Direct-Current Circuits

LECTURER
MR. M C Zulu
INTRODUCTION

 In the preceding few chapters, we discussed electric

components, including capacitors, resistors, and
diodes. In this chapter, we use these electric
components in circuits.
 A circuit is a collection of electrical components
connected to accomplish a specific task
 The second section of this chapter covers the
analysis of series and parallel circuits that consist of
resistors.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

 Voltage has many sources, a few of which are

shown on the slide.
 All such devices create a potential difference
and can supply current if connected to a
circuit.
 A special type of potential difference is known
as electromotive force (emf).
 The emf is not a force at all, but the term
‘electromotive force’ is used for historical
reasons.
 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
 The emf 𝝐 of a battery is themaximum possible voltage the battery can provide
between its terminals. You can think of a source of emf as a “charge pump.”
 When an electric potential difference exists between two points, the source moves
charges “uphill” from the lower potential to the higher.
 The unit for emf is the volt (1V=1J/C)
INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE

 The terminal voltage 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 of a battery is voltage

measured across the terminals of the battery when there
is no load connected to the terminal.
 The amount of resistance to the flow of current within the
voltage source is called the internal resistance. The
internal resistance r of a battery can behave in complex
ways. It generally increases as a battery is depleted.
 A battery can be modeled as an idealized emf (𝜀)with an
internal resistance (r).
 The terminal voltage of the battery is 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟.
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE CONT.

 Suppose an external resistor, known as the load resistance

R, is connected to a voltage source such as a battery, as
shown.
 The figure shows a model of a battery with an emf ε , an
internal resistance r, and a load resistor R connected
across its terminals.
 The terminal voltage of the battery depends on the emf,
the internal resistance, and the current, and is equal to
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟.
 For a given emf and internal resistance, the terminal
voltage decreases as the current increases due to the
potential drop Ir of the internal resistance.
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE CONT.

 A graph of the voltage through the circuit of a

battery and a load resistance.
 The electric potential increases the emf of the
battery due to the chemical reactions doing work
on the charges.
 There is a decrease in the electric potential in the
battery due to the internal resistance. The
potential decreases due to the internal resistance
−𝐼𝑟, making the terminal voltage of the battery
equal to (𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟)
 The voltage then decreases by (IR) on the cross
the load resistor. The current through the load
𝜀
resistor is equal to I =
𝑟+𝑅
EXAMPLE

 A battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.050 0 V. Its terminals are connected
to a load resistance of 3.00 V.
 Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.
 Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the internal resistance of the
battery, and the power delivered by the battery.
 EXAMPLE
A)
 12.0V
To find the current in the circuit: I   3.93 A
r  R 3.00  0.050

To find the terminal voltage: Vter min al    Ir  12.0V   3.93 A  0.0500   11.8V

B) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the internal
resistance of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.

PR  I 2 R   3.93 A  (3.00)  46.3W

2

Pr  I r   3.93 A   0.0500   0.772W

2 2

PBATTETY  PR  Pr  46.3W  0.772W  47.1W

TASK

 A given battery has a 12.00-V emf and an internal resistance of 0.100Ω

 (a) Calculate its terminal voltage when connected to a 10.00Ω load.
 (b) What is the terminal voltage when connected to a 0.500Ω load?
 (c) What power does the 0.500Ω load dissipate?
 (d) If the internal resistance grows to 0.500Ω, find the current, terminal
voltage, and power dissipated by a 0.500Ω load.
 RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
 In Current and Resistance, we described the term ‘resistance’ and explained the
basic design of a resistor. Basically, a resistor limits the flow of charge in a
circuit and is an ohmic device where V=IR
 . Most circuits have more than one resistor. If several resistors are connected
together and connected to a battery, the current supplied by the battery
depends on the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
 RESISTORS IN SERIES
 Resistors are said to be in series whenever the
current flows through the resistors sequentially.
 . Since there is only one path for the charges to
flow through, the current is the same through
each resistor.
 The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors in a
series connection is equal to the algebraic sum of
the individual resistances.

Req  R1  R2  R3
V  V1  V2  V3  IR1  IR2  IR3
V V
I 
R1  R 2  R3 Req
 EXAMPLE

 A battery with a terminal voltage of 9 V is connected to a circuit consisting of four 20Ω and one 10Ω resistors all in
series. Assume the battery has negligible internal resistance.
a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
b) Calculate the current through each resistor.
c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.
d) Determine the total power dissipated by the resistors and the power supplied by the battery.
 EXAMPLE CONT.
 Solution
a)The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances

Req  R1  R2  R3  R4  R5  2  20  20  20  10  90

b) The current through the circuit is the same for each resistor in a series circuit and is equal to the applied voltage
divided by the equivalent resistance:
V 9V
I   0.1A
Req 90
 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

 The potential drop across each resistor is the same.

Current through each resistor can be found using Ohm’s
law I=V/R , where the voltage is constant across each
resistor.
 As the charges flow from the battery, some go through
resistor -1 and some flow through resistor-2. The sum of
the currents flowing into a junction must be equal to the I  I1  I 2
sum of the currents flowing out of the junction: V V1 V2
 
I in   I out Req R1 R2
 This equation is referred to as Kirchhoff’s junction 1
rule  1 1 
Req    
 R1 R2 
 EXAMPLE
 Three 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑅1 = 3.00Ω, 𝑅2 =
6.00Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 9.00Ω, are connected in parallel.
The parallel connection is attached to a 𝑉 =
18.00𝑉 voltage source.
a) What is the equivalent resistance?
b) Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel
circuit.
c) Calculate the currents in each resistor and show that
these add together to equal the current output of the
source.
d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
e) Find the power output of the source and show that it
equals the total power dissipated by the resistors.
 EXAMPLE CONT

What is the equivalent resistance?

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
Req R1 R2 R3 3.00 6.00 9.00
Req  1.64

Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel circuit.

V 18V
V  IR ; I    11.0 A
R 1.64
EXAMPLE CONT

 Calculate the currents in each resistor and show that these add together to equal the current output
of the source.

V 18V
I1    6.00 A
R1 3.00
V 18V
I2    3.00 A
R2 6.00
V 18V
I3    2.00 A
R3 9.00
EXAMPLE CONT

 Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.

P1  I R1   6.00 A   3.00   108W

2 2
1

P2  I R2   3.00 A   6.00   54W

2 2
2

P3  I R3   2.00 A   9.00   36W

2 2
3
 COMBINATIONS OF SERIES AND PARALLEL
 More complex connections of resistors are often just combinations of series and parallel connections.
Such combinations are common, especially when wire resistance is considered. In that case, wire
resistance is in series with other resistances that are in parallel.
 Combinations of series and parallel can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance using the
technique illustrated HERE
 COMBINATIONS OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CONT.

 Various parts can be identified as either series or parallel connections, reduced to their equivalent resistances,
and then further reduced until a single equivalent resistance is left. The process is more time consuming than
difficult.
 TASK

 Four resistors are connected as shown in

the Figure.
a) Find the equivalent resistance between
points a and c.
b) What is the current in each resistor if a
potential difference of 42 V is maintained
between a and c?
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

 1. Junction rule. At any junction, the sum of the currents must equal zero:

I  0
 2.Loop rule. The sum of the potential differences across all elements around
any closed circuit loop must be zero:

V  0
 KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST RULE
 Kirchhoff’s first rule (the junction rule) applies to the charge entering and
leaving a junction. As stated earlier, a junction, or node, is a connection of
three or more wires. Current is the flow of charge, and charge is conserved;
thus, whatever charge flows into the junction must flow out.
 KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND RULE
 Kirchhoff’s second rule (the loop rule) applies to potential differences. The loop rule is stated in
terms of potential V rather than potential energy, but the two are related since 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉.
 A voltage graph as we travel around the circuit. The voltage increases as we cross the battery
and decreases as we cross each resistor. Since the resistance of the wire is quite small, we
assume that the voltage remains constant as we cross the wires connecting the components.