Superposition

Superposition
• 8.1 Stationary waves
• 8.2 Diffraction
• 8.3 Interference
• 8.4 Two-source interference patterns
• 8.5 Diffraction grating

• MR MUBITA.D
• NUCLEAR MEDICAL DOCTOR/MEDICAL PHYSICIST
• daviesmubita@gmail.com
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• Learning Outcomes
• * (a) explain and use the principle of superposition in simple applications.
• * (b) show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate stationary waves using
microwaves, stretched strings and air columns.
• * (c) explain the formation of a stationary wave using a graphical method, and identify nodes and
antinodes.
• (d) explain the meaning of the term diffraction.
• (e) show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate diffraction including the diffraction of water
waves in a ripple tank with both a wide gap and a narrow gap.
• (f) show an understanding of the terms interference and coherence(g) show an understanding of
experiments which demonstrate two-source interference using water, light and microwaves.
• (h) show an understanding of the conditions required if two-source interference fringes are to be
observed.
• (i) recall and solve problems using the equation λ = ax/D for double-slit interference using light.
• (j) recall and solve problems using the formula d sin θ = nλ and describe the use of a diffraction grating to
determine the wavelength of light. (The structure and use of the spectrometer is not included.)

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Wave interference
 Wave interference is the phenomenon which occurs when two waves from
2 coherent sources meet while travelling along the same medium.
 2 waves are said to be coherent if
 They produce waves of the same frequency
 They produce waves of the same phase (or with
constant phase difference)
 The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape which
results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles
of the medium
 When waves are produced on the surface of water, the wave crests will act
like a convex lens while the troughs will act like a concave lens causing
bright and dark fringes
 Waves interference can be constructive or destructive
 A wave-front is a line that joins all the points vibrating in-phase and is
represented by the bright and dark fringes or maxima and minima
respectively, collectively called the interference pattern
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 Principle of Superposition
 The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of superposition is
applied.
 The principle of superposition is generally stated as follows:
When two or more waves interfere i.e. meet at the same point, the resulting displacement is the
algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that same point
• The principle applies to all types of waves

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 Constructive Interference
 This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in phase to produce a resultant wave of
maximum amplitude of the same original frequency
 In this example, amplitude A + amplitude A = 2A

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Destructive Interference
 This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in anti-phase to produce a
resultant wave of zero amplitude
 In this example, amplitude A – amplitude A = 0

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Two waves traveling in the same direction:
Constructive and Destructive Interference

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Two waves traveling in opposite
directions: Constructive and
Destructive Interference

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Path or phase difference
• Constructive interference occurs when the wave amplitudes reinforce each other, building a wave
of even greater amplitude.
• This happens when the waves are in phase i.e. path difference is a whole number of
wavelengths, nλ
• Destructive interference occurs when the wave amplitudes oppose each other, resulting in waves
of reduced amplitude i.e. path difference is an odd number of wavelengths, (n + ½)λ

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 =

WAVE IN PHASE Constructive interference

Waves in anti- Destructive interference

phase

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Demonstration of interference pattern with
a) sound waves b) light waves
• By using a signal generator and 2 speakers (pg 117 Mike Crundell fig 15.7)
• For light waves, must have 2 light sources of the same single frequency and not a mixture of
frequencies. Also must have a constant phase relationship i.e. coherent

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 Diffraction
• Normally light is thought of as traveling in straight lines, but when light
travels through an aperture, passes the edge of an object or passes round a
small obstacle, it deviates from the straight-on direction and spreads out like
waves
• Greatest effect occurs when the wavelength is about the same size as the
aperture, or the gap through which the wave is passing is narrower
• The smaller the size of the obstacle, the greater is the effect of spreading
• This effect is known as diffraction and is powerful evidence that light has
wave properties leading to the wave theory of light
• The amplitude of the diffracted wave is smaller than that of the incident
wave
• Although it was Sir Isaac Newton who attempted to explain diffraction (but
not based on the wave theory of light), it was Christian Huygens and later
Augustin Fresnel who developed the wave theory of light 14
 Diffraction
• When diffraction occurs:
• Wavelength is unchanged
• Frequency is unchanged
• Speed is unchanged
• Wave direction changes hence
• Wave velocity changes

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 Huygen’s wavelet explanation
• Huygen’s suggested that at any instant, all points on a wavefront could be regarded as
secondary disturbances giving rise to their own outspreading circular wavelets (pg 127
Mike Crundell fig 15.30)
• This causes interference patterns
• The central region of the pattern is a broad bright area with narrow dark fringes on
either side, beyond which are further successions of bright and dark areas becoming
less and less intense
• Path difference and wavelength explanation and equation (pg 128 Mike Crundell fig
15.32)
• Path difference between 2 rays:
½ a sin θ = ½ λ where, d is the width of slit, λ is wavelength, or generally,
a sin θ = nλ for destructive interference (dark fringes)
where n is an integer (0, ±1, ±2, ±3,…) since the fringes are form on both sides of the 0
fringe

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 Huygen’s principle

• The propagation of light wave can be predicted by assuming that

each point on the wave-front acts as a source for secondary wavelets
which spread out at all directions.
• The envelope of these 2nd wavelets after a small period of time is the
new wave-front.
 Wave-front – the large wave
 Wavelets – small waves
Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment –
1801• (pg 118 Mike Crundell fig 15.11)
• Monochromatic light > single slit > double slit > dark and bright
interference patterns on screen
• Light from monochromatic source; since monochromatic, is of the same
frequency and phase, is diffracted at the slit, producing 2 light sources at
the double slit
• This creates an interference pattern of dark and bright fringes on a screen
• The distance x between successive bright fringes on the screen is called the
fringe width
• For small angles since sin θ ≈ tan θ the fringe width is related to the
wavelength λ of the light source by the equation:
x = λD/a or λ = ax/D
where x is the fringe width, L is the distance between the
double slits to the screen, d is the distance between the
centre of the slits (distance between 2 coherent sources)

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 Interference – Young's experiment

•
 THE DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT
Originally performed by Young (1801) to demonstrate the wave-nature of
light. Has now been done with electrons, neutrons, He atoms among
others.

Alternative
method of
x detection: scan a
detector across
a the plane and
θ record number
d sin  of arrivals at
Incoming a sin θ
each point
coherent beam of
Detecting
particles (or
screen
light) D
Exercises
• Calculate the observed fringe width for a Young’s double slit experiment using light of wavelength
600 nm and slits 0.50 mm apart. The distance from the slits to the screen is 0.80 m. (ans: 0.96 mm)

• 2 loudspeakers connected to the same signal generator produce sounds of frequency 1000 Hz.
The separation between the 2 speakers is 2.0 m. An observer who stands 5.0 m in front hears 3
consecutive loud sounds when he moves through a distance of 1.65 m in the direction parallel to
the speakers.
Determine a) the wavelength of the sound (ans: 0.33 m)
b) the speed of the sound waves in air (ans: 330 ms )
-1

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Example
• A Young’s double slit interferometer with green light of wavelength 546 nm.
The double slits are 0.100 mm apart and the screen is 20 cm away from the
double slits. Find
i) the angular position of the 1st minimum
ii) the angular position of the 5th maximum
iii) the distance on the screen between the 1st maximum and the 5th
maximum
Solution
i) at the 1st minimum the path difference is ½λ;
using a sin θ = λ/2, θ = 0.156°
ii) at the 5th maximum, path difference is 5λ
using a sin θ = 5λ, θ = 1.41°
iii) the fringe spacing is given by x = λD/a = 1.09 mm
hence distance between 1st and 5th maxima is 4x the fringe
separation = 4.37 mm
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Example
• 2 narrow parallel slits are illuminated by light of 2 wavelengths, λ1 = 600nm and λ2 is unknown.
On the interference patterns produced on the screen, the 4th bright fringe for λ1 coincides with
the 6th bright fringe for λ2 . Find λ2
Solution
Since the 4th fringe and the 6th fringe coincide, this means that the fringes lie at the same angular
position.
i.e d sin θ = 4λ1 and d sin θ = 6λ2
therefore 4λ1 = 6λ2 and hence λ2 = 400 nm

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exercise
• The distance between the 1st bright fringe and the 21st bright fringe in
a Young’s double-slit arrangement was found to be 2.7mm. The slit
separation was 1.0mm and the distance from the slits to the plane of
the fringes was 25cm. What is the wavelength of the light?

• In a Young’s double-slit experiment a total of 23 bright fringes

occupying a distance of 3.9mm were visible in the travelling
microscope. The microscope was focused on a plane which was 31cm
from the double slit and the wavelength of the light being used was
5.5 x 10-7m. What was the separation of the double slit?
The diffraction grating
• This is a plate on which there is a large number of parallel, identical, very closely spaced slits
• When monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright fringes is produced
due to interference and the principle of superposition
• To obtain constructive interference, the path difference should be an integral number of
wavelengths
• (see page 129-130 of A/AS Physics by Mike Crundell for explanation and diagram and different
orders of diffraction)
• d sin θ = nλ for constructive interference
where n is the order of diffraction…0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd,….

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Example
• Monochromatic light is incident on a diffraction grating with 7.00 x 105 lines per meter. A second-
order maximum is observed at an angle of diffraction of 40.0°. Calculate the wavelength of the
incident light.

Solution
The relationship between the slit spacing and the number N of lines per metre
is d = 1/N
Using d sin θ = nλ, λ = 460 nm

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Example
• A diffraction grating is ruled with 3500 lines per cm. parallel light of
wavelength 600 nm is viewed through the grating. Find
i) the maximum number of orders of reinforcement that can be seen
through the grating
ii) the number of reinforcement maxima that will be observed
Solution
i) using d sin θ = nλ, n = d sin θ/λ
but n will be maximum when sin θ = 1
so n = d/λ = 4.76 i.e max order is 4
ii) the number of reinforcement maxima will be 9 (1 central beam, plus 4
on each side)

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The diffraction grating with white light
• When white light is incident on a diffraction grating, each wavelength making up the white light is
diffracted by a different amount as described by nλ = d sin θ or (n + ½) λ = d sin θ
• In the visible spectrum(VIBGYOR), red light ,because it has the longest wavelength is diffracted
through the largest angle, whereas violet is the least diffracted
• Hence a continuous spectrum is produced
• This phenomenon is an important use of diffraction grating in a spectrometer, used to investigate
spectra
• By determining the angle of the diffracted image, the wavelength of light producing that image
can be determined

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 Stationary or standing waves
• This is the phenomenon when 2 progressive waves
of equal amplitude and frequency travel along the
same line with the same speed but in opposite
directions [recap: Waves which move energy from
place to place are called progressive waves. Waves
that do not are called stationary waves]
• The waves interfere producing a wave pattern in
which the crests and troughs do not move, unlike
progressive waves
• They travel along with the same speed e.g. strings
in musical instruments
• Within a stationary/standing wave, regions of
constructive interference are called antinodes and
regions of destructive interference are called
nodes.
• Nodes and antinodes do not move along the string

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Experiment:- Stretched String

video

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Stationary waves on strings
• If a stretched string is plucked and allowed to vibrate
freely, there are certain frequencies at which it will
vibrate with a large amplitude
• This is known as the resonance frequency
• The simplest way a stretched string vibrates, has a
wave pattern which has a single loop called the
fundamental mode of vibration or the 1st harmonic

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 N - A - N
fundamental
frequency/1st
harmonic, fo
L = 1 loop = ½ lo

N - A - N - A - N
1st overtone/2nd
harmonic, f1 = 2fo
L = 2 loops = l1

N - A - N - A - N - A- N
2nd overtone/3rd
harmonic, f2 = 3fo
L = 3 loops = 1.5 l2
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General string expression
• v = fλ , where v is the speed of the progressive waves
which have interfered to produce the stationary wave
• λ of fundamental or 1st harmonic is 2L, hence f0 is v/2L
• λ of 1st overtone/2nd harmonic is L, hence f1 is v/L
• Hence general expression is fn = vn/2L
where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (nth harmonic)

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Key features distinguishing stationary waves
from progressive waves
• In stationary waves, the nodes & antinodes do not move along the string, whereas in progressive
waves, the crests and troughs do move along it

• In stationary waves, the amplitude of vibration varies with position along the string: zero at the
node & maximum at an antinode. In a progressive wave, all points have the same amplitude

• Between adjacent nodes, all points of the stationary wave vibrate in phase. i.e. all particles of the
string are at their max displacement at the same instant. In a progressive wave, phase varies
continuously along the wave

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Stationary waves explained by interference
• Pg 122 Mike Crundell fig.15.21

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Experiment:- stationary waves in a closed
tube or pipe - air columns

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Air columns
• For stationary waves in a closed pipe, the air cannot move at the closed end, so it is always a
node, N
• The open end is a position of maximum disturbance and hence is an antinode, A
• The particular frequencies at which stationary waves are obtained in a pipe are the resonant
frequencies of the pipe

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Standing wave in one Standing waves in
closed end and one open ended pipe on
open ended pipe both sides

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For 1 closed end tube:
𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 𝑪
𝒇𝒏 =
𝟒𝑳

For 2 – open ended tube:

𝑪
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏
𝟐𝑳

…where 𝒏 is the number of harmonics i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4,…

Remember that:
Fundamental frequency (n = 1) => 1st harmonic
1st overtone => 2nd harmonic (n = 2) => 1st resonance
2nd overtone => 3rd harmonic (n = 3) => 2nd resonance
3rd overtone => 4th harmonic (n = 4) => 3rd resonance …
Play the vid
Stationary waves using microwaves
• (pg 124 Mike Cundell)
• Using a microwave source and a metal reflector, and moving
a probe detector (connected to a meter) in between slowly
towards and away from the source, the metered signal
fluctuates from a minimum to a maximum
• The minima are nodes whereas the maxima are antinodes
• The distance between 2 successive nodes or antinodes is
half the wavelength of the microwaves

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Measuring speed of sound using stationary
waves using resonance method
• (pg 124 Mike Cundell)
• Uses the principle of resonance in a tube closed at one end
• A glass tube is placed in a cylinder of water and by raising the tube, the air column can be
increased
• A tuning fork of known frequency is used to cause resonance
• 1st loud sound is at λ/4, next loud sound at 3λ/4
• Difference is λ/2 = L2 - L1
since c = fλ , c = 2f(L2 - L1)

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Speed of sound using stationary waves in free
air
• (pg 125 Mike Cundell)
• A signal generator and loudspeaker is used to produce a note of known frequency
• A reflector is used
• A microphone and oscilloscope are used to find 2 nodes (i.e. minimum amplitude points)
• Distance between 2 nodes d = λ/2
• Using c = fλ , c = 2fd

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 Example
The string at the right is 1.5 meters long and is
vibrating as the first harmonic. The string vibrates
up and down with 33 complete vibrational cycles in
10 seconds. Determine the frequency, period,
wavelength and speed for this wave.

Solution:-

Given: L = 1.5 m
33 cycles in 10 seconds
So,
f = (33 cycles) / (10 seconds) = 3.3 Hz

T = 1 / (3.3 Hz) = 0.303 seconds

l = 2 • L = 2 • (1.5 m) = 3.0 m
The speed of a wave can be calculated from its wavelength and frequency using
the wave equation:
v = f • l = (3.3 Hz) • (3. 0 m) = 9.9 m/s

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Example:
A stretched wire of length 60.0 cm vibrates transversely. Waves travel along
the wire at a speed 210 m/s. Three antinodes can be found in the stationary
waves formed in between the two ends of the wire. Determine
a. the wavelength of the waves which move along the wire
b. the frequency

Solution: ½l
Antinodes

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TE
HE ND