastern Canada sou t h westerly -

along t h e Atlantic coas t to Georgia it in ,

n o way presents a continuous range though ,

usually SO regarded There are divisions of

.

various groups such as the Black Green White , , ,

C atskills etc not to forget the historically

,
.
,

imp ortant Blue Ridge which forms the easter n

boundary of a comparatively narrow plateau of
from 2 5 to 2 0 0 miles in width the central portion
,

of which is relatively low land broken occasion

all y b y intersecting lines of hills and extending
 INT RODUCTION
roughly from t h e borders of Pennsylvania and
N e w J ersey to the G ulf States This area early
.

“ “ ”
b e ca m e designat e d as The Vall e y or The
”
Valley of Virginia .

If it be possible to form in t h e mind s eye ’

a r e li e f map of t h e contin e n t it is readily seen

,

t ha t t h e predominanc e of high altitude is almost

wholl y in t h e ex t rem e wes t Thus beginning

.

with t h e Coast Rang e t h e slope of which p r a c

,

t ically reach e s t h e Pacific t here may be men

,

t io n e d in t heir proper order t h e Cascade and

Sierra Nevada Mountains a con t inuous range ,

from upper Canada t hrough Mexico ; from

Canada again t h e Bi t ter Roo t Mountains con ,

t in u in g sou t herly a s t he Rockies the latter ,

made up of num e rous smaller ranges a s the ,

Big Horn Wasatch Black Hills Uintah etc ;

, , , , .

a range ( the Lauren t ian) attaining no great,

h e ight arises in north central Labrador and

,
-

runs sou t h by west until it diminishes at a

point be t w e e n Hudson B ay and the G reat
Lakes and finally the Appalachians beginning
, ,

in Nova Scotia t erminate in Al ab ama Thus

, .

by ke e ping in V iew these physiographic features

a clearer idea of the country originally occupied
by the Indian races of the greater part of North
America can be attained .
 I NT RO DU CT I O N 7

Another striking peculiarity and one of great

importance is that most remarkable chain of lakes
in both the British and American possessions .

These marvellous fresh water seas cover a vast

area of middle eas t ern America and are supple
m e n t e d in the Canadian N orth west by the Great
-

B ear Great Slave and Athabasca Lakes ac t ing

, ,

as a northern continuation of t h e first group

almos t to t h e Arctic Ocean as well a s Lakes
,

M anitob a Winnipeg and Lake of the Woods

, ,

emptying into Hudson B ay In Utah also is

.
, ,

the Great S al t Lake wi t h no discernible ou t le t .

The region of t h e Prairies or Plains extends

roughly from the Rocky Mountains due east and ,

well into the S ta t e of Ohio though seen at it s best

,

in t h e mid western S ta t es of Illinois Indiana

-
,

and I owa These prairies are n o t as many

. ,

erroneously conceive a vast expanse of unbroken

,

or level country but are often rolling even hilly

, , ,

and in parts intersected by streams large and

small which break the monotony of almost limit
less unwooded tracts .

The great desert region of the United States

occupies a section situate for the most part
between the Rocky M ountains and the Sierra
Nevada Range including therefore the greater
,

p art of the S tate of Nevada p ortions of Utah

,
 INTRODUCTION
and Arizona and of sou t hern California and ,

t hrough t his arid country t h e Colorado t h e ,

only impor t a n t riv e r draining t h e section flows ,

into the G ulf of California Lying between the

"

moun t ain sys t ems of t h e Pacific coast are

num e rous valleys dis t inc t ive among which are
,

t h e lowlands surrounding Puge t S ound in Wash

in g t o n and t h e Willam e tte country in Oregon .

The prec e ding gives a somewha t has t y r es u m e

of t h e gen e ral fea t ures of t h e Nor t h American
con t inen t north of the Mexican border I t will .

in part h e lp in what may follow by assisting

,

somewhat t oward an und e rstanding of racial

distribution a s well as a clearer idea of cul tural
characteristics A grea t deal may be gleaned
.

from t h e g e ologist and mineralogist and indeed

,

from t h e archaeologis t though in reali t y the

,

geological r e cord is a S imple one It is generally

.

conc e ded t hat t h e oldest par t of America is the

Lauren t ian pla t eau in eastern Canada and from
t his poin t progress was made toward t h e west .

Th e Cordill e ras are believed to be comparatively

recent showing evidences of late volcanic e r u p
,

tion M e xican volcanoes still exist and even in

.

Alaska they are not wholly extinct Geology .

proves t h e existence of a great glacial sheet of

comparativ e ly recent occurrence covering a part
r
] I NT RODUCT I ON 9

of the United S tates and nearly the whole of

Canada as its area is readily marked by t h e v a r iou s
,

lakes and watercourses throughout the divided

region After it receded came the great drift of rich
.

s oil known as the prairies a t a later period Its .

action t herefore became of the utmost impor t ance .

I t will be readily seen that the land a s finally

inhabited by t h e Americans of a prehis t oric era
was one rich in varie t y of na t ural advantag e s and
that its adaptabili t y was merely a ma t ter of time
an d opportuni t y How it became peopled and
.

by W hom is S till even to our foremos t e t h n ol o

,

gists a matter of more or less conj ecture and t h e

,

origin of the Indian will be discussed in as sane

and impartial a manner a s possible in the follow
ing chapter .

The theory tha t man originated in America

has long been abandoned The absence from the
.

continent of anthropoid apes proves such an

idea untenable ; hence the population mus t have
c ome from the Old World In his new home in
.

America environment unquestionably brought

about change in habit and custom Extremes .

o f clim ate to be had between the Arctic Circle

and the Tropic of Cancer natura l ly led to various

conditions of life social economic and in
, ,

du s t r ia l yet ethnologists agree as to a similarity

,
 INTRODUCTION
of type F urthermore t h e Indian races of North
.

America while di ffering larg e ly in habitat and

, ,

influenced by condi t ions of life and place as well ,

as climate are distinc t ly on e race throughout

,
.

The Indian of t h e moun t ains di ffered slightly

in his manner of living from his brethren of the
plains as did the woodland Indian of Canada for
,

ins t ance from t hos e of t h e Pu e blos of Arizona .

These last in turn had n o t such familiari t y with

the lak e s and riv e rs as had t h e inhabitants of
the coun t ry to t h e north west ; hence an under
-

standing o f the physical features a s a help

toward historical sequence .

I t is usually difficult to formula t e a scheme

for prac t ical study of t h e native races of America .

The presen t day an t hropologist sets about this by

-

distinguishing groups through one of four se t s of

characteristics ; geographical physical general
, ,

culture and linguis t ic I t is by the linguistic

.

method that such work will continue as it is in ,

this way that t h e best results have generally been

attained Whil e there is no scheme of c l a s s ifi c a
.

tion accep t ed by all studen t s uni t y is always

,

recognised through the linguistic diversity and ,

it is a most remarkable feature of American

ethnology to day that authori t ies admi t either
-

fi ft y—six or fi ft y eight distinct linguistic families

-
 CHAPTER I I
GE N E RA L FA C T S
In his first l e t t er dated ( February) 149 3 ,

Columbus makes t h e e arliest mention of the

Am e rican Indians under such a name The
discovery of a new con t inen t by t h e G enoese
opene d to t h e world a wonderful n ew field for
speculation though it was t hough t to have been
,

none o t her than a por t ion of India thus reached

by a new route H e nc e t h e cognomen I n dia of
.

t h e Spaniard Por t uguese and I t alian ; I n die n of

,

the F renchman ; I n ciia n e r of the G erman etc ,

.

As to the probable origin of this race of man

kind it is quite impossible even at the present
, ,

s t age of ethnological investigation to arrive at ,

any definite conclusion though it is to be con

,

fessed tha t a t t h e close of the nin e teenth century

numerous ra t ional hypotheses had been advanced
but very various in charac t er To take up the
.

subj ect in proper sequence it may be stated that

inasmuch as none of the early Hebrew traditions
mentioned the American people the Spaniards ,

until the time of Las Casas arrived at the

 GENE RAL FACTS

conclusion that they could not be properly r e

garded as men similar to those referred to in the
B iblical accounts a view which w a s eventually
,

coun t eracted by a papal bull from Rome When .

it w a s discovered that the Indian might be con

s id e r e d human and in consequence wor t hy of some

consideration e fforts tending toward the discovery

,

of his origin t henceforth b e came matters of interest

among scholars of various schools and the conclu
,

sions drawn were in many ins t ances remarkabl e .

Gomara Le r iu s and even Le s c a b o t held that

,

the Indians descended from the Canaanites who

were driven abroad by J oshua and t h e t heory
,

accepted by the grea t maj ority was to the effect

that they were the los t tribes of Israel .

One early writer propounded an artful theory

that they were descend ants from Asiatics wi t h
Magog the second s o n of J a p h e t a s the head
, , ,

and numerous other tales some even less likely

,

or ingenious were among the earlies t

,
.

Within the last quarter of a century or indeed, ,

within the last decade our knowledge of the s u b

,

e c t has assumed something of cogent shape and

j
it is thought but a fe w years will have passed
before defini t e facts can be handled and absolute
decisions rendered as to first man in America .

A great abundance of literature has been

1
4 GENERAL FACTS
produced on t h e subj ect since Humboldt in 18 10
ventured his opinions Students of high standing
.

wrote on the perplexing question and some with

Lord Kames in the eighte e n t h cen t ury and much ,

la t er Morton and N o t t and Gl iddo n professed t h e

,

belief that t h e Indian was autochthonous Grotius .

writes of the early Christian E t hiopians who he ,

t ells us first peopled Yuca t an Tha t t h e ances t ors

.

of the Americans came by way of t h e Pacific Ocean

and in par t from nor t h eastern Asia is t h e theory
-

held by Mitchell Mc Cu ll og h a s early a s 18 2 9

.
, ,

felt confident tha t at an early period Am e rica had

been c onnec t ed wi t h a los t land from t h e west ,
“
over which was allowed a free t ransit for
quadrupeds and his idea of a los t Atlantis is
,

by no m e ans dormant at the present time .

Q ua t refages r e viewing t h e subj ect carefully

,

a s late as 18 8 concludes the Indians to be a

7 ,

conglomerate race composed in part of Poly

,

n e s ia n s and others of t h e South Seas while ,

Pickering believed in an origin partly Mongolian

and partly Malay The general consensus of
.

opinion during the last century is to the e ffect

that wi t h the exception of the Eskimo the
, ,

natives of America are wholly of one race and

descendants from early immigrants from north
eastern Asia and especially of M ongolian stock
, .
 G E NE RAL FACTS 15

I t is to be remarked however that the most

, ,

recent writers generally agree that America w a s

peopled first by some form of immigration and
secon dl y by local multiplication but as to t h e
,

locality as well as the nature and period of such

a movement there is yet animated discussion .

J Kollmann thinks that a race of pygmies

.

preceded the Indians and Ameghino believes

,

not only the American race but mankind in

general originated in S ou t h America ; indeed the
antiquity of man on the American continent
h a s given rise to various problems which are ,

a t this time receiving an unusual amount of

,

attention from the scientific world .

As the natives were wholly without a system

of writing or at least did n o t transmit any such
,

tangible records t h e knowledge of what may have

,

occurred previous to the Columbian discovery is

obviously supplied only by tradition or the more
or less slight records of archaeologic or ethnologic
phenomena .

The p otent physical characteristics of the

whole Am erican race from Alaska to the
,

s outhern extreme of S outh America seem to ,

indicate clearly an absolute separation from

parental stock The existence of various culture
.

grou p s wholl y distinct as to religion or aesthetics

,
,
 GENERAL FACTS
social customs and technology woul d presume a ,

somewhat exclusive life in certa i n I ndependent

areas There is unfortunately but a vague
.
, ,

record even among the most advanced tribes

that proves of s e rvice in as certaining the time
periods of occupancy of t h e continent by the
race or even in tracing more recent events I t
,
.

is prac t ically impossible t o write with assurance

of any but recen t centuries yet with the aid of ,

biology a n d geology archaeology h a s supplied

,

da t a of the grea t est value t hough many weighty

,

problems will indefinitely remain unsolved I t w a s .

ul t ima t e ly concluded that the course of primi t ive

history had been the same in both the northern
and southern continen t s but even here t h e final
,

decision h a s not been reached Attempts to .

establish a chronology have failed thus far .

Interesting have been the claims s e t forth for

glacial man notably the finding of a portion of
,

a human femur said to S how glacial striae and

traces of human workmanship found at a depth
of twenty one fee t On this last single obj ect
-
.

the claim for glacial antiquity in the Delaware

region exists Other finds east of the Al l e gh a n ie s
.

lack scientific verification though Ohio h a s ,

reported articles of huma n workmanship of the

gl acial period and in the west partic ul arly a t
, ,
 G E NE RAL FACT S 17

Little Falls M innesota artificial obj ects of

, ,

quartz have been found in flood plain deposits -

of gravel and sand Winchell believes this

.

flood plain to have been finally abandoned by

-

the M ississippi river about the period of the

close of the glacial epoch in the valley ; yet this
leads to no definite conclusion Curious finds .

“ ” “
such as the Lansing Man the Nampa Image
,
”

“ ”
and the Calaveras Man are of possible impor
tance but unfortun at ely inconclusive .

A s previously mentioned the S tudy of the,

North American Indian is based t o a great extent

upon linguistic classifica t ion and the diversity
,

of language is one of the most extraordinary

features in American ethnology This pheno .

menon was noticed by numerous early explorers

in the field of American philology but it was not ,

until 18 3 6 that the first purely scientific treatise

appeared in Gallatin s Syn op s is of t he I n dia n
’

Tr ibe : wit /yin t he U n it e d St a t e s etc published

,
.
,

by the American Antiquarian Society This book .

easily m arks an era in American linguistic science ,

inasmuch as the writer introduced comparative

m ethods and S howed in detail the boundaries of
various families The work may in fact be taken
.

as a starting point since nothing of moment exists

,

o f anterior date covering the subj ect of the

M I
. .
 GENE RA L FACTS
’
systematic philology of North America Powell s .

I n dia n Lin g u is t ic F a m il ie s of A m e r ic a n or t l) of
M e xic o published in 18 9 1 is a monument of its
, ,

kind and is now in course of revision by B oas

and o t hers In the lis t of families which follows
.
,

the las t named authority h a s been adopted as

-
,

re c ent investigation shows the probability as

well as possibili t y of incorpora t ing under single
linguistic heads several heretofore supposedly
dis t inct stocks To be exac t the literature .
,

referring to these various s t ocks is in no wise

uniform :
Lis t o
f l in g u is t ic fa m il ie s of t be A m e r ic a n
I n dia n s , n or t b of M e xic o ( aft e r B oa s )
.

1 . E s kim o (a r c t i c o t ) c as .

2 . At h p s a n (n o t h w s t e r n in t rio r O r g o n C a l i
a a c r -
e e
,
e ,

fo mi s o t h w e s t )
r a ,
u -
.

P
‘
Tli git (c o s t of s ou t h r n Al s k )
n a e a a .

P' H id (Q
a a C h l ot t I s l n d s B rit is h C ol m b i )
u e en ar e a , u a .

P S l i h ( o t h e B r it is h Colu m b i n d n or t h e n
a s an s u rn a a r

W s hi g t on )
‘

a n .

9 Ch e m k m (w s t o s t o f W s hin g t on )
a u e c a a .

W a k s h (V n c o v I s l a n d)
a an a u er .

Al g on q i n ( g io s o t h o f H d s on B a y n d
u a re n u u a
n W oo dl n ds
east er
) a .

9 . B e ot h k (N w fo n dl n d)
u e u a .

10 . Ts im s hi n (n or t h e r o a s t o f B it is h C olu m b i )
a n c r a .

11 . S iou a n (n o t h e r n pl in s w e s t o f Mis s is s ipp i a n d

r a

N or t h C a r ol in a ) .

12 . I r oq u oia n (l owe r G e a t L a k s n d N o r t h C a r olin ) r e a a .

 GE NE RAL FACT S

43 . S li
a
(nan h e r n C l if or n i )
c o a s t o f s ou t a a .

C h m a s h n (c o t of t h r n C l if r n i ) s ou e a o a
44 u a as .
.

45 . T a n oa n( P bl o f Nu e w M x i o
s o n d A iz o n a ) e e c a r .

6 Z i P bl o f N w M xi o a n d A r iz )
4 . un
( u e os e e c on a .

K r s (P bl f N w M x i a n d A r i z on ) e co a
47 e e s u e o o e .
.

4 8 .P k aw n ( fr o m Cib l o
a a k T ex s i t o t ho S tatc ree ,
a ,
n e e

o f C o h il M xic o)
a u a ,
e .

ra k w of G l f o f M e xic o w s t of
49 .K a n
( a o st a c a u e

At a k p ) a a .

5 0 T o k w a (i l
. n a d f r m pre n an d in g) o ce .

A k p o f Gu l f o f M xic o w s t o f C h it i
5 1 t
. a
( a o at c as e e

m h ) ac a .

5 2 C h
. it i m h (
ac o s t aof G l f c o f M xic o
a w st of u e e

Mis s is ipp i) s .

T i G l f o f M xic o w e s t o f M is s is s ipp i)
53 . n u a
( o c t f c as o u e .

54 Y. hi
uc ( s t G o
ea r i
g ) e a .

Ti m a ( F l o id )
55 .
q u u r a .

This lis t canno t be claimed as final and as ,

work progresses cer t ain modifications will of ,

necessity be incorporated ye t it is an excellent ,

groundwork toward a comple t e knowledge and

the changes made will not be fundamental .

Physically the native North American may

be de t ailed for general understanding as follows .

The prevailing colour of t h e skin is brown a fact ,

not usually understood or realised though it may ,

be Sta t ed that colour di ffers to a large extent

according t o locali t y ranging in S hade from a ,

whi tish yellow to chocolate The hair is almost

-
.

always black and straight the beard scanty , ,

especially on the S ides of the face and a s a rul e , ,

 C A D DO AN
7

4, KI O WA N

P r l n c np a l

L in g u is t ic Fa m i i l
A M E RI C A N I N DIA N
NOR TH M OF O E " IC
 GENE RAL FACTS
hair is lacking entirely on the body Compared .

with white men or women the head is smaller

on an average as 18 the brain cavity Mental
, .

characteristics are similar throughout various

tribes and the heart beat is slow There is no .

distinct skin odour .

A study of the eyes reveals a more or less

uniform shade of dark brown with conj unctiva of
yellowish white and there is a tendency p r e v a
-
,

lent among certain tribes toward a n upward

slant of the eye slit Prognathism at least to
.
,

a medium degree is noticeable in the lower face

, ,

while the mouth is usually of fair size with lips

a trifle more full than in whites and the bridge of,

the nose e s p e c ia ll yin men is well developed Teeth .

are generally of medium siz e and t h e ears l a rge .

T he neck while of moderat e length is seldom

, ,

or never thin the chest being deeper if any t hing

,

than in the average white AS is usual in savage.

races the breasts of the women are conical though

,

of medium size and there is a complete absence

,

of steatopygy The lower limbs and legs in both

.

m en and women cannot be termed shapely and

the calves are small The hands and feet are of
.

m edium si z e .

These data are su ffi cient for the reader who

does n o t wish to make a close investigation of the
 G ENE RAL FACTS
physical anthropology of the race The above
.

features are broadly sp e aking possessed by

, ,

practically all of t h e Indians occupying the

region included in t his study It may be men
.

t ion e d however that t h e longevity of the Indian

, ,

is very much t h e same as that of t h e heal t hy

whi t e man though t here is usually little de c r e p i
,

tude among the aged .

 CHAPTE R I I I
I N D IAN S O C IO LO G Y
The social status of the Indian as an individual
is interesting To properly understand his code
.

of ethics or t o obtain an insight into his manner

of life and thought it becomes necessary to
,

approach through a somewhat tangled maze of

what may be termed organisation or c o n s a n
u in it E asily the most potent elements in his
g .
y
sociology are the clan and gens kinship groups,

within the boundaries of which degrees of

relationship between members are totally dis
regarded and Hewitt h a s defined the former
,
“
most concisely a s an intertribal exogamic
group of persons either actually or theoretically
”
consanguine .

S urrounding the origin of these systems dis

c u s s io n has been active for some time and con

t in u e s unceasingly ; furthermore the V iew was

commonly held that the clan was a direct out
growth from the family On the other hand
.

m an y leading ethnologists contend that the

24 IND I AN SOCIOLOGY
family in t h e common meaning of the term is
, ,

a recen t formation W ithi n the clan .

Thi s form of organisation is by no means

universal among the Nor t h American tribes but ,

wher e it does e xist t h e distinc t ive character is

clearly d e fined Of importance is the fact
.

t hat lineal descent inheritance of personal and

,

common prop e rty and the hereditary right to

,

public o ffice or trust are traced only t hrough the

‘

female line ; indeed among some tribes con ,

sanguine kinship is traced t hrough t h e blood of

the woman only whereas in t h e gens descent is
, ,

through the male and membe rship in the clan

,

or gens constitutes citizenship in the tribe con ,

fe rring certain social pol itical and even religious

,

du t ies absolutely deni e d to aliens To t emism .

,

howe ver or even t h e worship of personal totems

,

b y individuals or groups is n o t an essential

fea t ure of these bodi e s .

Al t hough details bo t h various and important

are numbered in clan organisation one alone can ,

be dwelt upon here namely the law of exogamy

, .

Members of the same group must not marry and

for violation of this rule d e ath was the usual
punishment This law is as strongly defined
.

to day as in the beginning

-
.

Though occasionally s o it is not customary for ,

 INDIAN SOCIOLOGY
in part a development of hereditary rights arising
primarily in the family and the supervision of ,

the phratry is under t h e control of the chiefs or

elders serving as direc t ors of t h e more impor t ant
branch The oversight of a t ribe is evolved
.

through t hat of t h e clan and a confederation ,

such as the League of t h e Iroquois is governed

on t his principle .

An examination of t h e tribal organisation of

the North American Indians usually rev e als three
divisions geographic or consanguineal in char
,

acter viz social or governmental classes ; chiefs

,
.

and councils having particular powers and rights ;

and fra t ernities of a genera l ly semi religious -

character F urther tribes may be divided

.
,

roughl y into those possessing but loose organisa

tion and again those in clearly defined groups
,

( clans or gentes ) who were stric t ly exogamic .

Among the former may be cited the Eskimo ,

among the latter numerous southern tribes a s

,

the Pueblo Navaho and many in the Atlantic

,

and G ulf States Thus it is to be seen that the

.

units of political and social life of the native

Americans are ( a ) the family ( I") the clan and ,

gens ( c) the phratry and ( d) t h e tribe

, , .

Of these the tribe if the confederation be ,

excepted is the only form completely organised

, .
 INDI AN SOCI OLOGY 2
7

As a rule military were carefully discriminated

from civil functions The civil form of govern
.

ment was generally lodged in a chosen body

of men ca l led chiefs and of this o ffice there
,

were several grades For example a civil chief

.
,

was not by virtue of his office a leader in a

military way P e r c on tr a a military leader might
.
,

not b e called upon for an opinion in council

exercising legislation Thus in tribal society
.

practically all units have the privilege of holding

councils beginning with the obwa c b ir a or kinship
,

group next the family followed by the united

, ,

ob wa c b ir a councils with their o fficers who in turn ,

form the council of the clan or gens This clan .

or gens has the right to hold council ; the chiefs

of the clans or gentes are the tribal chiefs forming ,

the tribal council ; occasions of vast importance

dem and a grand council composed of chiefs and
subchiefs the matrons head warriors of the
, ,

ob w a c b ir a and leading men of the tribe There .

m ay be also a council of the confederation where ,

such exists ; hence there are found family clan , ,

gentile tribal and confederation councils r e s Pe c

,

t iv e l y when essential each exercising sway in

, ,

sep arate and independent j urisdictions and each

w ith it s own leader or headman or chief ,
.

T here are varying degrees in the scale of

 INDIAN SOC I OLOGY
social life among the Indians as among the white
nations the greatest development north of
,

Mexico being wi t hou t doubt among the Iroquois

of the nor t h—east as shown by Morgan in I ls e
,

Le a g u e of t b c I r oqu ois F rom t hi s t here is a drop

.

to an almos t opposite extreme notably among the

,

Eskimo or some of the tribes of Califo rnia and ,

Dixon describing t h e nor t hern Maidu of the

western coast finds no trace of gentile or even
totemic grouping Coming east again the Seneca
.

of New York have a writt e n consti t ution con

firmed by the legislature of that S t a t e .

The home life of the Indian is little under

stood ; yet it s importance is manifold a s h is
, ,

domestic arrangements a re more complex t han

might be imagined Tha t there has been little
.

change in h is code of morals or his e t hical con

c e t s is proven from the fact that his customs
p
in this respect are prac t ical ly the same to—day as
when first known to t h e white man J ust how .

much of t hese manners or morals has been

absorbed from the outsider is hard to estimate ,

and there are S till certain tribes whi c h have

repulsed the alien race and remain if early ,

testimony can be relied upon quite unchanged

, .

To outline the et hi cs of the primitive peoples

of the American continent would be difficult in
 I ND I AN SO CI OLOGY 2
9

the S p ace allotted There undoubtedly existed

.
,

however a standard of right and wrong and from

, ,

various sources there comes the knowledge of a

conscience among the Indians and the fact that
if was held in dread Among all tribes of
.

standing there was the power of public opinion ,

ofttimes compelling the most refractory In .

some cases executive bands had power to punish

o ffenders acting in viola t ion of the orders of the
trib al council yet thus far no evidence of even
,

the rudiments of courts of j ustice seems available .

The truth was invariably expected of those

from Whom reports were received concerning
any events of importance in affairs of interest
to the tribe or council Inaccurate reporters met
.

with disgrace The warrior meeting with some

.

signal success could not claim more t han his due ,

and the common punishment for lying was the

burning of t h e liar s tent and property by tribal
’

sanction A broken promise was equivalen t to

.

lying and instances are not unco m mon where

,

I ndians have kept their word at the risk of death .

Honesty was taught from infancy but as war

,

remove d all b arriers governing ethics pillage was

,

legitimate A thieving Indian was not unknown

.

nevertheless but considered without the pale as

, ,

would be true among a white communit y under

 INDIAN SOC I OLOGY
similar condi t ions A theft being committed
.
,

t ribal au t horiti e s demanded res t i t ution and flog

,

ging as well as social ostracism resulted .

Murd e r when committed within the t ribe was

invariably punished ei t her by exile or in so me ,

instances by allowing t h e murd e rer to become an

,

obj ect of vengeance ; in a word truth honesty , ,

and the general safety of human life were uni

v e r s a ll
y recognised a s matters essential to the

welfare and prosperity of t h e tribe and their ,

observance w a s duly e nforced .

The penalty for adultery varied among dif

fe r e n t tribes Ordinarily the aggrieved party
.

chose his or her own method of punishment .

Witchcraft was a most serious offence and

mean t dea t h It was believed that the witch or
.

wi z ard brought sickness or distemper in one

form or another and as the easies t me t hod of
, ,

prevention the sorcerer was removed imme

,

dia t e l y
. A mistaken code of e t hics was in par t
to blame for this peremptory action and a lack
of knowledg e of disease quite su ffi cient to make
it final .

The home life of t h e Indian may be somewhat

better understood after this brief survey of some
of his more personal modes of thought His .

morals as savage or barbarous morals may be

,
 IND I AN S O C IOLOGY 3 1

considered were far from the lowest order His

, .

etiquette and daily ceremonials are noteworthy .

Few of the dwellings of the American Indians ,

whatever their form of S t ructure were visibly ,

divided yet for each member of t h e family a

,

distinct space was allotted His pack and goods .

of one kind or another were here in the daytime ,

his bed spread in their stead at night A guest .

space was s e t ap art whic h was among the Plains ,

tribes at the back facing the entrance This

, .

aperture was generally made to open toward

the east The guest space w a s often of the
.

utmost importance and used not infrequently

either by friend messenger or perhaps delegate
, ,

as occasion demanded .

E ven methods of greeting were studied A .

familiar friend or acquaintance was spoken to at

once wi t hout formality but S hould the visitor
,

com e on business his adven t was in S ilence which

rem ained unbroken for some moments On r e .

c e iv in
g delegations only the older
,
men of a party
sp oke Among all tribes undue haste w a s a
.

stamp of ill breeding and no visitor left the

-
,

dwelling of h is host W ithout words of parting to

show that his visit was at an end .

E tiquette among many tribes demanded when

a p erson w a s addressed that a term of relationship
3 2 INDIAN SO C IOLOGY
rather than the proper name be used Elders .

were greeted a s grandfa t her or grandmother and ,

titles of this kind were also applied to men or

women of dis t inction in the tribe Outsiders .

were often accos t ed as friends and members of ,

di ffer e n t clans or gentes were designa t ed as

“ ”
cousins or my father s clansman etc though
’
,
.
,

b e longing t o t h e same tribe A m ong certain .

t ribes etique t te res t ricted direct speech between

a w o m a n a n d her s on in law and often also

~ — -

with her father in law according to certain

- -
,

au t hori t ies while among some tribes t h e men

,

and women used di fferent forms of speech and

such a distinction was carefully observed .

That man should precede woman when walk

“
ing or in en t ering a lodge was cus t omary to ,
”
make t h e way safe for her and due respect w a s
,

shown t o elders both in b e haviour and speech .

These and many o t her details of like character

could be ci t ed a t greater length as for instance ,

the fact that familiar conversa t ion w a s at no

time permit t ed except between rela t ives and a ,

ge n eral reserve was usual in t h e behaviour of men

toward women Th e re was also a formal manner
.

observed in both standing and sitti ng especially ,

among the women The latter stood as a rule

.

with their feet close together and legs perfectly

 34 INDI AN SO C IOLOGY
rights and privileges unite and thus the begin
,

ning o f a new family group is formed .

To determin e d e fini t e ly e ve n t h e important

organic features of the family sys t em is according
,

t o Hewi t t a s yet imp o ssible in the case of the

,

Indian tribes nor t h of t h e border Swanton in

-
.
,

referring to the t rib e s of the north west coas t

-
,

says t ha t in addi t ion to t h e husband wife and

,

children a household was often increased by a

,

number of relatives who lived wi t h t h e house

own e r on almost equal terms Again in tribes
.
,

wher e g e n t ile or clan organisation did not exist ,

inces t groups on both paternal and maternal

s ides are larg e ly determined by a system of
relati o nships fixing t h e status and posi t ion of
ev e ry person within an indefinite group whi ch ,

is t o s a y that marriage and cohabitation may

not subsist between p e rsons related t o each
other except wi t hin defini t e ly prescribed limits
on both sides though kinship may be recognised
,

a s ex t ending beyond t his area .

The common Iroquoian name for the maternal

blo od family was obwa c b ir a and was known to
all dia l ects of this stock On the contrary there
‘

a r e found among thes e various dialects names

designating the group known as the clan which

w ould indicate the probability that the family
 I NDIAN SOCIOLOGY 35

as such antedated the development of clan

organis ation .

The intimate rela t ions of family life and the

laws governing family customs are wholly a d
ministered within that circle and such laws,

constitute the daily rules of action When the .

family as a unit becomes absorbed in a higher

form of society certain individual rights are
,

acquired as for instance that of appealing to

,

the higher tribunal Wealth and power of the

.

family or clan depended usually on the number

of its members .

The condition of women among the Indians

of A merica has long been misunderstood and ,

when considered at all frequently placed in an

,

erroneous light the female being usually r e garded

,

as a slave and drudge both befor e and after her

m arriage This misconceived view due largely
.
,

to inaccurate observation may possibly have

,

been correct in some isolated cases and par

t ic u l a r l y among certain tribes possessing but few

of the elements of social organisation especially ,

those which were non agricultural

-
.

The status of woman depended to a great

extent upon conditions having their origin in
habitat climate and various concepts arising
,

often from m y thology a s well a s economic

3 6 INDIAN SOCIOLOGY
environm e nt F or example ; broad distinctions
.

w e re mad e b e tween wom e n belonging to or not

belonging to a certain tribe or community As .

a rule t h e woman was looked upon by the men of

t h e tribe as t heir equal .Mat t ers pertaining to
the home fe ll to t h e sphere of t h e woman In .

addition t o the num e rous activi t i e s which they

S hared in common wi t h t h e men th e re was also
,

t h e care of the children . It was the lot of the

fe male to attend to the tanning of skins the ,

weaving of materials for clo t hing and other uses ,

the making of mats and baskets to become ,

pot t ers and workers in wood to sew dye gather

, , ,

and s t ore roo t s se e ds berries plants and to dry

, , , ,

and smoke the mea t procured by the men .

The care of t h e camping utensils and all family

belongings also fe ll t o her t hough in t his s h e was
,

assis t e d by children of s u fli c ie n t age or the in

capaci t ated men of t h e trib e ind e ed t h e ess e ntial
,

governing the division of labour and responsi

b il it y between t h e sexes lies d e eper than what ,

for wan t of a bett e r name was gen e rally supposed

,

to have been t h e tyranny of man At the time .

of planting it w a s thought tha t the sowing of

seed by women rendered such seed more fertile ,

therefore sowing and cultivating came S trictly

within her domain .
 INDI AN SOCIOLOGY 37

M any of the early travellers have commented

on the condition of a woman s life among the
’

tribes though it would appear that strenuous

, ,

as the toil may have been it evidently a ffected

,

her but slightly There is little do u bt that

.

the records of t h e first explorers are s ome

what exaggerated if not biassed inasmuch as
,

their minds were prej udiced as t hey observed

customs so vastly di fferent from those with
which they were previously acquain t ed E qual .

in number have been those who have taken

opposite views .

Among the Iroquois and similarly organised

tribes many fundamen t al ins t i t u t ions of society
were controlled by woman : as an instance
descent of blood or ci t izenship in the clan hence,

in the tribe was trac e d t hrough her ; ti t les

, ,

distinguished by unchanging specific names of ,

the various chieftainships of the t ribe belonged

exclusively to her ; t h e lodge and a l l its fu r
n is h in s and equipment w e re hers ; her o ffspring
g
belo n ged to her ; the lands of the clan and s o of
,

the t ribe as t h e source of food life and shelter

, ,

belonged t o her and in consequence of these

,

p ossessions and these vested rights hers was the

,

sovereign right to select from among her sons

candidates for the chieftainship of her own clan ,
 INDI AN SOCIOLOGY
and so eventually of the t ribe As the source of
, ,
.

t h e l ife of t h e clan t h e sole right to adopt aliens

,

was vested in t h e woman ; mothers possessed

authority t o forbid sons going on the warpath ,

and las t ly woman had the power of life and

, ,

dea t h over such a l ien prisoners as became her

share in the spoils of war .

There were chieft ainesses among various

eastern t ribes who were of first impor t ance some ,

of whom on c e rtain occasions succeeded the male

incumbent of such an o ffice and it is eviden t ,

from the above t hat the authority possessed by

the Indian husband over his wife or wives was far
from absolu t e early observers to the contrary not
,

withstanding The wife enj oyed in large measure

.

an independence and as a rule her influence over

,

h e r husband was marked : Her status varied a s ,

has been mentioned according to loca t ion and ,

also according to the institutions preserved by the

t ribe in ques t ion In some instances she was the
.

equal in o t hers s h e was t h e superior of the man

, .

In nearly all tribes possessing rudim e nts of

social organisation woman was sole master of
,

her own body Violation of their own or alien

.

women w a s rare and regarded wi t h horror

and aversion According to Westermarck the
.
,

Navaho husband possessed but little authority

 I ND I AN SO C IOLOGY 39

over his wife even though obtained by payment

,

of the bride price or present It would appear

.
,

therefore in summing up that woman enj oyed

, ,

a large if not preponderating amount of in de p e n

dence reckoned largely in proportion to the extent
of the community s dependence for substance on
’

the p roduct of her activity .

I t is almost impossible to give a compre

h e n s iv e description of marriage among the
American aborigines Such unions depended
.

largely on economic considerations varying to

a wonderful degree as between the Eskimo of
the north and the Pueblos of the south west -
.

Ceremony of any kind is barred with the former

and little if any exists among the latter though ,

representing a much higher stage of culture and

having a developed clan organisation The Zuni
.

bridegroom is adopted as a s on by the father of

the betrothed and married life begins at her home .

Among the Atlantic tribes of Algonquian S tock

the rule against marriage within the clan or gens
was strictly enforced .

P olygamy seems to have been more gene ~

rall y practised among the Plains Indians than

elsewhere the y ounger S isters of a first wife
,

being potential wives of the husband An a l .

m os t universal custom throughout the continent

4 0 INDIAN SOCIOLO G Y
governs the matter of separa t ion Wives can .

leave cru e l husbands and t h e husband may

discard an unruly or oth e rwise disagreeable
spouse Divorce is generally discr e di t able but
.

easily e ffec t ed children going wi t h the mo t her

,
.

Monogamy is however t h e preval e n t form of

, ,

marriage among t h e maj ori t y of Indian families .

Though t h e econo m ic fac t or is everywhere potent ,

ac t ual purchase is uncommon The marriage t ie .

is on t h e whole loose and wi t h fe w exceptions

can be dissolved by the wife a s well as the
husband .

Under t his system which allows such easy

dissolu t ion of t h e family bond t h e most impor
tan t fac t or in domes t ic life is t h e child The .

relation of the Indian parents t o t heir c hildren

brings for t h t h e highes t traits of aboriginal
charac t e r Both parents are with rare e xc e p
.
,

tions devo t ed to t heir o ffspring upon whom

, ,

t hey bes t ow t h e fulles t expression of affec t ion

and solicitude Among the Plains Indians the

.

arrival of a new baby is t h e cause of con

s ide r a b l e commen t The f ather s first act is ’
.

to prepare the wooden frame of the cradle

which becomes the portable bed until the Chi ld
is able to walk This in turn is decorated
.

by t h e g r a n dm o t he r or some woman expert in

'
4 2 INDIAN SOCIOLOGY
possessors of occult powers Boring the ears .

for pendants is often t h e occasion of more or less

ceremony particularly among the Plains tribes
, ,

and the firs t tattooing and first inser t ion of the

1
labret are memorable events .

At from fourteen to sixteen years of age the

boy par t icularly among the Atlantic t ribes made
, ,

solitary fast and vigil for the purpose of obtaining

communication with the medicine Sp l r l t which
was to be his protector through life after which , ,

by passing through certain ordeals the youth ,

,

became compe t en t t o take his place as a man

among warriors A t about this period or possibly
.
,

a year or t w o earlier his sister s friends may have

,
’

ga t hered t o celebra t e her puberty dance and t h e ,

child life for both has thus ended .

A description of t h e religious tenets of the

Indian must be brief Their concepts divide
.

themselves into two groups and in that way they

must be referred t o— t hos e concerning the in
dividual and those t ouching t h e clan gens or ,

tribe As a basis of religious life stands the belief

.

in t h e existence of a supernatural or magic power .

This may influence man and in turn be acted

upon by him and this conception of a Deity is
,

almost universal It is variously designated

.

Se 1
ot p 15 2
e n e . .
 INDIAN SOCIOLOGY 43

M anito as among the Al gonquian Wakonda by

, ,

the S ioux O r e da by the Iroquois etc and not

, , .
, ,

withstanding a slight di fference in signification ,

the b asic thought of all is that a power inherent

in the obj ects of nature is more potent than the
n atural power of man .

The occult or theosophic connexion between

’
the Indian s religious concepts and his mythology
is m arked and will not be dwelt upon here as it ,

is covered more fully from the latter s t andpoint

in a succeeding chapter .

One of the chief aims in the religious ex

e r ie n c e of the Indian is to gain control over or
p ,

acquire for himself some one of the supernatural

,

p owers and thereby make it subservien t to his

O w n will and needs This process usually called
.
,

the procuring of the manito is attempted ,

ge n erally by the young men during the period of

adolescence and includes fasting bathing vomit
, , ,

ing and other means of thoroughly cleansing the

body s o that it m ay be perfectly accep t able to
a H igher B eing .

At the same tim e the youth by means of ,

drugs dancing or similar actions causing tem

,

p e ra m en t a l excitement works himself

,
into a
trance during which a vision of his guardian
s p irit appears thereafter acting as a protector
,
44 I NDIAN SOCIOLOGY
through life H e ob t ains sp e cial abilities through
.

the acquisi t ion of this power and b y invoking it s

aid may become a superior warrior a S haman , ,

or a successful hunter or he may am ass riches

,
.

Victory in games or abili t y to acquire the love

,

of women may also follow .

Ano t her means of obtaining t hi s religious

power may be t hrough inheri t ance or by s p eCifi c
prayer By the lat t er me t hod cer t ain accredi t ed
.

formulae ( or prayer sticks a s among the Pueblos)

are used which are mean t t o convey a man s
,
’

wishes t o t h e Powers S acrifices and human .

o fferings were not on the whol e used s o ex

, ,

t e n s iv e l y in Nor t h America as in other parts of

the world t hough ins t ances of self t orture par

,
-
,

t ic u l a r l y among t h e Mandans and o t her S iouan

tribes mus t be reckoned with

,
.

Included among t h e many popular though

fallacious b e liefs regarding t h e Indian w a s t hat
“
concerning h is mos t mighty deity the G rea t
”
Spiri t
. As has been shown abov e his religious ,

ideas were manifold and his chief obj ect was to

,

propi t ia t e by supplication or self s a c r ifi c e each -

and every one To no special deity was ascribed

.

moral good or evil yet these spirits were the

,

source of all good or bad fortune whether on the

warpath or hunting trail or at work or play , . ,
 INDIAN SOCIOLOGY 45

S uccess led him to adore o ffer sacrifices and

,

m ake presents of value ; defeated he cast his

m anito from him and made o ffering forthwith
to a more powerful or more friendly deity In .

this spiritualistic world he dwelt in continual

fear To o ffend the S pirit of the dark wood t h e
.
,

la ke or t h e prairie was his constant dread and his ,

d a ily prayer was for assistance against disease in

one form or another .

On the whole the American natives incline

strongly toward all forms of religious excitemen t .

This is demonstrated not only by the high

development of ancient religious forms but also
by the frequency with which prophets have
appeared among them .

B etween this body of spirits and materialistic

m an came as mediators the shamans a n d priests .

The authority of the former depended wholly on

individual ac t ion wher e as t h e latter represented
,

to a certain extent some form of society .

According to Swanton t h e most highly

,

developed priesthood north of Mexico is found

, ,

among the Pueblos of the south w est Here it -

.

c o n t r o l s t h e civil and military branches of the

tribe On the other hand among various tribes

. ,

of the east the order divides and subdivides as

, ,
'
with the C hi p p ewa there were found the w é b é n O ,
4 6 INDIAN SOCIOLO G Y
those who practised medicine and magic the ,
'
j é s s a k ki d
—
’
known
,
as seers and prophets and ,
'
t h e m idé ,
members of the sacred socie t y The .

shamans wer e also of two or mor e classes accord

ing to locali t y .

The mat t e r of diseas e and its cure among t h e

Indians while impor t an t can b e merely touched
, ,

upon Illness was t o a great ex t e n t a mystery

.

and t reated as such coming ther e for e t o a certain

,

degree under the care of the S piritual adviser a s

w e ll as the medicin e man F ormerly ev e ry tribe
-
.

had a numb e r of such t hauma t urgi often includ

In
g both mal e and female who were considered ,

possessed of supernatural pow e rs enabling them

to recognise and eventually cure disease Their .

popularity or influence over the people depended

largely on actual abili t y and t here were specialists
,

along certain lines a s among t h e more advanced

rac e s Surgery in a primitive form w a s practised
.

by the more accomplished trephining w a s known ,

but not north of Mexico .

Another class of medicine men and women

corresponded closely to our own herb alists and
to the midwives amo n g t h e rural white people .

Women predominated though they formed no

,

societies nor were they s o highly respected as

the other class .
 I NDIAN S OCI OLOGY 47

B efore the advent of the civilised races on

the North American continent it is presumed that
the Indian w a s on the whole a comparatively
, ,

healthy people No evidence has been found

.

from which to gather data as to the prevailing

diseases though illness in some form was of
,

course prevalent but probably not in serious

or epidemic form Doubt is even expressed as to
.

whether small pox tuberculosis pre Columbian

-
, ,
-

syphilis typhus cancer scarlet fever cholera or

, , , ,

rachitis were known In any event they were .

rare.

Though containing much of the robust con

s t it u t ion the Indians are in general at the present

time subj ect to many disorders common to the

white race This however is more true of the
, ,

mixed bloods than the pure There is little .

su ffering from idiocy or insanity and cretinism , ,

is exceedingly rare paresis being quite unknown

,
.

Venereal diseases not uncommon among the,

degraded are carefully guarded and usually

,

l
avoided by the better in for m e d .

In a list of the destroyers of the aborigines

all but two war and possibly tuberculosis
, , , ,

m ay be said to have come from the white man .

S m all p ox and other epidemics sexual diseases

-
, ,

1 Se e n o t p 15 2 e . .
4 8 INDIAN SOCI OLOGY
whiskey and attendant dissipation starvation ,

and unaccustomed conditions a low vi t ali t y have

, ,

caused a decrease in a once numerous race .

The somewhat appalling sta t e of Indian

mortali t y was s e t for t h in a message from ex
Presid e nt Taft during August of 19 12 a portion ,

“
of which is here quo t ed : Last ye ar ( 19 11) of
over Indians e xamined for disease over ,

16 p e r cent of t hem had trachoma

. s o easily
. .

spread that it threa t e ns both the Indian com

m u n it ie s and t h e ir whi t e neighbours O f the
. . .

Indians e xamin e d 6 8 0 0 had t uberculosis

,
.

The death rate in t h e Indian coun t ry is 3 5 per

thousand as compared with 15 per t housand
,

the average death rate for t h e Unit e d S t a t es a s

a whole No e xact figures are yet available for
.

infant mortali t y among Indians b u t fi e ld studies

,

now being made S how that while proportiona t e ly

more Indian babies t han white babies are born ,

very many more Indian babi e s die F ew Indian

.

homes anywhere have prop e r sani t ary conditions ,

and in many instances the b ad condition of

the ir domestic surroundings is almost beyond
belief.

The dying o ff of the race leads Mooney to

conclude after a careful study of this phase of the
subj ect that there has b e e n a r eduction in t h e
 CHAPTE R IV
TH E P LAIN S IN D IAN S
In t hi s and t h e following chapter brief his
t o r ic a l sketches are given covering two general

divisions of the Indian families of America ,

namely those in the cen t ral or prairie regions

who are known a s the Plains Indians and t hose ,

of the south wes t ern portion of the United

-

States e t hnologically classified a s the Indians

,

of the South west These comprise stocks which

-
.

are to a certain extent separate and distinct .

AS will be observed by a glance at the lin

u is t ic map the singularly unequal geographic
g
distribution of t h e various stocks in no way tends
t o assist the student of ethnology A most .

remarkable gathering of dialects in fact more ,

t han four fi ft h s of the total number is to be

-
,

found among the peoples distributed along the

Pacific coast from Alaska to the peninsula of
Lower Ca l ifornia Opposing this view some of
.

the great families such as the Athapascan ,

Algonquian Shoshonean Siouan and Iroquoian

, ,

extend over vas t areas which include both

CH . Iv
] T HE PLAINS IN DI ANS SI

m ountain and plain and woodland while the ,

E skimauan family borders the whole Arctic

coastal section from Alaska to the Island of
Newfoundland in the extreme nor t h east -
.

The Plains Indians occupying that immense

,

area eastward from the slopes of the Pacific ranges ,

are to be looked upon as in many respects the

representatives of their race though in reality ,

their territory includes if t h e s t ock or family

,

b e considered practically the whole country

,

from the mountains to the Atlantic seaboard .

For the purpose of further subdividing the

subj ec t in this chapter three tribes are t o be
,

considered as typical selected from a like number

,

of families as follows the Cheyenne Algonquian ; ,

the I owa Siouan ; the Pawnee Caddoan E ach

, ,
.

is of prime importance and illustrates in the first ,

and second named at least two of the largest

,

a n d most prominent stocks and comprises with , ,

the S ingle exception of the Iroquoian the most ,

important of all north of the Mexican border .

In asmuch as climatic conditions and environ

m ent have brought about a mode of life in many
respects di fferent from that on the Pacific slope
and in the extreme south the change in cultural
,

habits is therefore equally noticeable F u r t h e r .

m ore it must be s aid that the Indians particularl y ,

5 2 TH E PLAINS I NDIANS
those among whom certain arts or crafts had in
any way advanced were never negative in char
,

acter Their place in t h e history of America is a s

.

clear a s t hat of any of t h e peoples who encroached

from W ithout They were writing in rude char
.

a c t e r s before England had received her Magna

Char t a and unders t ood musical notes in a de

,

gree before the Psalms were chan t ed at Rome .

The s u n moon and stars were worshipped while

,

Egyp t was ye t pondering over the phenomenon

of the Milky Way and their litera t ure legend or
, ,

myth is as old as the Nibelungen Lied

,
.

Thes e fac t s t o be sure must be held wi t hin

, ,

limit There were classes and grades among the

.

aborigines and what is cited above must apply

,

for t h e great part to the more advanced even

among those noted The Indians with whom .

the Europeans first came in contact were superior

in many respec t s to their bre t hren both west and
south and as has already been shown the ethical
, , ,

status had been cultiva t ed to a high degree

among many of the tribes of the north west -
.

The Cheyenne tribe of the great Al gonquian

family is of peculiar interest to the ethnologist
a s an example o f non roving agricultural people -

developed by unusual circumstances within a com ,

a r a t iv e l recent period into a body of nomads

p y , .
 TH E P LA I NS I NDI AN S 53

T hey have passed through such a complete change

of habit and ceremony that their former life is
recalled now only in sacred tradition though ,

fully proven by documentary evidence and u n

mistakable fact Al l that they have to day of
.
-

tribal life with the exception of the Medicine

,

Arrow rite has been obtained during their course

,

of migration and their oldest ceremonies date

b ack no farther than two centuries .

This tribe is widely known and under various

appellations The popular idea tha t their name
.

is derived from the F rench e bie n dog is wholly , ,

erroneous I t was in fact given to them by

.

the Sioux viz : Shahi yena Shai ena or Shai

,
.
-
,
-

ela which interpreted means according to the

, ,
“
missionaries Williamson and Riggs people of ,

a l ien speech the name likewis e being used by

,
”

the Sioux for the C ree Indians of Canada As in .

the case of many other important t ribes they had

their distinctive S ign for the purpose of that form
,
“ ”
of language— a gesture which means cut arms
or cut fingers made by draw i ng the right index
,

finger across the left several times in rapid

succession ; This has also variously been in
“ ”
t e r
p r e t e d as striped arrows and they were,

s o designated b y the C addo Comanche Hidatsa

, ,

an d Shoshoni .
 TH E PLAINS IND IANS
As near as can be definitely ascertained the ,

earliest authen t ic location of the Cheyenne ,

previous to 170 0 seems to have been in what is

,

now south—eastern Minnesota and according to ,

t heir own national t radi t ion still current in the

,

tribe they arrived at this point after wandering

,

ex t ensiv e ly t hrough a cold and desolate country

in the north probably t o be taken as Canada A
,
.
‘

first positive mention of them under the name ,

of Chaa is made by La S alle at the time of a visit

,

made by a party of the tribe to his F ort Cr eve

c oe ur on the Illinois river They came a s they
,
.
,

explained from the head of the great river

,

( Mississippi ) w ith t h e request that the French

should come to their country for furs .

According to an apparently trustworthy tra

dition which is still current among them the ,

Cheyenne preceded the Sioux in their occupation

of t h e Mississippi river region and were found by
the l atter on their arrival The I owa at this time
.

also occupied lower Minnesota directly to the

south and the Oto to the west These facts are
, .

mentioned as corroborative evidence of the early

habitat of the Cheyenne who at a later period , ,

moved to what is known as the C heyenne branch

of the Red river in North Dakota the name ,

for that stream being thus acquired but known

 TH E PLAIN S INDIAN S 55

also to the Sioux as the place where the

”
Shai ena planted
—
From this proof it is de
.

du c e d that the tribe was still an agricultural

people .

The first causes toward an upheaval and

migration were essentia l ly two in number With .

t h e establishment of the English t radi ng posts on

Hudson B ay in 16 6 8 the Cree also of Al gonquian

, ,

stock and the largest tribe then as now in , ,

C anada formed close alliance with the traders

,

and began a policy of pressure and general

ousting of neighbouring bands This interne .

cine warfare was encouraged by both French

and E nglish particularly by the former who
, ,

were advancing westward along the lakes and

northwards toward the upper waters of the
M ississippi In consequence of this pressure it
.

is known that the Sioux and other tribes in the

vicinity were gradually pushed onward toward
the M issouri before the close of the eighteenth
century I n t hi s involuntary migration the
.

C heyenne undoubtedly led being as it would

, ,

seem most remote from other nations and least

,

adept in the manner of coping with the more

advanced methods of warfare .

H ence a second cause Those tribes bordering

.

more on the edges of civilisation came sooner to

5 6 THE PLAIN S IND I AN S
know the value of fir e arms and to adopt them
-

for their own use This unques t ionably hastened

.

the movement of the Cheyenne who had no ,

fir e arms
-
.

As late as 170 0 when Le Sueur built h is

,

trading post on the lower Minnesota he was ,

t old t hat t h e river b e longed to the Io w a O t o ,

and Te t on ( Sioux) and inasmuch as no mention

,

is made of the Cheyenne it would seem probable

that they had already moved S ince the period
of La S alle twenty years before Whether the
,
.

actual migration of this tribe to the region of the

great Plains was due wholly to the efforts of the
Cree in the beginning is a difficult q uestion but
, ,

the fact of their later movement from the Red

river country to the Missouri and thence to the
region of the Black H ills was brought about
entirely by Siouan hostility .

They were met by the explorers Lewis and

Clark first in 18 0 4 and again two years later
, ,

and in their report these travell ers make the

positive s t atement that the tribe at one time
lived on the Cheyenne b ranch of t h e Red river ,

where they had cultivated corn before they were

driven west by the Sioux Thus from an agri .

cultural people they became roving bu ffalo

hunters nomadic in the strict S ense
, .
5 8 TH E PLAINS INDIAN S
the M onsoni an Al gonquian tribe of British
,

America oft en classed as part of the Cree

, ,

though th e re is no separate enumeration of them

in official Canadian reports To t h e west or
.

sou t h west were t h e Sutaio at first t heir enemies

-
,

but later incorporated and to day exis t ing only

-

a s a division of the Cheyenne Living farther to

.

the west t hese las t seem to have been a bu ffalo

tribe as distinguished from t heir neighbours .

To them also belonged what was known a s

“ ”
the Bu ffalo Cap Medicine which with it s
-

sacred ritual and tradition is still preserved and

regarded as second only to t h e S acred Arrows .

One other traditional tribe met the Cheyenne

aft er crossing the Missouri and t hi s was known
, ,
'
according to Mooney as the O w fi q e o Being
, .

hostile t hey were surprised by a superior force

,

of their foe and driven on to the ice bound river-

where being unable to stand or flee they were

, ,

massacred with the exception of one woman

whom the Cheyenne chief took to wife Learning .

the language of her cap t ors she informed him

'
concerning the government of the O w fi q e o and
so impressed those who heard the narration that
under her instructions they set up a chief tipi and ,
“
trimmed and painted a bundle of chief sticks -

on the plan which still continues among t hi s

 TH E PLAIN S INDIAN S 59

tribe T his was according to the records of early

.
,

travellers the beginning of their present council

,

system .

As in the instance of t h e S auk and Fox the ,

C heyenne have for a long period been closely

associated with the Arapaho s o that the com
pound trib al designation has become most
familiar The languages are both Al gonquian
.

though not mutually intelligible In habit .

,

dress and much of the ceremony the tribes

are closely identified but tradition is mute as
,

to when the association was first formed .

M any of those who first penetrated into the

interior of America have made mention of the
Cheyenne though the references are not always
clear Carver for example writes of the Shia n s
.
, ,

in 17 6 8 but confuses them with the Sioux In .

18 0 2 Alexander Henry the younger mentions, ,

the tribe a s having been dri v en from the Red

river country in C anada and in the same year ,

the Frenchman Perrin du Lac met a party of

Cheyenne at the White river who had never
before seen E uropeans Lewis and Clark ( l oc . .

c it ) m e t them two years later for the first time

. ,

and in 18 11 W P H unt en route from St Louis

,
. .
,

t o Astoria soj ourned among them two weeks for

,

the p ur p ose o f bu ying horses .

 TH E PLA INS INDIAN S
This tribe toge t her with the two other s that
,

follow are selected a s typical Plains Indian s

,
.

Th e first in common with the others has passed

, ,

t hrough t h e vicissitudes of life common to the

aborigines G radually they have relinquished

.

t h e ir freehold rights if it can be considered that

,

such existed and year after year with the

,

advance of the white man they have retreated

farther west Th e ir first treaty wi t h the United
.

States w a s in 18 2 5 and others followed in due

course Gradua l ly t hey were pressed from one
.

point to ano t her un t il now the t ribe is on reser

v a t ion s in Montana South Dakota and Oklahoma
,

with a to t al pop u l a t ion of about 3 0 0 0 souls .

Their social organisa t ion is interes t ing and in

many details typical of the Plains t ribes This .

w a s based on the camp circl e under which system

they were divided in t o t e n principal sections ,

each of which occupied a definite position in the

circle and this arrangemen t w a s made especially
,

clear when t hey assembled for the celebration of

som e important function as for example the Sun, , ,

Dance This camp circle like the single tipi

.
, ,

opened toward the east while the order of pro ,

r e s s io n followed the sun that is to from

g s a
y,

the entrance at the east around to south and ,

west hence north and to the place of beginning

, .
 T HE P LAIN S INDI AN S 61

The important divisions were each named and

there were in addition s o called warrior societies -
,

composed usually of from eight to twelve mem

bers Six such societies according to Dorsey
.
, ,

are among t h e Cheyenne known collectively as

, ,
' “
nfi t
q io i e ,warriors
. and
. each is clearly
,
”
d e s ig
mated S ome are of higher standing t han others
.
,

though each is distinct .

During late years the native society organisa

tion of the Cheyenne has been greatly demoralised
by the introduction of what is termed the Omaha
D ance S ociety originating as the name implies
, ,

among the latter tribe Spectacular and free .

from many burdensome features this new dance

has won favour among many of the Plains tribes ,

but has lost much of its early interest .

Guilds or at least what might be termed

,

closer organisations than those called societies ,

are numerous These somewhat select groupings

.

are known among the Indians themselves as

medicine societies They are formed especially to
.

guard the tribal secrets pertaining to healing or

m agic and are under several heads or what may ,

b e defined as departments many of which are ,

now obsolete The most noted of these were

.

known a s the Fire Dance and C ra z y Dance the ,

first having a membership of ten or a do z en

 TH E PLAIN S INDIAN S
persons These fanatics possessed or claimed to
.

possess a vegetable ointment which was applied

to the naked feet after which the members
,

danced over beds of living coals until they had

reduced the mass to Cinders At other times .

they woul d chew burning coals or plunge their

arms into boiling water withou t seeming effect .

According to the missionary Riggs who was for ,

some time among the Cheyenne this last act was ,

carri e d on after having previously deadened the

skin by applications of sheep sorrel ( r u m e x
a c e t os e ll a )

The Crazy Dancers for their part claimed

, ,

knowledge of a certain secret plan t after chewing ,

which they became temporarily insane and

, ,

possessed of superhuman strength While under .

its influence they were able t o throw men about

like children j ump extraordinary distances carry
, ,

weights far beyond those ordinarily wit hi n their

ability and performed many other abnormal acts
, .

Even among the women societies prevailed

for dancing healing and o t her purposes These
, .
,

however were not numerous though until

, ,

recently a sort of woman s union had absolute

’

control of the decorative arts and crafts of the

tribe.

A peculiar rite or s ystem still holds among the

 T HE PLA I N S I ND I AN S 63

younger men of the tribe known in translation as

“ ”
taking a friend .I n this system which is a ,

form of comradeship two young men generally

, ,

members of the s ame warrior society practically ,

adopt each other as brothers being s o recognised

,

thereafter by their own family and relatives as well

as by their friends at large They hold property
.

in common live with one another and this a c t

, ,

of mutual fellowship often continues through life ,

m arriage on either side not a ffecting it and the ,

true relationship is exemplified frequently in

most unusual examples of daring rescues or ,

self denial
-
.

As compared with other Plains tribes the

s hi eld of the C heyenne is crude Every man .

upon becoming a full fl e dg e d warrior is expected

-

to possess such an article for use in battle as

well a s for decorative or heraldic purpose ,
’
displaying in full the owner s special family or ,

military designation This s hi eld is sacred and

.

guarded by means of religious taboo So too .

, ,

formerly was the tipi heraldry applied t o

decorative designs and regulations hereditary
in certain families Neither shield nor heraldry
.

system is as elaborate among them a s among

certain other tribes of this localit y notably t h e ,

Kiowa y et M ooney has shown it to be more

,
64 TH E PLAIN S INDI AN S
recent among the last named who however pre , ,

ceded the Cheyenne both in occupancy of the

Plains region and in the acquisition of the horse .

The religious life of this partic u lar branch of

t h e Algonquian family is less important than

might be supposed and may be said to centre

,

almost wholly about the great ceremonies of t h e

Sacred Arrows and t h e Sun Dance Possessing .

from t he very beginning the four sacred arrows

with the accompanying ritual and tradition t hey
naturally hold t hem in the highest veneration ,

few of the priests or older men even daring

to men t ion them freely or even by name ,

the whole p ast and future of the tribe being

identified with them and their great c u lture hero ,

Mo t s io i f Under no circumstances are wome n

.

allowed to look upon o r even approach the

sacred bun dl e Only on cer t ain occasions as
.
,

for example the wiping of the s t ain of blood

from the people when a Cheyenne h a s been slain
by a tribesman are the arrows exposed to public
,

V iew of the m e n In the former days of war and

.

conquest these arrows were carried on the battle

field and indeed by this method two of the
,

originals were lost to the Pawnee though later

,

replaced in duplicate and they now rest with

,

the tradition keeper and custodian of t h e s a cred

-
 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
manhood in bo t h build and stature and according ,

to the best authori t y rank somewhat above the

average in courage As examples of the native
.

American the tribe may be studied with profit ,

yet even among these Indians the very blood h a s

changed because of intermarriage and incorpora
tion of captives as we ll a s o t her causes On the .

other hand their culture is not in any degree

ancient There is a n e wness abou t everyt hing
.

tha t t hey have with the exc e ption of the Sacred

Arrows cult and they may be said to have com
,

p l et el
y lost their old life and adopted s o much
from other tribes of the Plains that were it not ,

for their Algonquian affinity and the positive

facts known concerning their history it would ,

be di fficult to recognise in these rovers the people

of earth lodges and plan t ers of corn near the head
waters of the Mississippi Even their great
.

cultural rites of to day are new Their scalp cult

-
.

is possibly modern they borrowed the Sun Dance

,

from one tribe and their council system from

another s o also the Omaha and Ghost Dances
, ,

and their warrior organisation to mention but ,

one form is of recent development T he custom s

, .

among them that exist at present differ fro m

those of even ten years S inc e .

The second trib e t o be described and on e of

 T H E PLA I N S I NDIANS 67

no less importance a s distinctive of the Great

P rairie Region is the Iowa of the great Siouan
,

family These Indians have been included by

.

Dorsey b oth ethnographically and linguistically

, ,

with the Oto and Missouri tribes thus forming ,

“ ”
the s o called Chiwere group ; a term when
-

“
literally translated meaning belonging to this
“ ”
place, or the home people The real dif .

ference existing between the tribes here noted is

one of dialec t only Traditional evidence proves
.

conclusively that they sprung originally from

that stem which app e ars to have been the parent
stock of certain other south western Siouan -

tribes namely the Winnebago and from direct

, ,

information obtained from their people as late

a s 18 8 3 investigators have ascertained that not
,

only the Iowa M issouri and Oto tribes were

,

from the s ame source but that the Ponca and

O maha could without question be included as
having once formed part of the Winnebago
nation .

From their primal home to the north of the

Great Lakes as tradition has it came the fore
, ,

bears o f this tribe Attracted by the abundanc e

.

of fis h the Winnebago halted on the shores

,

o f Lak e M ic hi gan while the other bands con

,

t in u e d s outh westward eventually coming to the

-
,

— 2
5
68 THE PLAINS INDIANS
Mississippi At t hi s point another division took
.

place and it was here that t h e Iowa separated

from t h e larger group I t was also a t this period
.

that they received the name of P a h o j a or G rey

Snow Wi t hout stopping for any length of time
.
,

after leaving t heir comrades they con t inued down

the general cours e of the Mississippi un t il Rock
river ( in Illinois) w a s r e ached Here a s on o t her
.

occasions in t h e early his t ory of the tribe much ,

must depend on hearsay Certain traditions .

,

however place them farther north and a map

, ,

drawn in 18 4 8 by Waw—non—que s k oon a an - -

,

Iowa Indian shows their movements quite

, .

clearly until that date .

There is a tradition still popular among the

Sioux that when their ances t ors first came to the
,

Falls of St Anthony the Iowa tribe occupied the

,

coun t ry adj acent t o the Minnesota river and that

the Cheyenne occupied terri t ory farther up the
same stream .

On the arrival of Le Sueur in 170 1 for the

purpose of erecting his fort near the mouth of
the Blue E arth river many of the tribe were
,

found and messengers were sent to invite them

to settle in the vicinity of the stockade because ,

of their excellence in farming and general hus

bandry Those dispatched for t his purpose
.
 TH E PLAINS INDIANS 69

found that the Indians had recen t ly moved west

ward toward the Missouri as they wished to be
,

closer to the Omaha who then dwelt in that

region The tribes with whom Le Sueur came
.

in contact informed him tha t the river upon

which he was about to settle belong e d to the
Sioux of the West ( Dakota) the Aya v o is ( Iowa)
, ,

and the O t o c t a t a s (Oto) who lived near by

, .

Prob ably the firs t whi te man to come in actual

contact with the Iowa was P ere Andr é who ,

referred to them in 16 7 6 at which time they ,

were si t uated about two hundred miles west of

Green B ay Wisconsin
,
.

The next reference made by a European seems

to be that of F a t her Ze n o b iu s Membr é in 16 8 0 ,

w h o mentions the Au t h on t o n t a s ( Oto) and the

“
Na dou e s s io u s Ma s k o u t e n s ( Iowa) about 13 0
leagues from the Illinois river in three great
villages built near a river which empties into the
Colbert ( M ississippi) on the west side above t h e
Illinois almost opposite the mouth of the Wis
,

consin .
”
He also seems to loca t e a portion of
the Aiu o v e s ( probably Aiou e s ) to the west of the
M ilwaukee river .

On M arquette s manuscript map which a e com

’

p a n ie d his y ou r n a l 1
,
6 7 3 ,the P a h o u t e t ( Iowa )
are placed o n or near the M issouri river in close
7 0 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
company with the M aha (Omaha) and the Onton
tana (Oto) Thi s is no doubt conj ecture on the
.

part of the cartographer The Sieur de la S alle .

knew of both Oto and Iowa and among his letters ,

is on e referring to F a t her Hennepin dated ,

August 2 2 16 8 2 in which he men t ions them as

, ,

O t o u t a n t a and At ou n a u e a respectively He .

further states that one of his company was

familiar with t h e languages of both these tribes
which however is doubtful
, ,
.

When Le Sueur first supplied these Indians

with fir e arms in 170 0 t hey were located at the
-

extreme headquarters of the Des Moines river ,

t ho u gh from the translation of t hi s explorer s

’

narrative as contained in the Collections of the

,

Wisconsin Historical Society it would seem that ,

“
t his band and t h e Oto removed and established
themselves toward the M issouri river near the ,

M aha .
”
In J e fferys F r e n c h Dom in ion s in N a r t ]:
’

a n d Sou t h A m e r ic a 1 6 0 the Iowa are located on

7 , ,
°
the Mississippi in latitude 4 3 Singularly
enough his map places them on the east S ide of
the Missouri west of the sources of the Des
,

Moines river and above the Oto who were on ,

the west side of the M issouri and below t h e

Omaha According to Lewis and Clark as given
.
,

in Cou e s edition of 18 9 3 the villages of t h e

’
,
 TH E P LA I NS I NDIANS 7 1

“
I owa consisted of 3 0 0 men o n the river Des . .

”
M oines The map by Waw non que Sk o on a
. - - - -
,

as included in Schoolcraft s great work gives the ’

,

final stopping place of the tribe at a point near

the j unction of the Wolf and Missouri rivers ,

within the limits of the present State of Nebraska .

S ome authorities give their ultimate location as

being in two vi l lages one on the Platte and ,

another on the Great Nemaha river from which ,

places they conducted tra ffic with the traders

from St Louis dea l ing principa l ly in beaver
, ,

otter racoon deer and bear skins

, , .

They also appear to have been cultivators of

the soil to some ex t ent even at this early date , ,

and it is recorded that Le Sueur made e fforts to

have t hem locate near hi s Fort l H u ill ie r as they ’

“
were industrious and accustomed to cultivate
”
the earth In addition to corn they grew beans
.
,
“
and the explorer Pike says t hey cultivated corn
but not proportionately a s much as did the S auks
”
and Foxes This writer also S tates that they
.

were less civilised than the latter .

At a much earlier date P ere Andr é writes

that while their village w a s a large one they were
,

p oor as a tribe their greatest wealth,

being in
”
o x hides and
- red calumets indicating thereby ,

that the I owa early traded in the manufactured

7 2 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
catlinite pipes In many customs that prevailed
1
.

among the Iowa it has been found that they

differed but li t t le from cognate tribes In their .

visi t ing and marriage r e la t ions they were not u n

like t h e Omaha and o t hers closely allied among
t h e Dako t a Th e camp circl e was divided into
.

half circles and occupied by t w o phratries of four

-

gent e s e ach The firs t phratry regulated the hunt

.

and o t h e r a ffairs p e rtaining to the tribe durin g the

au t umn and winter Throughout the other parts
.

of the year t h e lead was taken by the other phra t ry .

In a general way however the Iowa social insti

, ,

t u t io n diff e rs b u t slightly from others of the Siouan

stock Children a r e managed similarly to those

.

of neighbouring tribes F ormerly murder was .

punished wi t h death by the nearest of kin or by

some friend of t h e murdered person Occasion .

ally presen t s were made t o the avengers of the

murder in consequence of which the crime was
,

condoned .

Like many other M ississippi Vall e y tribes the

Iowa are not to any great extent associated with
the tumuli of America Wi t h the exception of .

some few mounds in Wapello county I owa at a , ,

point near I ow a v ill e the site of an early trading

,

post there is little evidence that the Iowa were

,

1
S ot p 15 2 ee n e . .
74 TH E PLAINS IND I ANS
a circle I n the centre were placed three or four
.

moccasins under one of which the players in turn

,

tried to conceal some small article such as a nut

or a stone The opponents chose what appeared
.

to be the lucky covering and if successful took the

stakes The game according to this writer a p
.
, ,

e a r e d simple and almost foolish yet he professes

p ,

to have seen it played for hours without inter

mission and in p e rfect musical rhythm and states ,
“
that it forms one of t h e principal gambling
”
games of these gambling people .

Among the Omaha Ponca Oto and Iowa the , ,

'
game of Arrow ( Ma m q e ) was most common
n
.

Thi s however was more of a religious game and ,

is now practically obsolete since the introduction

of fir e arms Arrows were shot up into trees
-
.

until they lodged in the branches The players .

then tried to dislodge the m and whoever brought

down the first won There were no sides or
, .

opposing parties .

Probably the most exciting and in many

respects the most important game among the
tribes of t h e Plains is that of B all playing or -

Racket This is distinctly a man s game a s

.
’

opposed to double ball and some other forms

-

commonly played by women though it may be ,

remarked the Racket is occasional ly played

 TH E PLAINS INDIANS 75

among the S antee Sioux by b oth sexes together .

T hi s game has b een divided into two principal

classes that of the single and that of the double
,

racket or b at ; the latter is more especially

peculi ar to the southern tribes The racket may .

b e l ikewise termed a throwing stick as it is used

to pick up and throw the ball rather than for the
purpose of h itting The ba l l is either of wood or
.

of buckskin stuffed with hair and t h e usual si z e

,

is ab out two and one half inches in diameter

-
.

Various kinds of rackets are used by the players ,

some preferring long and some short handles .

Among the Oto of Oklahoma one measured w a s ,

forty inches in length .

C atlin gives an excellent description of this

game among the Iowa His details concerning
.

the goals and byes and various points connected

with the different features of the game make his
S ketch one of the most complete available .

As among all tribes east and west north and ,

south the I owa were devoted to their numerous

,

dances many of which were of the highest im

, ‘

portance M ention is made here only of several

.

of the more common or necessary ones as the ,

subj ect is one which if treated fully would

, ,

occupy a volume in itself .

The peculiar dance known as t h e Welcome

7 6 THE PLAINS INDIAN S
Dance is given in honour of one or more s t rangers
whom the t ribe may decide to welc ome to their
vill age Th e musicians as well as S pectators out
. ,

of due resp e ct a ll rise t o their feet wh ile it is

'

being performed The song whi ch accomp a nies

.

it is at first one of lament but ends in a gay and

lively mann e r .

The War Dance is usually the most exciting a s

well as t h e long e st and most tiresome of a ll the
dances As a rule it is divided into t hr ee parts
.

follows the Warriors Dance Eh —Ros K a

’
: ( )
— -
as a

— given generally after a par t y had returned from

war bo t h as a boast as wel l as an amusement .

The song used at this time entitled War Song or ,

Wa Sis s ic a appeared to be ad dr essed to the body

-
,

of an enemy from the name Eh Ros K a meaning

,
— —
,

tribe war party or body

, .

The most spirited part of this greatest of all

dances was called ( 6) the Approaching Dance ,

in which the dancers by their gestures exh ibited

the methods of advancing on an enemy The .

song in this portion is also similar to that above

mentioned .

H a Kon E Crase or the E agle Dance ( c) more

- - -
, ,
“
familiarly known as the soaring eagle forms ,
”

the t hird and most pleasing part of the War Dance

and is in ever y respect an extremely interesting
 1 TH E P LAINS INDI AN S 77

spectacle E ach dancer imagines hi mself a bird

.

on t he wing and as they d ance forward from

,

b ehind the musicians they take the position of

an eagle headed against the wind and about to
s w oo
p down on some unsuspecting prey They .

have a strange method of singing and whistling

at the s ame time .

The Calumet Dance the B all play Dance the

,
-
,

S calp Dance the B u ffalo Dance and the B ear

,

D ance are all important but vary very slightly

from those executed for similar purposes among
other tribes of the s ame family What has been .

s aid about the dances applies with equal force to

the songs and music The War S ong Death .
,

S ong Wolf Song M edicine S ong Bread S ong and

, , ,

Farewell S ong are a ll of much significance indeed ,

s o much s o that a large amount of space could

well b e devoted to this subj ect as to that of the

dances .

I n 18 3 6 the I owa were assigned a reservation

in north eastern Kansas having two years
-
,

previous ceded all their lands in M issouri A .

p ortion of the trib e later moved to another tract

in Oklahoma allotted to them in severalty in
18 9 0 the surplus acreage being opened to settle
,

ment b y the whites .

P rominent ethnograp hi call y and of equal

7 8 TH E PLAINS INDI AN S
interest being in many respects a typical Plains
,

tribe is the third to be mentioned in some detail

, ,

viz t h e Pawnee or Pani the word according to

.
, ,

Hale being the same though of di fferent ortho

,

graphy Thi s is a Confederacy of the Caddoan

.

family Their nam e is derived from the word

.

p a r ile i
’

meaning
,
horn s o designated because of
,

the peculiar me t hod en t irely t heir own of

. ,

dressing t h e scalp lock t h e hair being sti ffened

-
,

with various substances such as fat and paint

and thus made to s t and erect or with a curve
after the fashion of a horn .

This conclusion a s to the name however is , ,

real ly one of conj ecture rather than positive fact .

B oth Pani and Pawnee are terms applied quite

broadly to Indian slaves and it was a practice ,

among both the F rench and English during the

early periods of contact with the Indians to
obtain from friendly tribes such captives a s were
taken in war and sell them among the white
settlers as menials t hi s tra ffic being recognised
,

in Canada as late as 170 9 and s o recorded in

Charlevoix Hence the theory put forward that
.

because of the part taken in such trade the

Pawnee becam e thus S pecifically named They .

“
ca l led themselv e s Ch a hik s ic h a hik s men of ,

men .
 TH E P LA I NS INDIANS 79

T heir earliest history or more properly the

,

earliest historic men t ion of the tribe is that made

in 15 4 1 when they were described to Coronado
,
”
by the Turk presumed to have been a Pawnee
, ,

who directed the adventurer to the province of

Q uivira famous at the time for its fabulous
,

“
riches De Soto too writes of the Apane or
.
, ,
”

“
Q uipana at the same period though whether
”
, ,

these Indians were the true Pawnee or not will

remain doubtful Tonti La Harpe and other
.
,

French travellers mention their locality but ,

there is no proof that white men were among

them before the latter half of the eighteenth
century Nevertheless they were known to
.

settlers in the district of what is now New M exico ,

fully one hundred years earlier .

Grinnell believes the Caddoan stock to have

been originally in the south west probably as -
,

far a s the S hores of the Gulf of California and ,

their later history proves that they migrated in

a north easterly direction They were the last t o
- .

follow in the tide of wanderers from that section

an d their action w a s not a s a compact body but
slowl y and in groups without rapid progress and
,

covering long periods of time Tradition among .

the tribe tells of how the y finally acquired the

territor y loc a t e d for the most part in the valle y
 TH E PLAINS INDI AN S
of the river Platte Though this was not without
.

conquest yet no mention is made of the con

,

tending parties who may have been members of

the Shoshonean or Athapascan families or both ,

as these peoples were trending toward the south

at about the sam e period The Sioux who .
,

were apar t from the Algonquian the only other

, ,

important family in those parts tell of finding ,

t h e Pawnee on their arrival .

A curious fact may be referred to concerning

the geograp hi c arrang e ment of t h e four most
prominent Paw nee tribes from which a hint a s
,

to the cause of the nor t h easterly movement may

-

be gleaned The pec ul iar manner of grouping is

.

always observed : the Skidi chose the north—west

and were known a s the upper villages ; the ”

Pitahauerat were opposed to the first named i e ,

. .

“ ”
always down stream ; the Kitkehahki were
“ ”
up stream while the Chaui were in the mid dl e
,

or between the two last mentioned For how .

long a period they resided in the valley of the

Platte there is no definite knowledge but it was ,

a s u fli c ie n t time to give new terms to east and

west a s applied to the eastwardly flowing river .

Because of the remoteness of this tribe from

the country early contested by the French and
Spanish during the later seventeenth and e a rl y
,
 TH E PLAINS INDI AN S
Treaties between the Pawnee and the Ameri
can Governmen t have been numerous extending ,

from the first in 18 18 unt il 18 5 7 In 18 76 t h e v .

removed to Oklahoma and the ir his t ory since

t hat time has been tha t of common reservation

life which is to s a y t h e ab andonment of ancient

, ,

custom Since 18 9 2 when t hey t ook their lands

.
,

in severalt y they have become citi z ens of the

,

United S t ates .

Both in the ma t ter of culture and in their

physical mak e u p t h e Pawnee differ b u t li t tle
-

from the Sioux Of a strong physique like their

.

neighbours t heir features are of a somewhat finer

,

cast the lips thinner and the lower part of the

,

face more delica t ely c hi selled In general they .

are mesoc e phalic wi t h some tendency towards

b rachycephaly ( Deniker ) The matter of in
. .

heritance seems to have been in t h e male lin e

and t hey were divided into kins hi p groups dis
t in g u is h a b l e by totems Tribes were likewise .

divided into more or less independent b ands and ,

the leadership among t hese seems to have been

more strongly developed than among surrounding
tribes .

Traditions tell of a time when a woman was

their chief Within the period of recorded
.

history however this offi ce h a s been hereditary

, ,
 T H E PLAINS I NDIANS 83

in the male line and the power of the leader seems

to have been more absolute than was usual .

To an extent somewhat greater than common

the Pawnee engaged in agriculture Individual
.

families planted and c ul tivated and cr 0 ps of

pumpkins beans squashes and corn were gener
, ,

ally abundant Corn was considered sacred

.
,
“
being termed mother and religious ceremonies
,

attended the planting hoeing and harvesting

, .

The organisa t ion among the tribes was based

on vi l lage communi t ies representing subdivisions .

E ach had its name and shrine containing the

s acred obj ects and priests who had these in
,

charge These men also had charge of the

.

rituals and ceremonies though all authority

,

connected with social matters w a s relegated to

the head chiefs who were expected to give freely ,

an d who were usually surrounded by numerous

dependents Such chiefs had their own heralds
.

who proclaimed orders or other matters of

interest to the tribes .

The potent factors holding the tribe together

were two : Ceremonies pertaining to the common
cult in which each village had its share and the
,

tribal council composed of chiefs of t h e v a r io u s

,

villages S o too was the C onfederacy united

. ,

the great council being com p osed of the councils

84 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
of the tribes In such meetings strict r u les o f
.

decorum and precedence were observed none ,

being entitled to a voice except they have the

right to a seat though a few of the privileged men
,

were often permitted a s S pectators This council

.

determined all matters pertaining to tribal

welfare or that of the Confederacy .

Religion among t h e Pawnee while di ffering

,

but slight ly from t hat of the Sio u x in ceremony ,

seems to have been of a somewhat more elaborate

character and t o it much more time was given
bo t h by individual and tribe a s a whole A study .

of the subj ect reveals the fact that the dominant

features were to be found in the heavenly bodies
and the cosmic forces c hief among which was
,
“
Tir a w a or At iu s Tir a w a known as father or
, ,
”

S pirit
.
”
The elements as wind rain thunder , ,

and lightning were hi s messengers wh ile am o ng ,

the Skidi t h e morning and evening stars were

masculine and feminine represen t atives connected
with living forms on ear t h For example cere
.
,

monies concerning the bringing o f primal life

and t h e continual increase thereof began with
the first thunder of spring ending with human
,

sacrifice at the period of the summer solstice ,

though the series of formal ceremonies did not

c ease until the harvesting of the mother corn in
 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
cases of aggressive action and were in
structed by some individual of the tribe In .

case of defence however the warriors fought

, ,

under their chief or some recognised leader .

The hunting of the bu ffalo on the other hand

, ,

was a tribal matter and parties for this purpose

,

were led by o ffi cially appointed o ffi cers who

maintained law and order and supervised the
proper distribution of meat whereby each fam ily
received its proper S hare Possibly no animal of
.

the Plains meant so much to the Pawnee a s did

this one It clo t hed a s well a s fed him and
.

furthermore was sacred ; the hide both kept hi m

warm a s clothes and housed him as a tipi a n d ,

though not receiving an e qual reverence with the

mother corn it w a s yet more highly respected .

The skull typifyi ng force and power surmounted

, ,

many a lodge and the bu ffalo of mythology

,

was a peculiarly potent medicine .

The artifacts of the t u be were confined mostly

to certain forms of po t tery basketry and weaving
, .

Houses of the more substantial kind were of earth ,

their construction usually being accompanied by

forms of religious ceremony one peculiar feature
,

of whi ch was the anointing of the dwelling po sts ,

performed by a family upon returning to their

home after a protracted absence .
 TH E PLAINS INDIAN S 87

T he custom of S having the head prevailed

among the men The tonsure extended over the
.

whole skull except for a narrow ridge from t h e

forehead to the scalp lock the hair remaining
-
,

in an erect position like a horn a s previously

described A scarf was occasionally tied about
.

the head in the manner of a turban .

Al t hough tattooing was practised but little ,

the beard and eyebrows were plucked The .

dress among the men consisted of a breech cloth

—

and moccasins ; women generally wore a sleeve

less leather gown termina t ing j ust below the
,

knees and belted at t h e waist From the waist .

hung small chains or leather thongs attached

to which were the knife sewing bag and often
,
’
the fire steel The women s moccasins were
.

b eaded or plain according to Circumstances .

Leggings were worn and robes used by both

sexes in cold weather or on gala occasions Face .

p ainting was common .

’
After marriage a man lived with his w ife s
family and polygamy was not uncommon In .

every instance however desc ent was traced

through the mother .

T his important Plains tribe has dwindled

greatly since the coming of the white man Their .

historiographers a s well a s missionaries M essrs ,

88 TH E PLAINS INDIANS
Allis and Dunbar estimated their number at no
,

less than ten thousand souls in 18 3 8 a report which

,

w a s generall y subst antiated by other authorities

at about the same date In 18 49 nearly one
.

fourth of the number were swept away by cholera ,

and in t h e official report of s ix years since there

was recorded 6 49 so ul s .

An estimate of the to t al number of Indians

of Caddoan stock is 2 0 0 0 at the present
t Im e .

A general summary of the foregoing chapter

leads to some striking conclusions a s to the in
habitants of the great prairie regions of America .

Some of the more salient fac t s concerning three

representa t ive tribes have been dealt with and
those features considered most important in each
division are meant to serve as a somewhat de
tailed record of t h e life histories and cultural
habits of these three great Indian families selected
from nearly threescore It will be observed that
.

many traits are inherent to the race that the ,

I ndian is indeed far from negative in character ,

and that h is modes of thought vary little though

his habitat may S how extremes and barring , ,

climatic conditions he is an I ndian wherever

,

found The foll owing chapter will S how never

.
,

t h e l e s s certain diffe r e n c e s w hic h while non racial

, , ,
-
9 9 TH E PLAINS INDIAN S
about ninety thousand on e half being in British,
-

America the remainder in the United States

,
.

The larges t of these tribes comprise the Chip

pewa and Cree in Canada .

Second to the Algonquian in si z e and like ,

them in deriving their family from their tribal

name comes t h e Siouan linguistic family The
,
.

m e aning of Sioux taken from t h e F rench Nado

,

w e s s io u x itself a corrup t ion from the Chippewa

, .

Na dow e is iw is snake in t h e broad sense thence

— -
, ,
“ ”
metaphorically enemy The largest and best
.

known tribal Confederacy the Sioux gives the , ,

name t o t h e s t ock They are known qui t e gener

.

all y however as the Dakota Lakota or Nakota

, , , ,

among themselves and the various names by ,

which t h e family tribe and stock have been

,

known from earliest times are numerous .

Their original habitat extended roughl y from

t h e west bank of the Mississippi northerly from

the Arkansas almost t o the Rocky Mountains ,

and cer t ain bands also occupied territory east of

the river first named for a short distance toward
the G reat Lakes To t h e north they reached as
.

far as the present Province of S askatchewan in

the Dominion of Canada A second and in some .

respects a separate group were located in por

tions of North a nd South C arolina and Virginia ,
IV] TH E PLAINS INDIAN S 9 1

while a t hi rd division composed of the Biloxi

w ere as far south as the Gulf of M exico Seven .

distinct sections are noted by Swanton and

T hom as and again according to Powel l t hi rty
, , ,

s ix trib al divisions are enumerated .

According to Deniker who quotes ten Kate , ,

B oas and others the Siouan stock are as a rule

,

t all ( exceeding 1 I n with a c e phalic index of

.

79 8 in living subj ects Compared .with the

I ndians of the western coast their features are
strong wi t h prognathous j aw and prominent
,

nose the heads in no way being deformed and

,

the stock as a whole showing fine examples

physically of the American Indian type .

B ased upon reports of both the Canadian and

United States Indian Offices the total number of
individuals composing this family to day is -

approxim ately
There is S till some doubt among American
ethnologists as to whether the Caddoan linguis t ic
family properly includes the Pawnee Gallatin .
,

one of the foremost investigators and first among

the students of the subj ect in h is day
regarded the two as distinct ; investigation may
prove the contrary Usage a s a family name.
,

however came from a Caddo word or term

,
' ' “ ”
K a ede o r K a do h adéi c h o signifying
’
- chief
,
9 2 TH E PLAINS INDIANS ( CH.IV
according to Ga t s c h e t and Caddo proper or
,
“ ”
real Caddo according to Miss Fletcher .

Geographically they may be referred to a s

the northern middle and southern tribes occupy
, ,

ing a like number of localities the first wholly

,

surrounded by the Siouan family and located in

por t ions of wha t is now Dakota t h e mid dl e
, ,

fa r t her south and in the present States of Nebraska

‘

and Kansas and the southern scattered about the

,

region of the Red river of Louisiana and it s

tributaries in Arkansas and southern Oklahoma .

Physically the Pawnee are not u nl ike the

Sioux Strongly built they have a somewhat
.
,

finer cast of features with thinner lips and more

delicate l in e s in the lower fac e
‘

.
 THE INDI AN S
Within this region with an approximate area
,

of square miles there are represented at

,

the presen t time no less than nine linguistic

stocks and about forty fiv e tribes divided for -

convenience of distinction into Pueblo and non

Pueblo peoples Scattered through t h e whole
.

section are t housands of ruins even now for the ,

most part unclassified Th e se while of extra.

,

ordinary interest to t h e archaeologis t can be ,

touche d upon here only in a cursory manner .

Those of the Pueblo group are in par t com

prised in t h e Keresan Tanoan Shoshonean ( He pi)
, ,

and Zunian families ; the non—Pueblo group

includes t h e Athapascan Piman and Yuman , .

Thus it is seen t hat two the At hapascan and ,

Shoshonean o u t of five of the largest linguistic

,

s t ocks of the continent are represented in this ,

district Why t h e great At hapascan family

.
,

whose original habitat is the extreme north west -

,

should have in par t migrated to the sou t h will

, ,

be explained in wha t follows .

The name Pueblo of Spanish origin meaning

, ,

town or village was first applied by the early

,

conquerors and explorers from Spain who a d

v a n c e d northward out of M exico and has since ,

been retained Not only are the natives of these

.

parts referred to as Pueblo peoples but the ,

 O F TH E SOUTH WEST -
95
“
culture likewise is the pueblo culture and the
“
whole country is known as the pueblo area .
”

Strictly S peaking these tribes as against those ,

known as t h e non Pueblos are confined to a strip

-
,

the eastern extent of which is in south east -

Arizona th ence south by east to the Rio P ecos

,

in New M exico and south from Taos on the Rio

Grande to about El Paso in Texas Originally .
,

as proved by archaeological inves t igation they ,

continued to t h e far south mi ngling with the ,

northern A z tec in Mexico .

The hi s t ory of the first white invasion into

this wonderful region is fraught with unusual
interest Fro m the first the charm of the country
.

attrac t ed t h e adventurer and explorer and follow ,

ing closely upon t hose who entered the field for

glory came the soldiers of fortune lured by
wondrous tales or by the greed for gold The .

Sp aniard Cabeza de Vaca a survivor of the ill

,

fated expedition of N a r v a e z in 15 2 8 had brought ,

the news to Mexico As the result a F ranciscan

.
,

Fray M arcos of Niza travelling northward from

,

M exico City in 15 3 9 came upon the first recorded

,

p eoples the Zuni He was foremost in sighting

,
.

the famed S even Cities of Cibola now identified ,

with the Zuni villages of western New M exico ,

and of these he took formal possession in the

9 6 THE INDIANS
name of Spain H is reports give a wonderful
.
,

though probably somewhat exaggerated account

of this marvellous country .

Thi s account w a s greeted with enthusiasm

among h is comrades farther south and in 15 40
another expedi t ion made under his guidance
result ed in that most memorable j ourney of
Coronado which h a s been described in such
masterly fashion by Wins hi p H is forces were
.

the first t o explore the Hopi villages at Tusayan ,

the Grand Ca h on of the Colorado the vast ,

bu ffalo ranges and the magnificent Rio G rande

Valley but were unfortunate in not attaining
,

the hoped for El Dorado

-
.

The story of this remarkable march reads

more like romance than reality I t is the primal
.

record of Tig u e x of Q uivira and Pecos and of

, ,

the bloody annals of Indian atrocities and Spanish

inhumanity It did result however in the estab
.
, ,

l is h m e n t of Franciscan missions which to day -

survive although active work was not rea l ly

,

begun before the seventeen t h century .

Many other detailed accounts of early visits

by t h e Spaniards to these parts are available .

Three F ranciscans under the escort of Chamuscado

entered the Tigua country in 15 8 1 but were slain
,

soon after Antonio de Espej o left S an B artolome

.
9 8 TH E INDIANS
Th e social organisation is composed of numerous
clans and gentes in each tribe These terms are
.

here used to designate descent in the female

or male line respectively The numbers of clans
.

vary greatly as is shown for example in the pueblo

of Sia which comprises possibly one hundred
,

souls divided amongst sixteen existing clans .

Besides these there were originally twenty one —

additional which are now extinct There is also

.

among t h e Pueblo especial ly the Hopi evidence

, ,

of t h e phratral grouping of these Clans and even

,

fur t her evidence tha t a religious chief or priest

presided over each .

Names of the Clans were mostly taken from

the elements or surrounding natural obj ects as
plants or animals these frequen t ly being s u b
,

divided into seasonal or r e gional groups depend ,

ing general ly on the habits or it may b e said

,

habit of the chosen plant animal obj ect or

, , ,

element ; also to a certain extent on religious

belief .

The status of women among the tribes of this

section is generally higher than among the Plains
I ndians These tribes are also monogamist T ribes
.
.

reckoning descent t h rough the mother assum e

the home to be the property of the woman and ,

t he marriage of a daughter bring s t h e s on in law - -

 OF TH E SOUTH WE ST -
99

to her house Little ceremony is given to the

.

m arital arrangements and divorce is equally

simple it being within the wife s power to
,
’

dismiss her husb and for a trifling cause She .

returns to her parents and is free to marry again .

B ut c ases are not infrequent which exhibit the

utmost constancy the couple remaining for life
,

in perfect accord .

The division of labour among the men and

women is as evenly arranged a s Circumstances
will permit Unlike many of their brethren of a
.

more northern Clime the men among the Pueblo

help in the heavier domestic work Women .

perform all the household duties and often help

in the lighter farm work particularly during
,

times of harvest .

The gardens are also the property of the

women who attend to the cultivation carrying ,

of water etc and it may be added that the

,
.
,

making of pottery is strictly within their sphere .

The offspring in most pueblos at least belongs

, ,

to the clan of the mother ; in the case of a

family separation the c hildren remain with the
mother .

T he government of the pueblos was originally

in the hands of the priesthood Representative
.

s ocieties regulated war and peace witchcraft , ,

— 2
7
 TH E INDIAN S
hunting and other functions pertaining to org ani
sa t ion But on t h e coming of t h e Spaniard these
.

formalities were changed at all events to outward

,

appearanc e by the institution of a sort of elective

,

system es t ablished for the control of civil a ffairs ,

t h e neares t approach to whi ch may be found in

the present Am e rica n form of government with

G overnor and Lieutenant Al dermen and others
, .

Except among the Hopi t hi s system prevails

ev e ryw here to day W hile the religious a ffairs and
-
,

t hose of a ceremonial nature only are contro l led

by t h e priests .

Comparatively little of this cer emonial r e

l ig ion or even mythology has been recorded thu s
, ,

far apar t from Zuni Hopi and Sia Among the fi r s t

, .

nam e d a r e a la rge numb e r of organisations con

sisting of secret orders with func t ions pertaining
to war hunting magic and the like into which
, ,

the religious m ot if enters largely A noticeable .

fact is the use of the cardinal points each of ,

which according to Cus hing represented a

, ,

distinct religion Instances are noted by this

.

wri t er as the Pihl a k w e or Bow Society among

,

t h e Zuni representing the west ; Sh u m e k e w e the

,

east ; Ne w e kw e the upper region ; Chit ol a k we

, ,

the lower region and so on Likewise each

, .

society has it s in dividual rites and cer e monie s ,

 TH E INDIAN S
valleys however b ordering the Gila and S alt
,

rivers the adobe or unburnt brick house of the

,

Mexicans is most common .

B e fore the advent of the Spaniard and c o n s e

quently of the horse or donkey methods of trans
,

por t formed a serious problem among the Pueblo .

Hence the somewhat l imited use of timber which

would have to be brough t from a distance .

Therefore arose a form of architecture brought

about in great part because of circumstances .

Compact in form with many small rooms the

, ,

dwellings were usual ly of several storeys As a .

rule no fixed plan w a s followed in laying out

a vi l lage though the rectangular form with open
, ,

courts seems to be most prevalent additions ,

being made when necessary and these occasionally

influenced as to situation by the direction of t h e
su n
,
t h e result often showing groups of houses

either irregularly oblong circular or semi circular

,
-
,

and even elliptical as to ground plan with many ,

wings and minor proj ections The pueblos of.

early date were built to a large extent on t h e

principle of modern terraces roofs of some of the
,

lower houses for example s u ffi c in g a s a sort of

, ,

promenade or yard in front for the house next

above Another feature of those first built and
.
,

quite unlike the modern structure is the fact ,

V] O F TH E SOUTH W E ST -

that the entrance was usually by ladder to the

second storey or by means of a hatchway or
,

opening in the roof .

I t is doubtful if chimne ys were used before

the coming of the w h ite man Originally fi r e .

places were formed from a S hallow box or by

digging a pit in the middle of the floor the smoke ,

following a natural draught through the hole or

entrance way in the roof as seen to day in some -

“ ”
of the kivas or hot rooms of the Hopi Corner .

fireplaces were a lso in use but dome shaped,

-

ovens shutters or even panelled doors were in

,

t r o du c e d much later .

Pieces of stone plastered with adobe mortar or

the stones alone were used for flooring the walls ,

and ceilings being likewise of plaster similar to

that used on the outside The houses were owned
.

by the women and for the most part constructed

b y them .

Among their arts may be included a good

quality of basketry which if not equal to some
,

wrought by the tribes of Ca l ifor n ia w a s distinctive

,

in itself and excellently woven and generally orna

,

m e n t e d with dyes derived from native substa n ces

n ow for the greater part superseded by the more
ordinary commercial article The skill shown b y
.

the Pueblo in weaving has not been excelled b y

10
4 THE INDIANS
any tribes north of Mexico nor have t hey a s,

potters been surpassed in the nor t hern area Their .

pottery consisted of every known form of utensil ,

fro m the larg e storage and cooking vessels to the

elaborately painted and model led bottles ladles , ,

bowls and platters as well as delicate j ars and

vases Nor should the box shaped receptacles be
.
-

forgotten .

As workers in the soil these peoples especially ,

those of the northern area must be classed more

,

among horticulturists than agriculturists Their .

methods were highl y intensive Irrigation from .

streams or reservoirs assisted them in their small

fields of corn and cot t on the former being the
,

chief crop t hough the cotton was used extensively

,

in their every day clo t hing and traded quite

-

consid e rably among surrounding tribes .

With the introduction of the sheep by

Europeans t h e weaving of na t ive wool became
an industry of importance and it is said that a
,

woman of the Pueblo first brought the art among

“
the Navaho indeed many s o called Navaho
,
-

”
blankets are in reality the product of Hopi
and Zuni looms .

Touc hing their food products again it may be

-

remarked that the Pueblo of the south are given

to a somewhat more elaborate system of tilling the
 THE INDIANS
among the Pueblo of the Rio Grande Va l ley ,

where unless on ceremonial occasions the hair

, ,

is worn in side plaits the band t herefore not

,

being required To day t h e S kin t unics and

.
-

trousers of the men are largely replaced by the

cheap cotton ar t icles of t h e trader Rabbit and .

wild cat skins twisted in strands were formerly

used in cold weather a s bedding or blanke t s but ,

the bright coloured robes of na t ive yarn or wool

a r e now commonly used for both the purpose s

mentioned and w orn on gala occasions

,
.

Ornamenta t ion among the males consisted for

the mos t part of necklaces of ground and dril led
shell and turquoise beads and ear and neck ,

pendants of the same material Among the .

women necklaces pendants bracelets earrings

, , , ,

and fin g e r rings of silver were used The girls

-
.
,

especially among the Hopi wear ear pendants ,

-

made of small tablets ornamented w ith turqu o ise

mosaics B oth copper and G erman silver are at
.

times used for ornamentation but are not very ,

greatly pri z ed among the Pueblo of either s e x .

The art of working in these metals came from

Spanish craftsmen .

The costume of the women to day consists of -

a woollen dress to the knee woven by natives and

,

usually in the form of a blanket the ends being ,

 O F TH E SOUTH WE ST -
19 7

sewn together and worn over the right and under

the left shoulder Thi s is belted at the waist
.

wit h a long woven coloured sash fringed and

, ,

tucked in In addition a shirt of cotton extends

.

to the knees Leggings are worn out of doors

.

and consist of an entire deer skin wound con

t in u o u s l
y from the knee to the ankle and forming
a p art of the moccasin These are not dyed as .

with the men For indoor use leggings of knitted

.

y arn are used .

Added to t hi s app arel the women wear a light

weight cotton m antle and in cold weather the
,

customary blanket in the form of a S hawl The .

“ ”
ceremonial blanket embroidered knotted and
, ,

fringed and made of white cotton is a most

, ,

valued possession .

Among the m arried women the hair is cut into

a slight fringe in front carefully parted in the ,

middle and gathered in two huge coils behind the

ears Girls on reaching the marriageable age have
.

the hair arranged in two large whorls on each side

of the head representing among the Hopi squash
,

blossoms ; these are symbols of fertility Among .

certain tribes however the women of the Pueblo

, ,

do not wear a fringe though the h air is parted

,

in the middle and worn in a braid on each side .

At a former perio d hunting was indulged in

 TH E INDIANS
among these tribes though t o no grea t extent .

Deer antelope and mountain lion a s well as bear

,
‘

were the game sought and the eastern tribes

,

followed the bu ffalo on t h e plains A few skilled .

hunters are to be found to day but a t present-

,

rabbits seem to be t h e staple among mammals .

These are followed with s t icks or trapped a s are

other small game and birds including eagles the
, ,

latter being e specially pri z ed for the feathers .

F ish and certain animals are strictly tabooed as

food Records prove that at one t ime large
.

flocks of turkeys were kept much as sheep and

goats are at presen t They are still occasionally
.

to be found domesticated as are eagles for their ,

plumage Dogs are plentiful but n o t used a s

.

among other tribes for beasts of burden Horses .

came with the white man also the horned cattle

,
'

and sheep A S pecies of l a r g e a n im a l not unlike

.

the llama in appearance has be e n noted in pieto

graphs and figurines discovered in southern
Ari z ona These were evidently herded by me n
.

using the bolas thus disproving statements that

,

this weapon was only used by the S outh Ameri

ca ns a n d Eskimo .

Statistics relating to the population of the

P ueblo are not satisfactory External evidence .

shows that little variation as to numbers has

 THE INDIANS
houses comprised w ithin the compact vill ages of
the Pueblo there is to be found little or in some
,

instances no village life whatever Rude and .

,

often but temporary shelters are sca t tered about

,

the country families of different tribes being

,

found in one part or another the dwell ings at

,

best being mere shacks in summer and hardly

more durable or desirabl e in the winter season .

Again agriculture while practised is by no

, , ,

means brought to the art it is among the Pueblo .

The making of baskets has been highl y developed ,

yet on the other hand the arts in general are in

scant evidence and the women make but little
pottery E ven the garments undergo a change
.

among these tribes who wear at present instead ,

of woven garments oft en of beautiful texture ,

buckskin which in turn has been substituted for

a scanty costume of shredded bark .

Furthermore a difference occurs in the

,

religion There is still a seriousness but the

.

incentive is more properly the medicine man -

soothsayer than the priest and there is a notice

able lack of such accompanying ceremony as
exists among the more sedentary tribes .

For the most part the habitat of the non

P ueblo to be described below is directly to the
west of the tribes first treated I nasmuch as the
.
 OF T HE SOUTH WEST -

south west
-
m ay include a larg e part of
Ca l ifornia and extend to the Pacific it is well ,

to define somewhat the area if it be but roughly

, ,

of the tribes noted though none of them actually

,

belonged to or are situate to day in any part of

-

C alifornian territory .

Were it possible to give even the remotest

idea a s to the cause of the sep aration of the
Navaho and Apache from their parent stock the
Athap ascan of north eastern Canada a story
-
,

long sought and well worth recounting would be

eagerly read by all students of American eth
n ol o Linguistics prove the relationship The
gy
. .

migration from the district of the Macken z ie river

and northern shores of the Great Lakes to the
arid country of the south must have been made
under conditions more or less strenu ous though ,

it would appear that neither tribe su ffered to any

great extent in the southerly flight On the .

contrary for centuries the warlike desperadoes

,

have been a menace and trial to the more peaceful

tribes occupying adj acent parts and the story
o f the Ap ache is one of continued strife and

depredation T heir record therefore will be

.
, ,

first n arrated .

S o m an y tribal groups are to be found among

these I ndians that it is often di fficult to determin e
 TH E INDIANS
which a r e being referred to by various writers .

The early forays and conquests of the Apache

assisted largely in absorbing a considerable out
side element notably Piman Yuman and Spanish
, ,

stock despi t e the fac t that intermarriage in this

,

way broke clan ties .

Among the divisions more commonly accepted

may be in c l tide d the Coyoteros consisting of the ,

White Moun t ain and Pinal groups ; the Q uere

chos among whom were the Mescaleros J icarillas
, , ,

F araones Llaneros and no doubt the Lipan ;

,

C hiricahua ; Pinalenos ; Arivaipa ; Gila Apache

embracing the G ilenos Mimbrenos Mog oll o n e s ;
, ,

and the Tontos As late a s 190 3 these divisions

.

were rearranged somewhat under official care , .

There are probably 6 0 0 0 of the tribe surviving

to day on various reservations or under charge
—

of agents .

The name Apache is undoubtedly of Zuni

origin and from the word a p a c b u meaning ’

“ ”
enemy . The tribes collectively referred to
under this name form the most southerly group
of the Athapascan family and speak of themselves
as the N de D in e Tinne Tinde or Inde meaning
’
, , , ,
“ ”
people and this they have in common with the
,

great northern family from which they sprung .

All evidenc e seems to p rove that those of t h e

11
4 TH E INDIANS
industries among them on their reservation of
acres There are t hree bands each with
.

its chief under a head c hi ef chosen by j oint

vote All Indians are gamblers more or less but
.
,

these people are inveterate ; gaming princip al ly

with cards or by pitc hing quoits though playing ,

the latter game in a manner peculiarly their own .

Wi t h the J icarilla a s wi t h other Apache the

“ ”
favourite drink is t is vvin made from fermented
corn and used in large quantities B oth men .

and women smoke incessantly .

It is said t hat among these Indians as with

the southern Ute of Colorado secret disposal of ,

the dead is common A wealthy man or chief

.

may practise polygamy A c hild at birth is

.

given the name of some important event happen

ing at the t ime and this name is known on l v to
itself and its parents until the time of marrying ,

on which occasion the second party to the con

tract also shares the secret The performance of
.

marriage as with many other south western tribes -

is somewhat lightly considered Son in —law and .

-

mother in law never speak

- -
.

In eating pork is strictly tabooed Witch

, .

craft is still to be found among them medicine ,

men being resorted to in illness There are few .

dances among the band their principal o n e ,

 OF THE SOUTH WE ST -
115

occurring in the spring The usual habitation .

1s a tent .

Passing further to the west are to be found

the Whi te M ountain and S an Carlos bands in
Ari z ona and more centrally located in New
,

M exico the Mescalero the latter numbering

, ,

about 4 5 0 on a reservation containing

acres of w h ich but a comparatively small part
is adapted to cultivation M ountains stern in .

their ruggedness or thickly covered with cedar

and pine fir and oak abound throughout the
, ,

whole section and it is in the intervening valleys

,

fed by springs and with numerous flowing streams

that the land lends itself to pasture and where
are to be found in abundance deer antelope and ,

wild turkey While the M escalero own horses

.

and cattle little attention is paid to farming

, ,

and their main revenue is derived from the

m anufacture of willow baskets whi ch are sold to
collectors or traded with the Mexicans in large
numbers Two clans each with its c hi ef prevail
.
, ,

in the tribe C eremonial dances are held fr e

.

’
quently some of four days duration but among
, ,

this b and the medicine man has lost his hold - .

At death all personal property belonging to the

deceased is burned With rude aboriginal ideas
.

concerning religion there now exists among them

8— 2
 THE INDIANS
much outside formality whi ch has been incor
or a t e d especially tha t from M exican sources
p ,
.

Though origina l ly a most intractable people the

Mescalero have at last come to realise the in
evitable necessity of submission .

The Arizona Apache situate at t hi s time upon

,

the White Mountain and San Carlos Reser vations

in tha t State are more numerous and in many
,

respects better known than their neighbours .

Thi s reserva t ion containing ,

acres , is
ninety fiv e miles in length from north to south
-

and seventy miles wide In the north central.

-

section t h e S alt river drains the adj oining parts

with numerous tribu t aries emptying in t o the Gila ,
‘

m a n y o f which are fed by the mel t ing snows of

the surrounding mountain ranges The banks .

of these streams when irrigated produce abun

da n t l y . Numerous b ands are to be found e n
camped along such wate rways where trout are
usually plen t iful and there is little difli c u l t y in
,

procuring deer bear and wild turkey Petty

, .

chiefs rule the camps and there are altogether

about 4 5 0 0 Indians included in the Agency .

As distinguished from his brethren of the race

the Apache has been looked upon as exceptionall y
ferocious This unenviable reputation might b e
.

'

modified somewhat and it should be said t h a t t h e

,
I 18 TH E INDIANS
either Mohave or Navaho for the reason that t h e
,

latter may be better known a s a whole and from

the fact that less detail e d information is available
regarding the Apache than the other two tribes .

We shall therefore d e al in what follows wi t h the

subj ect in order from bir t h to death thus giving
,

a rough idea of the charac t er of this branch of

t h e south western aborigines
-
.

Very shortly after birth the Apache infant is

put into its crud e ly fas hi on e d cradle an article
,

made for the most p a rt of slats or thin strips of

board having a hood or covering of the same
though lighter material Once placed in t his
.

cradle custom has it that none other shall at any

,

time be occupied Chi ldhood in its numerous

.

phases differs but little here from childhood else

where .

Any young man endowed with proper natural

gifts may enter the ranks of t h e medicine men -
,

among whom there seem to exist no fixed

doctrines or tenets One exception a s to living
.
,

however must be followed ; they partake of no

,

intoxicants Individuals follow their own in

.

c l in a t ion s and invent such symbols among

themselves as are apparently most needed or
are most eminently successful .

Among both men and women the custom of

 OF T H E SOUTH WEST -
11
9

tattooing is not infrequent The forehead and

.

often the chin are covered generally with designs

,

of geometric shape and usually dark blue in

colour I t is not uncommon to trace t h e upper
.

design as far downward a s the tip of t h e nose .

In dress this branch of the non Pueblos differs

-

somewhat from the other tribes and especially

in respect of the moccasins which have a hard sole
with an upward curve at the toe being so made
,

for protection against the cacti and thorns of t h e

region Occasionally moccasins of the better
.

quality are made with long uppers reaching in

some instances to the thigh and thereby protect
ing the leg like a boot The common variety has
.

three or four folds of material bound abo u t the

lower leg and extending to the knee B oth kinds .

have hard usage ; hence as the lower part becomes

worn it is gradually brought down until oft e n
the new moc casin which reached the thigh ends
by barely covering the ankle Decoration of this
.

article either by painting or the u s e of beads is

not common Those found thus gaudily arrayed
.

are usually for the purpose of trade or sale .

An interesting article of apparel among the

women and one worn on ceremonial occasions
, ,

is the short buckskin waist or shirt opened both ,

b ack and front at the neck and about the yoke

,
 THE INDIANS
of whi ch beads of several colours are usually
worked in various designs A typical shirt might
.

have below t hese a row or two rows of tin pen

,

dants and on the sides and often extending over

,

the shoulders designs in red flannel heightened a s

to e ffect by an occasional brass button .

Skirts also of buckskin worn by the women , ,

are of considerable weight These are often .

decorated in the same way with tin pendants and

rows of fringe and in some instances painted
,

yellow with ochre Tin pendants are likewise

.

occasionally attached to the bottom of the

fringes .

Necklaces are frequently worn by both men

and women These consist for the most part of
.

many strands of beads hanging loosely on the

,

breast though the flat compact band is not

,

uncommon E arrings of beads and bracelets of

.

the same articles are worn by both sexes ;

others are made of iron copper and brass wire
, .

During later years maidens aspire to wear in

their back hair a leather ornament made some
what in the form of a figure eight and profusely
decorated with large brass buttons Feathers .
,

usually from the eagle were formerly used to

,

a great extent by the men and attached by

buckskin thongs to the hair or the hat During .
 TH E INDIANS
t he int e rstices are first fi l led in w ith crushed
cedar b erries before sealing A few other forms .

a re also to be had .

The important matter of food stuffs must not -

be overlooked Among t h e meats the flesh of

.

the wild turkey and deer is the most common ,

fishing birds being wholly tabooed Corn and .

melons are to be had in varying quantities and

s o are edible acorns sunflower seeds wi l low buds
, , ,

as well as j uniper berries and walnuts Various .

1
other berries beans and mescal are eaten the last
, ,

used in several forms While the flower stock of

.

the mescal is still tender the cabb age portion is

1

cut placed under stone and heated then covered

, ,

w ith bear grease and earth Left thus for a day a

.

pulpy mass is finally secured containing a heavy

syrup ; this portion is highl y esteemed This same .

article crushed wi t h ripe black walnuts diluted

with water forms a favourite dish Again the .

more fibrous portions of the mescal are bruised

and preserved in t h e form of cakes and stored
for future use .

M eat with a side dish of squaw berries is

,
-
,

greatly relished .

The bow and arrow stil l obtains as a formidable

weapon among the Apache Bows of from four to .

1
Se e n ot e p 15 3 . .
 OF TH E SOUTH WEST -
113

five feet in length are used with arrows of reed

and a hard wood foreshaft tipped with flint chal , ,

c e do n or obsidian Q uivers made from the skin

y .

of the mountain lion the tail hanging from the

,

bottom a r e common as are also those of deer skin

, .

Thi s weapon together with the S pear and

,

war club is universal A curious method of

-
, .

poisoning the arrows was to place the tip into

the liver of a deer previously bitten by a rattle
snake The war club is reminiscent of early man
.
-

in other parts and consists of a s tone oval in

shap e and cased in raw hide to which the handle
is attached The spear is made of a long wooden
.

’
shaft to which by using the skin of a cow s tail
, ,

an iron blade not unlike a sword or bayonet may

“
b e a ffixed Legend has it that long time ago
.

the Ap ache wore about the waist lariats of horse

hair which were used to excellent e ffect in
,

entangling an enemy .

The houses of these Indians are known as

campos and are oval in shape and as a rule
”
,

are only su ffi cient in height to allow the occupant

to stand erect in the centre The construction .

is simple poles being thrust into the ground and

,

drawn together at the top around which are inter

laced and twisted twigs and grasses When .

obtain able p ieces of canvas or heav y cloth are

,
12
4 THE INDI AN S
often used as a covering Such are the common
.

forms though a rectangul ar shape is sometimes

,

found Thi s form of dwelling is used throughout

.

the summer or pleasant seasons In winter huts .

or houses made of heavier material are used and

generally in the more wooded sections and away
from the vicinity of fields and streams water ,

being procured from the melting snows .

Wit hin the shelter of the campos are to be

found the various household furnishings few in ,

number a n d s t ored in S a ddle bags used for such

-

purposes then and as packs when on the march .

Blankets and skins used for bedding are folde d

when not needed With large gourds for water
.

and smal ler ones for clippers small circ ul ar stone

,

mortars for preparing paints upper and lower ,

mealing stones for grinding coffee berries etc , ,

and a fire drill the household utensils are p r a c

,

tically complete The fireplace consists of a

.

hole in the centre of the floor the s m oke escaping

,

through an aperture above To gather about the

.

vessels and help themselves at will comprises

the whole ceremony of eating .

In common with all other southern I ndians

and therefore it may be said with the rest of the
race the Apache wherever found is a born
, , ,

gambler Women as well a s men pla y T he

.
.
 THE INDIANS

During 18 5 7 5 8 Lieut J oseph C Ives acting

—
,
. .
,

under G overnment instructions explored the ,

then little known c a fi o n of the great Colorado

-

river of the west I t would appear that he was the

.

first to call particular atten t ion to t h e M ohave ,

coming upon them originally as a few scattered

families in the Cottonwood Valley Lieut Ives . .

remarked at some leng t h on the physique of

these peoples especiall y the at t rac t iveness of
,

their women and since t hat time in the l ight

, ,

of more careful investigation little has been ,

found to refu t e his s t atements .

The term Mohave is derived from hamok ,

“
meaning three and avi mountain The mem
,
.

bers of t h is tribe now numbering about 15 0 0

, ,

athl etic strong and wel l developed comprise

, ,

what was originally t h e most warlike and

populo u s of all the bands of the Yuman family .

According to A L Kroeber who has made a

. .
,

somewhat extended study of them it would ,

appear tha t their tribal organisation is loose ,

“
that there is no full gentile system but some ,

thing closely akin to it which m ay be called

,

either an incipient or decadent clan system .

It is also evident that the chieftainship was

hereditary in the male line A curious c on .

s a n u in e a l feature seem s to be apparent in t h a t

g .
 O F T H E SOUTH —WE ST 12 7 .

certain men and all their ancestors and d e sce u

dants in the male line had one name only for
, ,

all female relatives This custom appears no

.

longer to exist .

Among this tribe tattooing seems to be

univers al ; indeed they are to day famed for -

artistic work of this kind as well a s for the

painting of the body though in the former case
,

the work is confined to b u t small areas on the

S kin Such art as is displayed in native manu
.

facture seems to be limited almost solely to

pottery wherein they show excellent j udgment as
we l l a s patience and taste Their products are
.

crudely decorated and made up for the most part

of b owls dippers and ollas as among the Zuni
,
.

They contrive toy dolls of clay displaying much,

ingenuity the faces being painted and natural

,

hair attached to the head M iniature bead .

necklaces are also used on them The beautiful .

beadwork and decorated bows and arrows that

are offered for sale to day are not to be confused
—

with the handicraf t of an earlier period .

Singularly enough though a river tribe ,

residing now as formerly on both sides of the

C olorado the M ohave constructed no canoes
,
,

resorting to rafts when necessar y or to balsas , ,

a sort of conve y ance made among themselves ,

 THE INDIANS

of reeds or rushes tied in bun dles usuall y if n o t ,

always with more or less approximation to a

boat of cigar shape .

Like the Apache this tribe seems to have

,

had no large settlements and if dwellings of any

,

sort were erected they were usually scattered .

Those used were low and generally of four sides ,

supported by a like number of posts in the centre ,

t h e walls being from two to three feet in height

with a flat roof of brush covered with sand .

G ranaries which were frequent were cyl indrical

, ,

S tructures covered in the same way .

As a whole the Mohave of to day are in -

du s t r iou s and universa l ly generous Shoes and .

head coverings are not common They hav e

-
.

never been classed as hunters their chief staples

.
,

of food being the articles cul tivated such as corn

and melons and some wheat added to which are ,

the pumpkins beans mescal and pih o u nuts

, , ,

fis h being used sparingly Irrigation was not

.

practised and they rel ied on the inundation of

the lowlands for the needed moisture hence a n ,

uncertainty of annual cr 0 ps .

From the foregoing it ma y readily be con

cluded that articles of skin and bone were
infrequent The place of such materials w a s
.

taken b y the use of various vegetable fibres and

 THE INDIANS
desert where the average rainfall is from ten to
,

four t e e n inch e s during t h e shor t seasons the ,

win t e rs long and cold becaus e of the high altitude

and t h e season of cr 0 ps corr e spondingly short ;
where Na t ure hers e lf s e ems to have exhibited
her very vi t als t o t h e view of man .

The might y c a fi on s t i t anic in their massive

,

ness ; the lava beds upheavals of cen t uries

, ,
.

expelled by some might y power illus t rative of

long pent e nergy — t h e s e inspire a sense of awful
-
,

n e ss beyond comparison a s if all modesty had ,

b e en overlooked in t h e gr e at disturbance and

E arth itself had become dismembered in this
vision of chaos .

Here then among these erosions and these

,

tablelands or plateaus live t h e Navaho the , ,

first record of whom is probably that of O fia t e

in 15 9 8 though they are first mentioned under
,

their present name by Zarate—S almeron about

16 2 9
. Missionaries were among them during the
eighteenth century but to no e ffect .

In accordance with the best authorities this

important Athapascan tribe originated some 5 0 0
years since though in reality they have among
,

themselves no positive story of their own

origin I mpressions gained from their legends
.

lead to the belief that the y came first into the

 OF THE SOUTH WEST
-

south west in small groups I f not in families

—
.

Though linguistically classed as A t hapascan their

numb ers include many accessions from various
stocks as Keresan Tanoan Yuman as well a s
, , ,

Shoshonean in consequence of which the Navaho

,

of to day are a most composi t e people Proof of

-
.

undoubted Athapascan affi nity is shown by their

vocabulary in its grammatical structure this ,

b eing both copious and intricate .

Further proof of their mixed origin is shown in

-

the di fficult y experienced in finding a prevailing

type the men varying in S ize from diminutive to
,

above the average height ; having strong features ,

aquiline noses and prognathous chins from which ,

they descend to the more subdued face of the

Pueblo The skulls are brachy or hyp e r b r a c hy
.

cephalic the result of the hard cradl e board used

,

in infancy and in this they approach the Pueblo

,

physically even more than do the Apache It .

m ay further be mentioned that their faces ,

generally S peaking are more hirsute than those

,

of the eastern nations and that on the whole

,

they are in appearance more pleasing and in

t e l l ig e n t than the average native They seem to
.

b e without the common stoical manner even given

'

to j est and j oviality among themselves With .

this the y couple an industr y which is especially

— 2
9
13 2 TH E INDIAN S
commendable According to the late Dr Wash
.

in g t on Mat t hews one of t h e foremost st udents

,

of the tribe t hey are progressiv e e specially as

,

stock rais e rs t hough less given to agricultural

-
,

pursui t s becaus e of the non adaptability of the -

regi on in which t h e y dwell .

Sinc e 18 6 7 t h e y have been prosperous and

undoub t e dly hav e increased larg e ly in numbers ,

a census t ak e n in 190 0 es t ima t ing so u ls .

Th e social organisa t ions of t h e tribe are

interes t ing fi ft y one clan nam e s having been
,
-

recorded t hough t h e pr e sen t number may b e

,

somewhat l e ss t w o being wholly extinct and

,

several o t hers nearly so As among various .

Plains Indians t h e s e clans are in phratry groups

,

of which some au t horities repor t eigh t and others

elev e n On t h e o t her hand there are those who
.

doub t t h e e xis t ence of any well de fi n e d phratry -

syst e m As the form implies descent is in the

.
,

fe male lin e ; the man belongs to his mother s ’

clan and in marrying t akes a woman from with

out Hence the women s social position is hi gh
.
’

and they wi e ld great influence often being ,

possessors of considerable property in their own

right which is n ot alienated by marriage .

Until within the last quarter of a century the

belief w a s current that the Navaho had little in
13
4 THE INDIANS
powders on the floor of the medicine lodge and
known a s dr y p a in t in g s Space precludes writing
.

at length on these subj ec t s but all of this cultus

is of undoubted antiquity .

The a r t of t h e Navaho is famous in at leas t

one particular t hat of weaving Especially are
,
.

they celebra t ed for t heir blankets whi ch on

account of their beau t y and utili t y are much
in demand by the t raders b u t added to these
,

are the b e lts gar t ers and saddl e girths all

, ,

produc t s of t h e simple hand looms which have

r e mained unchanged for generations Legend .

says that at an early period t hi s loom w a s

unknown among them and that its u s e was
taught by t h e Pueblo women brought into the
tribe by capture They claim further to have
.
, ,

dressed first in skins or in mats made of a

vegetable fibre b u t be t hi s as it may none
, ,

of t h e south western tribes equal them at

-

present as weavers The few basket makers

.

among t h e Navaho are descendants of some Ute

or Paiu t e taken as prisoners at an early date .

B ecause of t h e sma l l numbers made very few ,

baskets can be acquired outside the trib e

and among themselves these are used for the
most part for ceremonial purposes Further .

more except for their own use little pottery is

,
'

,
 o r TH E SOUTH W E S T -
13 5

m ade by the tribe though originally they made

,

an exceptionally fine red ware decorated in black ,

with typical designs .

The household utensils are simple Corn is .

still ground by hand on the metate a s are o t her

grains and for ceremonial use they continue to
,

b ake food in the ground and in other aboriginal

ways .

There are silversmiths among the tribe who no

doubt learned their art for the most part from t h e
M exicans and they have adapted certain methods
,

to their own environment The Government .

training schools have wrought many changes

in this art a s indeed in their methods o f
,

cookery s o that to day the manners taught by

,
-

civilis a t ion are to a great extent prevalent ,

except a s concerns weaving .

Among the Navaho the dwelling is termed

the hog an a simple structure t hough erected
,

with much ceremony It varies in style the.

,

usual form being conical and is built of sticks

,

s e t on end and covered with grass branches and ,

twigs and finally wi t h earth the height often ,

being too low to allow a man of ordinary stature

to stand upright It is necessary to bend on
.

entering and the doorway consists of a sort of

p
assage or miniature hall the purpose of,
which
13 9 TH E INDIANS
isnot wholly evident The main room is wi t hout
.

a chimney a hole in t h e roof allowing exit for the

,

smoke Hog ans partly of s t one or of logs laid

.

horizontally are not uncommon and in the ,

summer t h e ordinary lean t o or shed or even -

,

small enclosures of branches are frequen t ly used

as habitations Swe a t houses are numerous as
.
-

among nearly a ll tribes and with t he Navaho ,

consist of small conical hog ans without an

opening at t h e apex as fires are made outside
,

and hot s t ones put within by which means the

temperature is raised .

Medicine lodges are on the contrary hog ans , ,

of considerable size When built in the region of

.

trees t h e roofs are flat but latterly structures ,

of subs t an t ial s t one with windows doors and

, ,

chimneys are replacing the ruder efforts of the

,

past .

The foremost reason for building the some

what flimsy residence so much used until a ,

comparatively recent date was on account of ,

a supersti t ion prevalent then as now concerning

death C ustom bade that the house in which a
.

person had died should be destroyed Such a .

“
place w a s called a c hindi hog an or devil -
,
”

house and could never again b e occupied To

, .

day those living in the more substantial homes

 CHAPTE R VI
IN D IAN M Y TH OLO G Y
Ordinarily a sketch of the mythology of a
,

people should include to a great extent its r e

l ig io n a s well
. Indeed in a large degree primitive
re l igion is mythology and t h e two if considered
,

separa t ely will often be found to origina t e in a

common source On t h e other hand however
.
, ,

a study of myths must not be confounded with

a more simple or more poe t ic element whi ch a s ,

an individual branch has been termed fol k lore

, .

Let us consider therefore that myths for t h e

present purpose among the aborigines of America
exist in an intermediate position between religion ,

science and poetry inasmuch as such a course

,

will help t o explain numerous phenomena whi le

leaving much free to the imagination Wit hi n .

such a range must be included animism the ,

belief in spiritual beings though this is according

,

to many writers widely synonymous with the

religious motive It is more or less diffi cult
.

to write i n telligently on a subj ect s o complex

CH . VI ] INDIAN M YTH OLOGY 13
9

without a word or two of explanation which at

the b est can hardly be called elementary .

I f the North American tribes held to a

definite system of ancestor worship among their ,

mythologies no support has thus far been

found for such a belief An infinite variety of
.

myths is apparent yet after all they may be

,

reduced to a limited number of ideas and fancies ,

explanations of which such as the origin of

,

plants anim als the earth stars and even man

, , , , ,

b ecome to a great extent simple if not childish

and are on the whole founded on the animistic
idea T he substance in most instances remains
.

the s ame though the nature of the country

,

m a y change as we ll as the details and borrowed ,

myths are numerous among all peoples .

For example : the doctrine of the possession

o f immortal life applied to lifeless and mindles s

t hi ngs inanimate in the beginning but endowed

,

by the myth maker may be as common a mode

-
,

of procedure among the D en e of the north as

among the tribes of the coasts surrounding the
Gulf of M exico Hence animism may be selected
.

to express what was considered an essentia l

characteristic of a most complex institution .

T his then rather t han a more potent form of a n

c e s t o r worship supplies the b asis of the m y tholog y
 4
1 0 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY
of the Indian It presumed t heir opinions r e
.

garding the genesis the history and the functions

,

as well as destiny of themselves and their phe

n om e n a and was the first principle of their past
,

and presen t as we ll as t heir future .

As a further example germane to the subj ect

a savag e myth is essentially an account of a
humanised ficti t ious man or woman personifying
some principle of nature or faculty of the mind ,

performing his or her function through the

medium of magic power Whether t his person .

age be one of the elements or a t ree rock river , , ,

or plant it was thought of as being in human

,

form and the possessor of wil l and power either .

for good or evil A god or hero , evil spirit or

.

devil it s action was significant and consideration

,

w a s meted accordingly F or our present interest

.

these myths are threefold in showing first their

use a s concerns the customs and art of the
aborigines second the developmen t of the peoples
,

through such channels and t hi rd a s a literary

,

product and a wonderful story of persons and

things In that order therefore they will b e
.

developed .

The world as known to the Indian w a s not

large His ignorance of all t hi ngs outside the
.

hori z on of his own wanderings aids the s tudent

1 2
4 INDIAN MYTHOLO G Y
as in the beginning Those who came to earth
.

received what was r e quired and what each nature

demanded They were in a t ransformed state
.

what they had previously been in t h e world above .

These creation myths a r e numerous An .

other represents the first men emerging from

the ear t h in the bowels of which they had
,

previously existed until the world above was

discovered by acciden t and t here are many
,

descriptions of this as also of the first theory

, ,

ably presen t ed by students of the subj ect both

in America and elsewhere Yet t his portion of
Indian mythology forms a study in itself t h e ,

details of which are as yet but imperfectly

unders t ood Obviously the Indian stood alone
.

in creating hi s ideas White men were unknown

.

to the myth makers a s were all other men in

-

regions not comprised wit hi n the American hemi

sphere This first cycle as Curtin aptly terms
.
,

those myths referring t o the creation is followed ,

by another devoted more especially to the changes

“
occurring in natural obj ects the phenomen a ,

and processes as observed throughout nature ”

a s he further defines it .

One important point to be brought out and of

more than passing interest before considering the
,

second cycle is the fact that certain areas disclose

,
 INDIAN M YT HOLOGY 43
1

various and distinctive myths or groups of myths .

As might be imagined these to a greater or

,

less extent coincide with the culture areas as

designated on the linguistic map such as the ,

S outh west Plains North west Coast etc Yet

—
, ,
-
,
.

the limits of these myth sections are naturally

-

less easily defined than are the clearly marked

areas of culture certain myth incidents having
,

a much wider scope and some being readily

extended from ocean to ocean or from t h e Gulf
to the Arctic regions It is plain that migration
.

has largely influenced t his condi t ion and if the , ,

spreading of the Athapascan stock be taken a s

an instance it can easily be understood why the
,

P ueblo of New M exico re t ain numerous traditions

with the tribes of northern Canada or the ,

Cheyenne or Chippewa of the Plains have simila r

legends to those of the Cree or the Indians o f
eastern Canada Myths have followed in the
.

wake of migrations or even trade lines and in

this way a wide dispersal can readily be accounted
for Again there are groups among whom the
.

migratory myth is wholly unknown others where ,

it is considered foremost and still others where

,

it is noticed but dimly .

An idea even broader than this may b e

form ul ated if the substance of the myth b e
144 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY
considered but p e r c on tr a the great differenc e
, , ,

between the Eskimo for example and t h e tribe s

, ,

far t her south is doubly apparent though some of

the legends and tales may oft en overlap or inter
twine one wi t h anoth e r Th e Eskimo however
.
, ,

is lacking in animal tal e s and his evident matter

o f fa c t n e s s is most no t iceable when compared
-

with almost any other family .

In it s rela t ion to known myt hologies the

American can be said to b e associated only with
those of nor t h eastern Asia where i ndeed the
-

resemblance is most striking North western.

-

America and t hat part of Asia referred to form

practically one group and t his is the only clear
re la t ionship shown thus far wi t h the outside
world .

Instead of supplying what might be hast ily

considered a clue to the origin not only of the
American Indian but his mythology as well ,

evidence as far as gathered proves that on the ,

'

contrary the Asiatic tribes have been influenced

,

by and have obtained from those of the western

continent the bulk of their fol k stories and not
-

the reverse The influence h a s passed from

.

America to As ia and belongs to a stage of cultur e

whi ch was undoubtedly possessed by the remot e
ancestor s of the Indians of the present time .
1
4 9 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY
products the earth is almost universally regarded
,

wi t h a ffection and call ed Mother She produces

,
.

the many good things so needful to man and

crea t es as well t h e gods to w hom he o ffers wors hip .

On t h e o t her hand this earth is likewise the taker

of life and s h e it is who devours t h e dead e rg o S he ,

is r e gard e d again as wicked and is deb ased .

All t hi ngs t hat na t ur e allowed to grow from ,

t he migh t ies t tree t o t h e mos t insignificant

vege t able or weed were of importance t o t h e
,

savage mind and were p u t in t heir place by

,

som e all powerful wizard ; s o too were the hi l ls

-

and moun t ains S imilarly assigned and unl ike t h e ,

e t b n ic myt hs
,
t his general conception w a s mos t

common The great and all impor t an t principle

.
-

which underlies t h e myt hology of t h e American

Indi an is fundamentally t he same principle which
domina t es other and equal ly important groups
or bodies of mythologies vi z : the principle of
, .

transmigration or change thr ough the exercise of

magic from one condition to another .

Among the Al gonquian and Iroquoian of the

east t h e fi r e dragon myth is both important and
-

of more than ordinary prominence and among the ,

tribes of t h e Iroquois t his dragon is also known

as the light thrower . In reality this is the
personification of the meteor which flying ,
 I NDIAN M YTHOLOGY 14 7

through the s k y among the stars often appeared

against a black background as some fiery serpent
or reptile enveloped in flames F urther they .
,

were believed to fly from one lake to another

and were obliged because of enchantment to
, ,

rem ain in their watery domain else the world

would b e s e t on fire This same myth appears
.

among the Ottawa and Chippewa and the ,

Iroquois and other eastern tribes have also

the Thunder People comprising usually four
myt hi cal beings all of whom are staunch friends
of mankind This important myt h is di fferent
.

in conception throughout the Lake regions and

in the northern Mississippi and Missouri Valleys ,

also on the north west coast of America as

-

far as Alaska where it is represented by the

,

Thunder Bird .

Among the north western I ndians notably

-
,

the Haida Tlingit and Tsims hi an the raven

, ,

plays an important part as a creator according ,

to B oas and this myth later S pread to a consider

,

able extent among the Columbia river peoples ,

gathering and assimilating in it s progress .

C ontinuing eastward a nd within the borders

o f the United States among t h e Ne z Perc és the
,

co y ote takes first place H is r Ol e is an un equal

.

o n e however combining that of hero trickster

, ,

10 — 2
1
4 8 INDIAN MYTHOLOGY
and dupe and his many evolutions are most in
t e r e s t in g to study The coyote possesses magical
.

powers and much cunning and through t h e aid of

supernatural helpers he is often enabled to deliver
h is people from otherwise formidable monsters or ,

to deceive and ou t wit other animals perhaps his

equals or superiors .

In S pite of this he occasionally over reaches

-

himself though he as often t urns t h e t ables and

,

wins in the end I t frequen t ly happens that he is

.

greatly assisted by creatures origina t ed by him

self through his own magic and also through the
power which is his of changing into some other
form As a tricks t er he disguises hi mself and
.

wins wives In the same way he steals food

.

for F ox his friend and as a dupe he makes

, ,

e fi o r t s to imitate the wiles of some other animals .

Whatever his me t hod of procedure he ranks first

and foremos t among this particular tribe as their
hero p a r e xc e ll e n c e .

Passing still farther toward the east the grea

Algonquian family becomes most prominent ,

their chi e f culture hero and benefactor N

b ozh o ( Manabo z ho Ne n a b o z h o) forms the lead
,

character in an extensive cycle of myths ,

which his exploits and numerous adventures

related in detail Until recently t hi
.
15 0 IND IAN M YTHOLOGY [ CH . v1

a few words as to the Indians of the Pla i ns among

whom t h e deluge myth is almost universal .

This generally takes the form of a submerged

earth res t ored the a c t having been performed by
,

beings partly if not wholly human who procure ,

information as to t h e mat e rial world t hrough t h e

e ffor t s of a bird or diving animal Aft er know
.

ledge was ob t ained as to the condition of affairs ,

t h e world became peopled somewhat after the

manner previously described .

Animal tales are common and of course as ,

would seem natural t h e bu ffalo is a favourite

,

character He is seldom encoun t ered in other

.

areas for obvious reasons but on the other hand

,

the beasts of the woodland tribes such as the ,

b e ar b e aver and elk appear frequen t ly among

, ,

the folk of the Plains Migration lege n ds are

.

also common .

The f a scinating t ask of gradually working out

the distribution of myt hs among the American
aborigines is one that now occupies the students
of American fol klore and as this study advances
,

s o will a clearer insight into the prehistoric

culture among the tribes be obtained .
 NOTE S

P a
g e 25 . I n dia n w or ds . I t is diffic u l t to c on vey
t o t he A glo S a x n d c l r d s t din g of t h e
-
on m in a ea u n er an

m ean in g o f t h e s p o k n w or d s f t h A m i e I di o e er ca n n an .

H h s n o w it t n l g g
e a r nd th e d i l c t s fo d f om
an u a e a e a e u n r

c oa s t t o o st m c
y v ya l g ly a ar ar e .

As n in s ta th t wo S n a n c e, I o q ois w d s in e e eca- r u or

t he fi st p r
g ph o n p g 2 5 i
a ra ra sy n yma e , . e .
,
a no
'
fo r d e e d b di iofig w i i
r, an a
r in d ir t e f e
n es t o a u
’
,
a e ec r ren c

su ch n a n im l a d m
a s v
a s x m pl
n s a er e a e
y , a e .

I n t h fi st wo d t hee r e t is o n t h rfi r s t s yll bl acc n e a e .

Th e s p r io r it m a k s t h p c din g v ow l n s l ; t h
u e e e re e e a a e

a p o s t r o ph r e p r s n t s g l o t t l s t op I n t h s o d w o d
e e e a a . e ec n r

th v w e l i h v t h v a l o f i i t h E g l is h b ide t h
e o s a a e e u e n e n ,
e

a p o s t o ph e s b fo r p s t i g g l o t t l s t op
r a e re e re en n a a .

I n t h e n m s o f t h g t s m on g t h I w t ib o f
a e e en e a e o a r e

th S i n f m ily a l s o
e ou a a p g 25 h of t h v w l s
,
on a e ,
ea c e o e

h s t h C on t in t l L t in v l
a e en I t h firs t w o d
a a
“
a u e . n e r a

and i n s l is e d v o w l s o f t his c h t t h t in
"
a re a a ; e a ra c er e c

e a c h o f t h e s v e a l w o d s s t n d s fo r t h
e r so d l in r a e u n c :

E n g l is h c b c b ; t h x in T é xi t a is v oic d s o n d
ur e c — — a e u

c o r r s p o n d in g t o t h
e u n v oic d G r m n c b in a c ht ; e the e e a

v al e x c pt t ha t
o

i h s th
Q i n
Q o t t -
a— cs m a e t 18 ot
a e u e e I n

v oic e d Th w o r d P a g c is p on o c d P g t b t h e
’
— a r un e a a
. e ,

h v in t h e s o n d of t h E n g l is h t l in t b i
u e ) n
c a g .

A s t o t h v a l e o f c a n d c h a s f q e n t ly s d I n
e u re u u e

I n d i a n w or d s t h r ou g h t h e v ol u m e it is q it im p os s ibl e ,
u e
 NOT E S
to iv e an s t a n d a r d r u l e fo r t h e p r on u n c ia t io n , a s in
g y
e a c h in s t a n c e t h e v a l u e m u s t d e p e n d o n t h e a lph a b e t o f

t h e in divid u a l w r it e r .

p .La b r e t
4 2 Th e u s e o f t h e a r e t is c om m on
. . l b
a m on
g eo p pl
e s o f l ow c u t u r e , n o t a t h e n e r oe s of
g l bly
p a r t s of est W Af
r ic a , t h e Es k im o o f t h e r c t ic r e g ion s , A
t he Bo t oc u do o f B r a i , a n d c e r t a in o f t h e n ia n t r i e s zl I d b
of N hA
or t m e r ic a I t c o n s is t s o f a ie c e o f w o o d, s e
. p h ll
or s t o n e v y a r in g in s i e a n d s a e , s o m e t im e s on g a n d z h p l
l h h
c o n ic a , in w ic c a s e it is in s e r t e d in t o t h e li
p a t on e

s ide S
om e t im e s fl a t di s k s a r e u s e d, w ic
. a re ace h h pl d
p f h
in e r o r a t ion s in e it e r t h e u pp l
e r or o w e r li
p .

p 4 7 Ve n e r e a l dis e a s e s Th
. . s m s to be no . ere ee

p s it iv p f t h t s yphilis xis t d for y l g t h o f

o e roo a e e an en

t im e b f t h w h it m
e or e r h d Am r i ( C o l m b i n
e e an ea c e e ca u a

o r p s t C l m b i n p i d) S ig n of t h m l d y e
o -
o u a er o . s e a a ar

l k i g f m t h ol d b i l s f om P r
ac n ro d ot h
e er ur a r e u an er

S o t h Am ric l lit i s a d x m i a t ion o f t h e

u e an oc a e n e a n

sk l t le e m in s o f m
a y t r ib s f om t h M xic n
re a an e r e e a

b d r t o Al s k do s o t r v l t r a s o f t hi
or e a a s ily e n e ea ce s ea

c o m m ni a bl dis s I n s m a s s t h o s t l og ic l
u c e ea e . o e c e e eo a

c o ll t io s
ec xt s iv a n d t h e e x m in t ion s h a v b e e n
n a re e en e a a e

m os t t h o o g h r u .

p 72 Ca t l in it e is k n w n m on g t h I n di a n s n d
. . o a e a

I t is v e y h n d s o m
“
ear ly t a v e ll r s s r d p ip t n
r e a e es o e .
”
r a e

in pp a nc v a yin g fr m a p l e t o d k ddis h
e a ra e, r o a a ar re

ti t an d co
n i ts f fi n g in d ns s
g ill o s s e dim n t
o a e ra e ar a ce u e

w hic h w h n fr s hly q, i d is s s o ft
e t b r di ly
e u a rr e , o as o e ea

ca v d r n d t h is w s fo r m
e ,
a ly d on wit h s t on e k n iv s a er e e

a n d p rim it iv e s t on d ill s I t is o b t in d f o m q ry e r . a e r a u a r

in s ou t h w s t Min n s o t -
d w s fi r s t b r o ght t o t h
e e a an a u e

C t li t h n o t e d
,

a t t e n t i n o f m in r l og is t s by G o g
o e a e r e a n ,
e

of I n di n s b
t r v ll e r
a e n d p in t e a
j c t s fr o m w h m it
a r a u e , o

t a k s it s n a m e
e An a n ly is m d by Dr C h a r l s F . a s a e e .

J c k s on of B os t on is a s foll ow s :
a , ,
 B IBLIOG RAPHY
b ibliog r a phy o f t h s b j c t is xt e s iv n d in
Th e e u e e n e, a

w h a t fo ll w s n o t t m p t is m a d e t o o m p il
o a e om pl e t c e a c e

lis t o f w or k s d e l in g wit h t h Am e r ic n I n di n s
a Th o s e a a . e

in t t d in p r s u i g t h
eres e s t dy w ill d u w ll t o t r n t o
n e u o e u

P of s o F r n d s B s i f A m i n H i t o y w h e a n
r es r a ra
’
a s o er ca s r ,
er

ex ll n t li t o f t it l s w ill b fo n d
ce e s ly t ic lly a r g d
e e u ,
ana a ra n e .

Th e w En yc l p e dia B it
n e ni
c ( 11 t h o d i t io n)
g iv s r an ca e e

o ne of t h b e s t é m és v il bl b t h fr om n a t h o
e r su a a a e o a n r

p ol og i a l a d c n t h l o gi n l p in t o f Vi w
a e O f fi
no st ca o e . r

im p o t n r t th
a st d nt
ce tho p bli t ion s f t h
e u e a re e u ca o e

B u re a uo f A m r ic n Et h o l o g y o m ep r i i n
g
a t h A n a l n ,
c s e n u

R p t s B ll t in
e or ,
n d C n t ib t ion
u e ths, l s t dis o n
a o r u s ,
e a c

ti nu ed Th s r v it bl m i s f i f r m a t i n a n d
. e e a e er a e ne o n o o

c ov er ly l l ph s s o f t h
n ea r a bj t a e e su ec .

S p i l m on og ph s n d p o t s
ec a l s o t b fo n d
ra a re r a re a o e u

in t h nne a l p bli t io of t h S m it h s o i n I s t it t io
u a u ca ns e n a n u n

a nd th N t i n l M s m p in t d by t h U n it d S t t s
e a o a u eu ,
r e e e a e

G v r n m t t W s hi g t o
o e en n d w r it t
a by p i l i t s
a n n , a en s ec a s

of t h fi s t r k Th P ifi R a il r o d R p or t s c o v e in g
e r an . e ac c a e ,
r

th e ly xpl o r t io f t h w s t e r n c u n t y m y a l s
ear e a n o e e o r ,
a o

b c n s u l t d w it h p fi t
e o e ro .

A m o g A m ri n p iodi l lit a t r m a y b m n
e can er ca er u e e e

t io n e d t h e j l f
o A m e r ic a n E t b n ol o
ou r n a
gy a n d A r cb a e o

l ogy, w h ic h c o n t a in s a v a s t a m ou n t o f v a l u a bl e m a t e r ia l ,
a n d t he
7 f
ou r n a l o A m e r ic a n F ol k l or e ; t h e A n t b r o ol o ic a l
p g
Se r ie s , f r o m t h e p u bl ic a t io n s o f t h e Fie l d—C o l u m b ia n
Mu s e u m ; P a p e r s , M e m oir s , a n d Rep or t s , o f t h e P e a b o dy
I n s t it u t e ; a n d t h e M e m oir s o
f t b e A m’ e r ic a n F ol k l or e
Soc ie ty A n t b r op os , a n d P e t e r m a n n s M itt e il u n g e n ,
.
 B I BL I OG RAP H Y
p u bl i s h e d in E r op e l s o a pp a l t o t h e A m ri c a n u ,
a e e
e t h n o l o is t
g Th s e r ie s o f M m oir s p u bl is h e d b t h e e e
y
.
,

A m e r ic a n An t h r o p ol og ic a l A s s oc i t i a r e o f t h e u t m os t a on ,

I m p or t a n c a n d t h j ou n l is s u e d by t his A s s oc i t io
e e r a , a n

( s e eb l ow ) is p o b bly t h g t e s t of l l A m i a n
e , r a e re a a er c

p u bl i c a t io n s o f it s c h r c t r a a e .

Fo r l is t o f b oo k s l m os t c o v r in g t h e s b j e t r f e r
a a e u c e

t o P ill in o n t ib u t io n
’
g s
g at lo it n d t he
re
p c r ,
c . c .
,
a a
n dix t o H o d H dbook of A m e r i n I n di n s Th e
’
e
p g e s an ca a .

f o m r is m o r e xt e iv s it on t in s f n s t o
r e e ns e a c a re e re ce

m n y m n s c ip t s
a a s wh r
u s H o dgr s l i t p u p os ly ou r c e ,
e ea e
’
s r e

e x l d s t it l s o t r dily
c u e s s ibl e t o st d nt s
n ea acce e u e .

Th s l t i e w h ic h f ll o w s
e ec on t in s o lyon fe w o f o c a n a

th emo im p t n t w k
re m y o f w h i h r e m or e
or a or s, an c a

c om p h n s iv in s op t h m ig h t b xp t d b t o
re e e c e an e e ec e ,
u n

t h e ot h r h d s s t i l t o t h s t dy fo t h t v y
e an e en a e u r a er

r e s on
a N m r o P o di g a d P bli a t i s o f
. u e u s r cee n s n u c on

I n s t it t s o r A s i t io s in Am e i m ig h t l s o b it e d
u e s oc a n r ca a e c

in dd it io n t o t h o
a a b ov e b t t h l is t m s t n o t b m a d se ,
u e u e e

t oo xt e n s iv h r e Th b o k s m r k d t hu s
e e r
e . e o a e a e

esp i lly r e o m m n d d fo t h s e b g i i g
ec a c o rs e e e r o e nn n a c u

o f r e d in ga n t h e Am ri a I di n s
o e c n n a .

“
"
A DA 1R J O H N H is t o y o f t h e A m r i n I n di s 17 7 5
,
. r e ca an . .

A LL E N J A Th G g phi l D is t r ib t ion o f N or t h
,
. . e eo ra ca u

A m e ic n A im l s 18 9 2r a n a . .

H is t or y o f t h A m r i n B i on 18 7 7 e e ca s . .

A t h p l g is t Th O rg of t h Am i a n
n ro o o ,
e . an e er c

A n t h r o p ol og i l A s s oc i t io ( Fi st nd s co d ca a n . r a e n

s e r ie s .
) 18 8 8 to da t e .

l“
=
B A N C R O P T, H . H . Th e N a t iv R e a ces of t he P a ifi c c

S t a t s 5 v o l m e s 18 74 18 8 2
e . u .
— .

B O LL E R H A A m on g t h e I n di n s E igh t Y e a rs in
,
. .
a .

th Fa r W s t 18 5 8 18 6 6
e 18 6 8 e ,
—
. .

B OU R K E J G Th e S n k D a n c e o f t h e M o qu i s 18 84
,
. . a e . .
 B I BLIOGRAPHY
bibliog r a phy o f t h s b j c t is xt n s iv n d in
Th e e u e e e e, a

w h t fo ll o w s n o t t m p t is m a d t o o m p il e a c om pl t
a a e e c e e

l is t of w or k s d a lin g wit h t h e Am r i n I n dia n s Th o s

e e ca . e

i t e s t d i p u r s in g t h s t dy w ill d w ll t t u r n t o
n er e n u e u o e o

P f s s o F a d s B s is f A m i H i t y w h e r n
ro e r a rr n
’
a o e r ca n s or ,
e a

e x ll t li t f t it l s will b fo n d
ce en s o ly t ic lly a r a n g d
e e u ,
ana a r e .

Th n w E yc l p dia B it n i
e e nc ( l 1toh dit ioen )g iv s r an ca e e

on of t h
e b s t é m e v il bl b t h fr om n n t h o
e e r su
’

s a a a e o a a r

p ol og ic l da an t h l ogi
an l p i n t o f v ie w e O f fi rs t no ca o .

im p o r t c to th
an t d nt a
e th p bl i t i n s f t h
e s u e re e u ca o o e

B u reau o f A m r i a n Et h l og y om p ris in g t h A n n a l
e c no ,
c e u

R p or t s B ll t in
e ,
n d Con t ib t ion
u e th
s, l s t d is c on
a r u s ,
e a

t in d
n e Th e
. r v rit bl m i e s f in fo m a t io n d
se a e e a e n o r n a

c ov er ly a l l ph s s o f t h s b j t
n ear a e e u ec .

S p i l m on og a ph s n d p o t s r l s o t o b fo n d
ec a r a re r a e a e u

i th
n ne a l p blic t io
nu a f t h S m it h n i
u I n s t it t io
a ns o e so an u n

a nd th N t i n l M s e m p i t d by t h U n it d S t t s
e a o a u u ,
r n e e e a e

G v r n m t t W s hi g t on
o e en d w it t n by p e i l is t s
a a n , an r e s c a

of t h fi s t a k Th P ifi c R il o a d R p or t s ov e in g
e r r n . e ac a r e
,
c r

th e ly xpl o r t i n o f t h e w e s t r n c ou n t ry m y l s o
ear e a o e
,
a a

b e co n s l t d w it h p r o fi t
u e .

A m on g A m r i p riodi l l it r t r m y b m n
e can e ca e a u e a e e

t io n e d t h e j l f
o A m e r ic a n E t b n ol o
ou r n a
gy a n d A r c ha e a
l ogy, wh ic h c o n t a in s a v a s t a m ou n t o f v a l u a bl e m a t e r ia l ,
a n d t he ou r n a l o A m e r ic a n F ol kl or e ; t h e A n t b r o ol o ic a l
j f p g
Se r ie s , f r o m t h e p u bl ic a t io n s o f t h e Fie l d— C o l u m b ia n
Mu s e u m ; P a p e r s , M e m oir s , a n d Rep or t s , o f t h e P e a b o d y
I n s t it u t e ; a n d t h e M e m oir s o
f t b e A m e r ic a n F ol k l or e
Soc ie ty A n t b r op os , a n d P e t e r m a n n s M itt e il u n g e n ,
.
’
15 6 B IBLIOGRAPHY
B R IGH AM A P G e og r a phic I n flu e n c e s
, . .
in Am e ric a n
His t or y 19 0 3 . .

B R I N T O N D G Am ric a n H r o Myt h s
, . . e e . 18 8 2 .

t
Th e A m e r ic a n R a c e 18 9 1
I

. .

My t h s o f t h e Ne w W o r l d 18 6 8 . .

"
CAT L I N G OR G E,
I ll t r t i n s of t h M n n s
E . u s a o e a er ,

C s t om s
u d C o di t i f th N o r t h Am n n
,
an n on o e e ca

I n di s 2 v o l m s 18 66
an . u e . .

O k p A R l i
—
g i s C r e m o y ; a n d ot he r
e e- a . e ou e n

C s t m s of t h M n d n s 18 6 7
u o e a a . .

”
CHI TT ND N H M Th Am i
E E F r T d of t h e
, . . e er c a n u ra e

F W s t 3 v ol m s 19 0 2
ar e . u e . .

”
C LARK W P Th I di n S ig L g g
, . 18 8 5. e n a n an u a e . .

C OLD E N CADWALLAD R Th e His t o y o f t h e Fiv e

,
E . r

I n di N t io s f C n d 1747
an a n o a a a . .

CRA NTz D AV I D H is t r y f Gr e n l a n d
,
2 v ol m e s . o o e . u .

( 2n d e dit io n .
) 18 2 0 .

"
"
CURT I N ,
J E R E MI A H . Cr ea t io n My t h s of P r im it iv e
A m e r ic a . 18 9 8 .

DE N I KE R J , . Th e R a c e s of Ma n . An u t l in e O of An
t h r op ol og y a n d Et h n o l og y u d e d it ion )
.
( z . 19 0 0 .

"
D OR S E Y G A
'

, . . I n dia n s of t h e S o t h w s t 19 0 3 u -
e . .

D RAK E S G , . . A b or igin a l R a s of N or t h Am e r ic a
ce .

18 6 0 .

D U C KWORT H W L H P e his t or i M n 19 12 , . . . r c a . .

"
FARRAND L I V I N G S T ON B s is of Am r ic a n His t or y
, . a e
,

15 0 0 —19 0 0 1 06
.
9 .

FE W K E S , J W . .
“
D oll s o f t h T s y e u a an I din ans .

I n t e r n a t ion a l A r c hiv fur E t h n o l ogi e, Vol u m e V II .

18
94 .

FIG U I E R , L OU I S . Th e H u m an R ace . 18 7 2 .

P r im it iv e Ma n . 18 70 .
 B I BLIOG RA P H Y
“‘
FUL TO N A R , . . Th e R e d Me n of I ow a . 18 8 2 .

”
G ODDARD P E I di , . . n a n s of t he S o t h w s t 19 13 u -
e . .

G R GG J O S I A H C m m
E , . o erc e o f t h P ir ie s 2 v o l m e s
e ra . u .

18 4 5 .

G R I N N LL G B E , . . B l kfoo t L
ac o dg e T l a es . 19 0 3 .

Th I d i e n a n s of To da y -
. 1 11
9 .

Paw n ee Hero St o i
r es a n d Fo l k Ta l es . 18
93 .

Th e St y or of t he I din an . 18
9 6 .

H ADDO N A C , . . H is t o r y of A n t h op l og y 19 10 r o . .

Th e R a c e s of Ma n a n d t h i D is t r ib u t i e r on . 1 0
9 9 .

Th e S t dy u o f Ma n . 18
9 8 .

W d i g s o f P opl s 19 11
Th e an er n e e . .

H AL E H ORAT I O I q is B oo k o f Rit s 18 8 3
,
. ro u o e . .

"
a‘
HOD GE F W Ed it r H db ook o f A m i n
, . . o . an er ca

I di s N or t h f M xi o 2 v l m s 19 0 7 10
n an o e c . o u e .
-
.

H ORNADAY W T Th A m ic n N t u r a l H is t o y ,
. . e er a a r .

1 0
9 4 .

Th e E xt e r m in t ion o f t h A m i n B is o 18 8 7 a e er c a n . .

H OU G H W ALT E R Th H op i 19 15
,
. e . .

Th e Mo k i S n k e D n 19 0 1 a a ce . .

"
I d i n Th Th No t h w s t 16 0 0 19 0 0 Th R d
n a ,
e . e r -
e ,
—
. e e

M an Th W M n Th W h it M
,
e ( A n
) 9
1 0 1 ar a ,
e e an . on . .

J A M E S G W I n dia B s k t y 19 13
,
. . n a e r . .

I n di n s of t h P i t d D s e r t R g ion 19 0 3
a e a n e e e . .

K E AN E A H E t h n l og y 1899
,
. . o . .

M n P st dP s ta 18 9
9 a an re en . .

K RAUS E A Di Tl in k it I d i n
,
.
18 8 5 e n a er . .

L AN G A N DR E W S oc i l O ig in s 190 3
,
. a r . .

" L E W I S a n d C LARK His t o r y o f t h Exp e d it io n n d e r .

e u

th eC om m a d o f (Ne w dit ion e d it d b y E ll io t t n . e ,

e

Cou s ) 4 v ol m se .
18 3
9 u e . .
15 8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
M C C OY I SAA C
, . His t or y of t h B p t is t I n di e a an Mis s ion s .

18 0
4 .

"
M C K E N N E Y TH O M AS L a d H ALL J A M E S
, . n ,
. His t or y of
th I di n T ib s of No t h A m ic a
e n a r e r er .
3 v o l u m s e .

18 3 7-
44
"
T H O M AS L M m i s Ofli ia l n d P r s on a l
MC K E N N E Y ,
. e o r c a e ,

w it h S k t h s f T a v l m o g t h Nor t h r
e c and
e o r e a n e e n

S t h n I n di s m b r i g a W r Ex r s ion n d
ou er an ,
e ac n a cu a

D s c rip t io of S n s l o g t h e W s t r n B or d e r s
e n ce e a n e e .

2 v l m s 18 6
o u
4 e . .

MCL N NAN J F P im it iv e M r i g e 18 6 5
‘

E ,
. . r a r a . .

MA R TT R R A n t h r op ol og y 19 12
E ,
. . . .

x
MA S O N O T A b o igi l I di n B a s k t ry 19 0 4
‘‘

, . . r na n a e . .

Th O ig in o f I n v n t ion
e 1 01
9 r e . .

W m n s S h a r in P im it v e C l t u r
o a 18 9
’

4 e r i u e . .

”
MATT H E WS W AS HI N G T O N E t h n og r phy a n d P hil ol ogy
, . a

of t h e Hid a t s a I n dia n s . 18 7 7 .

N v h L g n ds 18 9 7
a a o e e . .

”
MA " IMI L I AN P i c of Wi d T v l s i t h I n t i r
,
r n e e . ra e n e er o

o f No t h A m ic ar Tr n s l t d by H E Ll oyd er . a a e . . .

3 v o l m s a n d t l a s o f pl t s
u e 18 3
4 a a e . .

MI N E R W H Th I w a 19 11
, . . e o . .

M OOR E H EAD W K P r his t or i I m pl m e n t s 19 0 0

, . . e c e . .

M OR G AN L W I S H An i n t S o ie t y 18 7 8
,
E . c e c . .

Th e L g o f t h H o dé—n o s a u n e o r I r o q u ois
ea u e e — - —
e , .

(N e w e dit ion .
) 1 0
9 4 .

Sy s t em s of C on s a n
g u in it y an d Afli n it y of t he
H u m a n Fa m ily . 18 7 1 .

A S t dyH o s f t h A m ric n A b ori

u of t h e u se o e e a

g in s 1880
e
( A. v i s d d it ion o f t h is w o r k is t o
. re e e

b fou d in C o n t ib u t io n s t o A m r ic n E t h n ol o
e n r e a
gy ,

Vol m e I V
i

u ,
 16 0 BIBLIOG RAPHY
SAG R B S E, . R o c k y M ou n t a in s , a n d in
. cen es in t he
O g C lif
r e on , a o r n ia , Ne w Me xic o , T e xa s a n d t h e
Gr a n d P r a ir ie s (2 md e dit ion ) 18 5 4 . . .

“
”
S C H OOL C A T ,
H R R H is t o r i
Fc a l a n d S t a t is t ic a l n
. f o rm a . I
t io n R e s p e c t in g t h e H is t o r y , C on dit io n , a n d P r o s

p e c t s of t h e n d ia n Tr ib e s o f t h e U n it e d S t a t e s I .

6 v o lu m e s 18 5 1— 5 7 . .

S MPL
E E C
E, . . A m e r ic a n His t o r y an d it s G eo
g ra phic
Co n dit ion s . 19 0 3 .

S V RAN C
E E F A E, . . Ol d T il s
ra on t h e Nia g a r a Fr on t ie r .

n d e dit io n
( 2
) . 1 0
9 3 .

SKI N N R E ,
A . Th e I n dia n s of G rea t er Ne w Yor k .

1 15
9 .

ST N N TT W
E E ,
. H . A His t o y r of t he O r ig in of t he
P l a c e Na m es . 19 0 8 .

T I T J A Th Th om p o Riv r I n di n s 18 9 8
E ,
. . e s n e a . .

TO P I NARD P AUL L H o m m d a n s l a N t r
, 18 9 1 .
’
e a u e . .

"
TYLOR E B A t h op l g y A I t d c t i n t o t h
, . . n r o o : n n ro u o e

S t dy f M u d Civ iliz t i n o 18 8 1 an an a o .
‘
.

P im it iv C l t r 2 v ol m s 18 7 1 e u u re . u e . .

R s ch in t o t h E ly His t o r y o f Ma n kin d
e ear es e ar

nd t h
a D e v l op m n t of Civiliz a t ion ( 3 r d dit ion )
e e e . e .

18 7 8 .

WA I Tz T A n t h r 0 p ol o g ie de r Na t u r v o l k e r
, . . Ba n d 111 .

Die Am e r ik a n e r 18 6 2 . .

WARR E N W W His t or y o f t h O j b w ys 18 8 5
, . . e i a . .

J UST I N Edit N a r a t iv d C it ic a l . or . r e an r

His t or y o f Am ri V l m e s I a n d 11 18 8 9 e ca . o u . .

"
WI SSL E R C LARK N or t h Am ri a n I n dia n s o f t h e
, . e c

P l i s 19 12
a n . .

W R IGH T C D Ed it o R e p or t on I n dia n s Ta xe d a n d
, . . r .

n ot T a x e d 18
94 . .
 I NDE "
a d b o d e use in b il d i
u ng 10 2 116 Mi b m Mgl
d lt y 3
, ; ren o 112 o o
, , ;
a u er
,
0 l on e 112 ; Pi l na 112 ; Pi l na
a g i lt
r cu u re a m on g t he Pw a n ee
,
eno
,

,
112 ; Q u ere c
,

h o, 112
,
11
3;
83 Sa n C l ar os , 11
5; T on t o 112 ~

( I ow a I di Whit M t i
,
A iu ov e s , A io u e s n an s
) e ou n a n 112 , 11
, 5 ,
69 ap h ac u, 112
Al b m (S t
a a a a te ),
6 Ap l hi l iv 4
a ac co a r er
Al k 4 8 as
5 4 9 , so , 5 1, 14 7
a 1 .
“
Ap i Pw
an e
79
”
e a
,
n e e,

App l hi y t m 5 6
, 9 . ,
. .

A l g on q m a n s t o c , 3 9 , 4 3 , 5 0 , 5 2 , k a ac an s s e , ,

5 5 , 5 8) 5 9) 6 4) 6 6 , 80 , 89 , pp hi g d
a r oa c
76 n an ce
14 6 , 14 8 ; e e n n e t r i e of Ch y b A p h I di 5 9
ra a o n a n s,
,

t he, 5 1 A ti rc t l c ti c oa s
5 a sec on , 1
All g h y M t i
e h m
an ou n a n s, u an A ti O
rc c
7 43 d i 3
c e an
, ,
1 as a ra n ,
m ire t f 6 a ns eas o , 1 A ik r I nd i a ra ill g f ans V a es o
Al li R S m l 8 8
, ,
s, ev . a ue ,
57
Am g h i F 5 e no
,
.
,
1 A iz Ap h
r on a 6 ac e, 11

Am i C t l 4 ; N t h
er c a , en ra , 1, or A iz ( S t t ) 8 9 5 8 9
r on a a e 10 10
8; N hw t
, , , , ,
6
1, 2 , ,
10 , 1 or t -
es ern
3 5
11
9 ,
11 12

44 ; N t h w t
,

1 t f or -
es e rn c oa s o ,
A k r ivan sas
3 9 r er,
,
0

47 ; S
1 th 5 ou ,
1, 1 Ak r
(S t t ) 9
ansas a e
,
2
Am i A t iq er can S i ty n u an an oc e , w g m
a rr o f 74
,
a e o ,

7 1 w
a rr o pi d 3 s, o s on e
,
12

A d é P é L i 69 7
n r ,
re ou s , ,
1 Ai th
s a, t n or
44
-
eas ern
,
1

anim i m 38 39s 1 ,
1 A t i O g 59
s or a , re on ,

At h b Lk 7
,

anth p id p ro b f 9 o a es, a s e n ce o , a a s ca , a e,

Ap h I d i
ac 9 e n an s, 10 ,
111, 112 At h p af m ily 5 8 9 4
ascan a
,
0, 0
, ,
1 16 , 1 18 , 12 2 , 12 3 10 11 1, 112 , 13 0 13 1,
113 , 117 , 9, ,
14
3
12 5 , 13 1 A t iu s Tir a w a , 8 4
Ap h ac e A iv ip
s u b -t r ib es : r a a, At l a n t ic St a t es, 26
1 12 ; Ch i i ; C y r ca h u a, 112 o o At l an t ic t r i e s , b 3 9, 4 2
t e r o , 112 ; F ; G il a r a on e , 112 a, A t ou n a u e a ow a n ia n s
(I
), 7 0 I d
112 ; G il ; J i ill I
e n o , 1I 2 ca r a , 1 2, A u t h on t on t a s (O t o n ia n s ), 6 9 I d
11 , 3 4 ; L ip 11 ; Ll an , 112 an I
A ya v ois ( ow a n ia n s ), 6 9 I d
e r o, ; M 112l 5 e s c a e r o, 112 , 11 , Az tec eo e ofp pl e ic o,
95 Mx
M . I .
I I
16 2

b ll pl y d
a - a a n ce, 77
b ll pl yi g
a - a n kt gm f
or r a c e
,
a e o ,

74
b kt m
as e s, a g t h P bl
on 3 e ue o, 10

a m on g th P bl
e
; n on - ue o, 110

a m on g th J i ill Ap h
e car a ac e,

113 , 12 1 m g th M
a l on e e s c a er o

Ap h 5 ac e
,
11

b d
ear 77 an ce
,
b d
ear th ,
I di on
3 e n an , 20 , 1 1

B hig S 4
e r n ea,

B vid F y Al
en a es d 97 ra on s o e

3 ; M m i l f 97
, , ,
11 e or a o

B ig H M ti 6 ,

or n ou n a ns
,
B il xi I di 9
o n an s, 1

B it t R t M er i
oo 6 ou n t a n s ,

B l k Hill 6 5 6
ac s,

Bl k M t i 5
,
ac ou n a ns
,
bl k t w vi g m g t h
an e ea n a on e

N v h 34 a a o, 1

B l E t h iv 6 8
ue ar r er

B l Ridg M t i 5
,
ue e ou n a ns
,
B oa s , F z 8 9 47 49 r an 1 , 1, 1 1

d by I d i
, ,
blo as, use 8 n an s 10

d by
,
b w
o d w
an t ill a rr o s u se

Ap h ac e
,
12 2

b w p i t f th
o r es
5 o e, 10

B db y J h 5 7
,
ra ur ,
o n
,
b d g 77
rea s on
,
B it i h Am i 4 9 5 8 9
r s er c a
, , ,
0

b ff l p m di i
u a o-c a e c n e,

b ff l d
u a o 77 an ce,

b i l t m m g t h Ji
ur a cu s o s a on e ca

ill Ap h
r a
4; m g th
ac e, 11 a on e

U t e, 114

C b z d V Alv N z
a e a e a ca, ar un e
, 95
C dd
a t k 5 7 8 79
oa n s oc ,
1
, , ,

9 ; m yt h l gy f t h
2 85 o o o e,

C dd I di 5 3 9 9
a o n an s, 1 2

C l v M th 7
, ,
”
a a era s an
,
e, 1

C lif i G l f f 4 8 7 9
a or n a , u o
, , ,
C l if i L w 5 ; t h
a or n a
,
o er
,
0 s ou ern

8 ; (S t t ) 93 a e
,
11, ,
111
16
4 I NDE "
gam bli n g a m on g i a Ap a c Ji car ll h e, H wi J N
e t t, B 23 , 34
Mhv H id I di
. .
,
.

114 , 12 4 ; a m on g t h e o a e a tsa n ans

, 53
N v h dw ll i g 3 5
,
12 9 h og an , a a o e n
,
1 ,

g a m e s , a m on g t h e I ow a 73 36 1

l if m g I d i
,
Ga t s c h e t , er t S Alb .
, 9
2 h mo e e 8 a on n ans
,
2 ,

g e n s , 2 6, 27 3 0

g en t e s 25 ; a m on g t he I ow a , 72 ; h ty t
on e s g ht f m i f au y 9 ro n anc 2

H p i I di 4 9 4 9 8
, ,

a m on g t he P bl ue o,
98 o n ans
,
1
, , ,
10 0 ,

p
g e n t il e g r ou in g , 2 8 ; a m on g t h e 310 4 ,
6 7
10 9; ,
10 ,
10
,
10

P bl
ue o,
97 vill g 9 6 a es
,
G e or g ia ( t a t e ), 5 S H dl iCk
r D Al a, 3 r es 11

H d B y
,
G e r on im o (G oya t hl a y), 113 u s on 7 5 5 57 a , a : :
h
g os t d an ce 66 hm u ff i g 44
an o er n s,

d d by N v h H m b ldt F H A d 4
,
h
g os t s , r e a of, a a o, 13 7 u o e 1

H t W P 59
. . .
, ,
l v
G i a r i e r , 10 2 , 116 un . .

Lpz
, ,
F
G om a r a , r a n c is c o o e d e , 13
dC Cl d
Gr a n a n on of t h e o or a o, 9 6 Illi i iv 5 4 6 9 ; (S t t ) 7
no s r er
, ,
a e
,
G t B
rea Lk 7 ear a e
,
I d i (S t t ) 7
n an a a e
,
G t L k
r ea y t m 3 6 7 67
a es s s e , , , , ,
I di
n mb
an s f t d y 49 ;
,
nu er o
,
o- a ,
111:
47 1 f th m
o t i e ; f th ou n a n s, 10 o e

G t N m h
rea iv e7 a a r er
,
1 w d (C d )
oo s ana a
,
10

G t S lt L k 7
r ea a a e, I g K
n -
K K g m
e e- f 73 o- ee a e o ,
G t Sl v L k 7
,
rea a e a e
,
I w I di 5 5 4 5 6 6 7 6 8
o a n an s, 1, , , , ,
“
G t Sp i it 44 4 9
rea r ,
”
,
1 69 7
. 7 7 3 74 7 5 7 7 ; 1. 2. . . .
G B y Wi
r e en ia 69 ,
s c on s n , l c an s m g 5 a on ,
2
G l d 49
r e en a n I w (S t t ) 7
o a a e ,

M ti 5
,
G r e en ou n a n s, I w ill
o av Iw 7 e, o a, 2
t i g I di m th d f 3 I q i i t k 43 5
g ree n ,
n an e o o
,
1 ro u o ar
5 46 s oc
,
0, 1, 1
I q i 8 3 7 4 7 49
,
G i ll G g B i d 7 9
r nn e e or e r ro uo s 2 1 1
G ti H g
, , , . . ,
ro u s, 4 u o, 1 Iv L i t J ph C 6
es eu os e 12

g t h Ch y
,
. .
,

g il d
u ms, a on 6 e e en n e s
,
1

G lf St t
u 6 a es, 2 J ff y Th m 7
e er s, o as
,
0

j k k i d, 4 6
’ ’
e s -s a
H id I di
a a 47
n ans
,
1

h i t t i g m g t h P bl
a r -cu n a on e ue o
,
K a doha da
’ ’
c ho
,
1. e . P a wn e e In
5
10 di an s
9 1
h i f t h I di
,
a r o ; e ti d n a n , 20 no ce Ka -e de , ie Pw I di a n ee n ans
Nvh 3
. .
,
on a a o, 1 1
91
H K a- E C on -
( gl d -
) ra s e ea e a n ce
,
K a im e s , H yHm L d en r o e or ,
14

76 K an s a s (S t t ) 77 9 a e , 2
H l H t i 78
a e or a o, K a r a nk a w f m ily
an a
,
1
H pi F t h L i 7
, ,
en n e n, a er ou s , K e r es a n f m ily 94 3
a 1 1
H y Al x d j 5 9
enr ,
e an er , un
,
. ki hip ns 24, 33 ;
, ,
a m on
g t he
h ld y 6 3
,
e ra r , Pw a n e e, 82
 I ND E " 16 5

K io w a I di 6 3 n an s
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B P EA CE , M A A T TH E U N I VE R S I TY P R ES S .

C A M B R I DG E : P R I NTE D B Y J . .
. . ,
SE L E CT I O N F ROM T H E G E N E RA L CA T A L O G U E
(c on t in u e d)
Th e H is t o r y o f Me l a n e s ia n So c ie t y B y W H R R I VE R S
F R S I tw v l m
. . . .
,

Wit h 5 pl t 8 t x t fi g
n od o u es 2 a es, e -
u res , an

R y l8
. . . .

7 m p a 36s t . o a v0 . s ne .

Th e Me l a n e s ia n s o f B r it is h Ne w G u in e a By C G
S LI MANN M D Wit h h p t b y F R BAR O N
. . .

E G a c a er T
pp dix b y E L G I LI N Wit h m p 8 pl t
, . . . .
,

and an a en d B a a 0 a es an
R yl 8
. . .
,

5 t xt fi g t
0 -
e u re s . o a v0 . 2 15 ne .

Th e Ve d da s B y C G S E L I G MA N N M D a n d B RE N D A Z
S LI MANN Wit h h p t b y C S M R M D D s
. . . . .
.
, ,

E G d a c a er YE S, o an
pp dix b y A M N DI S G Wit h
. . . . . .
,

an a en M d li E U N A SE K AR A , u a ar
D my 8
. .

7 pl t
2 5 t xt fi g a d m p
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u res an a a e v0 1 s ne

C m b id g A h l gi l d E t h l g i l S i
. . .
,

a r e rc aeo o ca an no o ca er es .

K in s h ip O r g a n is a t io n s a n d G r ou p M a r r ia g e in A u s t r a l ia
B y NOR O W T O MAS M A Wit h 3 m p D m y 8
.

TH C TE H a s e v 0

C m b i d g A h l g i l d E t h l gi l S i
. . . . .
,

6 5 t ne . a r e rc a eo o ca an no o ca er es .

Et h n o l o g y o f A K a m b a a n d o t h e r E a s t A f r ic a n Tr ib e s -

By C W HO L C M G
.

Wit h 5 4 ill t B EY us ra
D my 8 C m b id g A h
. .
, . .

ti d
on s a n m p 7 6d t a a e v0 s ne a r e rc aeo
l gi l d E t h l gi l S i
. . .

o ca an no o ca er es .

Th e No r t h e r n B a n t u A n A c c ou n t o f s om e Ce n tr a l A fr ic a n
d P t t t B y J O N RO S O M A
.

T ib r f th Uges o e an a ro ec or a e H C E,
R t f Ovi g t N f l k f m l y f t h Ch h Mi i y
. . .
,

ec or O n on or o or er o e u rc s s on a r
S i ty Wit h 4 ill t t i D my 8
, ,

oc e d m p 6d 2 us ra on s an a a e v0 12 5
C m b id g A h l gi l d E t h l gi l S i
. . .

net . a r e rc aeo o ca an no o ca er es .

Th e T r ib e s o f Nor t h e r n a n d Ce n t r a l K o r d o f a n By
H A MA M I L S d Civil S vi l t S h l f M g d
.

C CH A E u an er ce , a e c o ar O a a
l C l l g C m b id g Wit h 9 pl t D my 8
. .
,

en e o e e, 6da r e 1 a es e v0 10 8
C m b id g A h l gi l d E t h l gi l S i
. . .

net . a r e rc aeo o ca an no o ca er es .

De s e r t a n d Wa t e r Ga r de n s of t h e R e d Se a . B e in g an
a c c ou n N t iv d t h Sh t F m tiof f th C
the t a es a n e or e or a on s o e oa s
B y C RIL CRO SS LAN D M A C t b B S L d
.

Y an a c on
M i B i l gi t t t h S d G v m t Wit h 4 pl t
.
, . .
, . . .
,

ar ne o o s o e u an o e rn en 0 a es
di g m R y l 8
.

t xt fi g
,

11 de -
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Yu n Na n t h e L in k b e t w e e n I n dia a n d t h e Ya n g t z e
-

B y M j H R DAV I S 5 d O xf d hi L ig h t I f t y Wit h
, .

a or E 2n or s re n an r
R y l8
. .
,

d 7 3 pl t
.

m p
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an t a es . o a vo . 1 s ne .

Th e Du a b o f T u r k e s t a n A P hys iogr a p h ic s k e t c h a n d
v l By W R M R M
.

t
a c c ou nf m t o so Wit h e ra e s I CK ER I CK ERS
L g y l8
. .

7 il l t t i
.

20 us 3 t
ra on s . ar e ro a v0 . 05 ne .

Th e L a n d o f t h e B l u e P o p p y Tr a ve l s of a N a t u ral is t in
Tib t B y F K I N DO N WARD B A
.

E t as e rn eWit h G
d 4 pl t R y l8
. .
,

5 m p
. .
,

a s an t 0 a es . o a v0 . 12 5 ne .

Ca m b r idg e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s