The Easiest Way Prof. Policastro

Patricia Silvana Policastro
The Easiest Way

to Approach
Grammar I
Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires

CONTENTS
To My Readers ................................................................................. 5
Acknowledgements ......................................................................... 7
1. The Parts of Speech .................................................................... 9
2. Subject and Predicate ................................................................ 11
3. Basic Patterns ........................................................................... 11
4. Phrases ...................................................................................... 15
• The Noun Phrase: Its analysis ........................................... 16
• The Adjectival Phrase: Its analysis .................................... 17
• The Adverbial Phrase: Its analysis .................................... 18
• The Verb Phrase: Its analysis ............................................ 18
5. The Sentence: Semantic Classification ..................................... 19
6. Amorphus Sentence .................................................................. 20
7. The Sentence: Syntactic Classification ..................................... 20
8. Guide to analyse a Simple Sentence .......................................... 21
9. Coordinators .............................................................................. 23
10. Guide to analyse a Compound Sentence ............................... 23
11. Complex Sentence ................................................................... 24
12. Guide to analyse a Complex Sentence ................................... 25
13. Subordinating Conjunctions .................................................... 27
14. Special Types of Adverbial Clauses ......................................... 29
15. Relative or Adjectival Clauses .................................................. 32
16. Sentential Relative Clause ....................................................... 40
17. Uses of That, Who, Which ........................................................ 41
18. Nominal or Noun Clauses ........................................................ 42
19. Relative Nominal Clauses ........................................................ 47
20. Interrogative Nominal Clauses ................................................. 48
21. Noun Clause Complementary Adjunct ..................................... 50
22. Noun Clause in Apposition ...................................................... 51
23. Relative Clause vs. Noun Clause in Apposition ...................... 53
24. Guide to analyse a Compound-Complex Sentence ................ 53
APPENDIX :
• Theme and Focus ............................................................. 61
• Anticipatory Subject Cataphoric Reference (ASCR) ......... 62
• Anticipatory Subject THERE .............................................. 63
• Semantic categories of the Real Subject ........................... 65
• The Verb ............................................................................. 67
a. Morphology of verbs ................................................... 68
b. Classification of verbs .................................................. 70
c. Classification of full lexical verbs ................................. 71
• Complements and Modifiers ............................................. 76
• Determiners ....................................................................... 77
• The Subject: Typical and Atypical Forms .......................... 80
• Kinds of IT as Subject ....................................................... 81
• Kinds of IT as DO ............................................................... 82
• The Quasi-Passive Construction ...................................... 83
• The Quasi-Predicative ...................................................... 83
Exercises ........................................................................................ 85
Key to Exercises ........................................................................... 96
Abbreviations ............................................................................... 153
Further Reading ............................................................................ 154
TO MY READERS
Whenever we teachers and students hear the word GRAMMAR,

our tendency is to panic. GRAMMAR has been for the majority of
our students synonymous with a nightmare, with torture and in
most of the cases, with frustration. In fact, I can still recall one of my
university teachers calling it “la dolorosa” or saying “This is Drama,
not Grammar”. However, I would venture to say that GRAMMAR can
be a pleasant and enjoyable subject if we choose the right way to
approach it.
Besides, we have to bear in mind that GRAMMAR is the backbone
of every language; without it no language in the world would be able
to survive. Obviously, nowadays GRAMMAR is not the traditional
prescriptive one our ancestors had to cope with. Today GRAMMAR
is descriptive, flexible, open-minded; it looks like a guide more than
a set of fixed rules. And it adjusts to the continuous changes that
any language suffers in its oral and written productions.
In my opinion, GRAMMAR is (believe it or not!) like cooking. When
cooking, of course, we should follow the instructions of a recipe if
we want the final product to be satisfactory. This does not mean
that we cannot be a bit creative and alter, perhaps, the order of the
instructions or replace some of the ingredients, especially if we have
run out of them. What really matters is that in the end we will still
have a tasty product.
As in the kitchen, in GRAMMAR we should also follow
certain “instructions” if we want our product to be readable and
understandable. But, as in cooking, we are allowed to create.
For instance, if we have to elicit a “correct” sentence, we will pay
attention, on the one hand, to many variables such as tenses,
agreement subject-verb, word order, etc. On the other hand, we
might also have fun with words and insert an adverb between the
empty carrier to and a verb, apply inversion, etc. The same will
happen if we approach a sentence syntactically, for we can choose
the pattern that makes us feel more confident or analyse it in more
than one way.
Again, as in the kitchen, in GRAMMAR we should be very well-
5
organized. We must go step by step, slowly and cautiously at the
beginning, “tasting” while working in order to have control of the
situation and avoid any inconveniences.
The aim of this surface structure book is to make GRAMMAR an
easier, friendlier and funnier subject. Probably, it does not contain
many more recipes than those you already know, but I hope it does
have some tips that will certainly accompany you on your way to
GRAMMAR I.
Professor Patricia Silvana Policastro
6
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My SPECIAL THANKS to:
God, for giving me everything I have and letting me be who I am.
My Family, and above all my Mum, for encouraging me all the
time.
Professor Paul Nielsen, for believing in me; I am sure he will never
let me down.
Professor Fabiana Alvarez, for teaching me all that I know about
the Grammar stuff (I wish she visited us!).
Professor Carolina Martinez Ochab, for supporting me since I
began to work at USAL.
All my teachers, for guiding me towards the right path.
All my students, for illuminating my life.
Juany, for helping me design what I hope will become… part of
your lives.
Thank you very much,
From the bottom of my heart.
7
1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH
All the words in the English language can be grouped, according

to the work they do, into nine classes. These are the Parts of
Speech.
They are:
1. NOUNS: They are words used to refer to people, objects,

places, qualities and abstract ideas as if they were all things,
e.g. car, man, tree, Paris, Susan, beauty, family.
2. PRONOUNS: They are words that can be used instead of
nouns, so that we can refer to people or things without naming
them or repeating their names so frequently, e.g. we, him, that,
who, myself, somebody.
3. ADJECTIVES: They are words that qualify a noun by
making its meaning clearer, more complete, or more exact,
e.g. beautiful, funny, quick, blue, tired.
4. VERBS: They are words that express the idea of action or
being, that affirm that a person or thing is, does or suffers
something. They may refer to an action, a feeling, a state, etc.,
e.g. read, see, like, find, is, talk.
5. ADVERBS: They are words that can add to a verb to make
its meaning clearer or can be used to qualify an adjective, a
noun or another adverb, e.g. quickly, very, too, yesterday, now,
suddenly.
6. PREPOSITIONS: They are words used with nouns or
pronouns in phrases showing the relationship between them
or another word. They usually express abstract relationship of
time, place, manner, direction, purpose, etc., e.g. on, up, to,
by, near.
7. CONJUNCTIONS: They are used to join words, phrases
or sentences. They typically indicate relationships between
things and events, e.g. and, but, or, so, although, while, if,
because.
8. INTERJECTIONS: They are words (or sounds) that express
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a sudden feeling or emotion, e.g. Hello! Oh! Bravo! Oh! Hey! (1)
9. DETERMINERS: (also known as determinatives) They are
words that pre-modify nouns determining them. This is a class
different from adjectives, for determiners behave differently.
In this category we include: articles, partitives, quantifiers,
numerals, demonstratives, genitives, intensifiers, e.g. a/an,
the, some, a piece of, every, first, two, many, more. (2)
(1) These words do not enter into the syntactical construction of the sentence.
However, they still need to be considered as part of a sentence classification.
In fact, they have a function in the discourse.
(2) Many of these words may stand alone as pronouns or they may determine,
limit, restrict, quantify a noun. They do not add a quality to the noun.
NB: Simple definitions as the ones given above will be useful for identifying most
forms in the English Language. But they are never completely accurate. Sometimes
it is not possible to tell which word class a word belongs to just by having a look at
it. We always need to look carefully at how it behaves in a sentence. Besides, some
words may have more than one use.
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The Easiest way to Approach Grammar I
2. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE.
The SUBJECT is what we are talking about, i.e. the theme or topic
of the sentence. It may also be regarded as the sufferer of the state.
The PREDICATE is what we say about the subject. The predicator
is typically the VERB, but it depends on the type of verb we have
within the sentence. An adjective or an adverb can also act as a
predicator.
In the sentence “MARY GOES TO SCHOOL.”, “GOES” is a FINITE
VERB. We need a FINITE or CONJUGATED verb in a sentence. In the
PREDICATE we can have simply a VERB or a VERB accompanied
by other elements.
3. BASIC PATTERNS:
1. S + IVCP + (AA)
Subject + Intransitive Verb of Complete Predication + (Adverbial
Adjunct)*
He runs fast. The children are speaking.
Time flies. Some birds were singing outside my window.
2. S + IVCP + AC + (AA)
Subject + Intransitive Verb of Complete Predication + Adverbial
Complement(1) + (Adverbial Adjunct)*
Examples of verbs that can be found within this pattern: go,
come, arrive, live, reach, get, leave, cost, weigh.
I go to school every day. This pencil costs $1.55.

AC of Place AC of Quantity
I live in Argentina. The plane arrived at the airport at 10.30.

AC of Place AC of Place
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3. S + IVIP + SC + (AA)
Subject + Intransitive Verb of Incomplete Predication (2) + Subjective
Complement + (Adverbial Adjunct)*
Examples of verbs that can be found within this pattern: verb BE,
seem, appear, feel, smell, look, sound, taste, become, turn, get, run
(i.e. copulative verbs, verbs of senses and verbs of becoming).
He is happy. We are at home.

SC SC
My friend feels tired. Tom became a doctor last month.

SC SC
4. S + TVCP + DO + (AA)
Subject + Transitive Verb of Complete Predication (3) + Direct Object
+ (Adverbial Adjunct)*
He plays the guitar very well. We bought a car.

DO DO
Mary studies Italian twice a week.

DO
5. S + TVCP + IO + DO + (AA)
Subject + Transitive Verb of Complete Predication (4) + Indirect
Object (5) + Direct Object + (Adverbial Adjunct)*
He gave me the money.

IO DO
They have sent their grandma a Christmas present.

IO DO
6. S + TVCP + DO + Prepositional IO (to/for)

Subject + Transitive Verb of Complete Predication + Direct Object
+ Prepositional Indirect Object introduced by the prepositions to
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(meaning direction) or for (meaning intention)
He gave the money to me. He bought a car for me.

Prep. IO Prep. IO
Write a letter to him soon.

Prep.IO
7. S + TVIP + DO + OC + (AA)
Subject + Transitive Verb of Incomplete Predication + Direct Object
+ Objective Complement (6) + (Adverbial Adjunct)*
He painted the door blue. Surface Structure

DO OC
The door is blue. Deep Structure
They elected him president. Surface Structure

DO OC
He is the president. Deep Structure
I considered him to be a fool. SS

DO OC
He is a fool. DS
8. S + TVCP + DO + AC + (AA)
Subject + Transitive Verb of Complete Predication + Direct Object +
Adverbial Complement + (Adverbial Adjunct)*
The headmaster put Peter into the second class.

AC
He laid his hand on my arm.
AC
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Pattern 7 can easily be an alternative to this pattern. For

example:
The headmaster put Peter into the second class.

TVIP DO OC
*Adverbial Adjuncts (of time, place, manner, reason, etc.) are optional, i.e.
they are not required by the verb.
(1) The Adverbial Complement is required by the verb to COMPLETE the
meaning of the sentence.
(2) Intransitive Verbs of Incomplete Predication are LINKING/COPULATIVE
verbs. They have little lexical meaning for they simply CONNECT the
subject with the real predicate.
(3) Transitive Verbs are full lexical verbs that require an OBJECT.
(4) Verbs that take the DO are known as MONOTRANSITIVE verbs. Verbs
that take IO and DO are called DITRANSITIVE or BITRANSITIVE verbs.
(5) The IO is, semantically speaking, the RECEIVER of the DO. In English, if
you have an IO, you certainly have a DO.
(6) The Objective Complement is required by the verb so as to COMPLETE
the meaning of the DO.
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4. PHRASES
Words and prepositions form phrases. A phrase shows the
organization of categories. In a phrase the central word is the HEAD;
it gives the category or the name to that phrase.
NOUN PHRASES………………… HEAD= NOUN

ADJECTIVAL PHRASES…………. HEAD= ADJECTIVE
ADVERBIAL PHRASES …………. HEAD= ADVERB
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES …… HEAD= PREPOSITION
*VERB PHRASES ………………… HEAD= a) FINITE / b) NON-FINITE
The HEAD is accompanied by MODIFIERS and COMPLEMENTS.
Modifiers are OPTIONAL; they add meaning to the head. They can
be omitted without changing the meaning of the head.
Complements are OBLIGATORY constructions. They are necessary

to complete the meaning of the head.
Example:
__S___ ___________________________P_____________________
I went to London (1) last month. (2)
IVCP AC of Place AA of Time
(1) This is a COMPLEMENT. Its syntactic function is Adverbial Complement of

Place. Its semantic category is Prepositional Phrase.
(2) This is a MODIFIER. Its syntactic function is Adverbial Adjunct of Time. Its
semantic category is Nominal Phrase.
The PREDICATE is a FINITE VERB PHRASE. Its patterns are:
1. HEAD + MODIFIER (verb + adverbial adjunct)

2. HEAD + COMPLEMENT + MODIFIER (verb + adverbial
complement + adverbial adjunct)
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3. HEAD + COMLEMENT + MODIFIER (verb + subjective complement

+ adverbial adjunct)
4. HEAD + COMPLEMENT + MODIFIER (verb + direct object +
adverbial adjunct)
5. HEAD + COMPLEMENT + COMPLEMENT + MODIFIER (verb +
indirect object + direct object + adverbial adjunct)
direct object + indirect object + adverbial adjunct)
direct object + objective complement + adverbial adjunct)
THE NOUN (or NOMINAL) PHRASE: Its analysis
My sister
Pre-Modifier/ Head/Noun
Possessive determiner
The clever boy

Pre-Modifier/ Pre-Modifier/ H/N
Determiner Adjective
The woman in red

PM./Det. H/N Post-Modifier/
Prepositional Phrase
in red
H/Preposition Complement/
Adjectival Phrase
The problem of unemployment

PM/Det. H/N Complement/Prep.Ph.
of unemployment
H/Prep. C/Noun Phrase
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____S______ __________P_______________
I went to London.
IVCP AC/Prep. Ph.
to London
H/Prep. C/Noun
London
H/N
THE ADJECTIVAL PHRASE: Its analysis
My garden is very nice.

SC/Adj.Ph.
very nice
PM/Intensifier H/Adjective
so sorry about this

PM/Int. H/Adj. C/Prep.Ph.
about this
H/Prep. C/N Ph.
this
H/Det. Nominalized
highly interested in grammar

PM/Int. H/Adj. C/Prep.Ph.
NB: What follows the ADJECTIVE is always known as the COMPLEMENT of that
adjective.
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THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE: Its analysis
He runs very quickly.

AA/Adv.Ph.
very quickly
PM/Int. H/Adv.
He works too slowly to finish in time.

AA/Adv.Ph.
too slowly to finish in time

PM/Int. H/Adv. C/Non-finite Phrase (or Infinitival Phrase)
THE VERB PHRASE: Its analysis
The Verb Phrase in English may contain one or more words:

a) MAIN VERB
b) MAIN VERB + AUXILIARIES (be: auxiliary for the passive
voice or for progression/have: auxiliary for perfection/modal
auxiliaries: can, could, may might, will, would, shall, should,
have to, ought to, etc.)
c) EMPTY CARRIER DO / DOES / DID
I have always lived in the country.

Aux. Perf. MV(IVCP)
You must keep calm.

Modal Aux. MV/IVIP
May I offer you a cup of coffee?

Modal Aux. MV/TVCP
I don’t like fish.

EC MV/TVCP
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5.THE SENTENCE
A sentence should contain SUBJECT and PREDICATE. It starts
with capital letter and ends with a full stop. “Good morning!” is a
sentence. In the deep structure it reads as follows: “I wish you good
morning.”
Basically a CLAUSE contains a SUBJECT and a PREDICATE.
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION:
A) According to the word order:
• DECLARATIVE = SUBJECT + VERB (positive/affirmative or

negative)
• INTERROGATIVE (positive or negative)
• IMPERATIVE (The subject is present in the deep structure.
It is YOU –singular or plural. It does not have an overt surface
structure.)
• EXCLAMATORY = What + noun: What a nice day it is!
How + adjective/adverb: How nice she is!

Adj.
How quickly he runs!
Adv.
B) According to the discourse function:

• STATEMENTS: They are sentences used to state a fact.
E.g. A declarative sentence
• QUESTIONS: They are sentences used when you want to know
something.
E.g. An interrogative sentence
• DIRECTIVES: They are sentences used when you want to
instruct someone to do something.
E.g. “I’d like to have a cup of coffee.” It is a declarative directive
sentence.
• EXCLAMATIVES: They express feelings, emotions.
E.g. “Are you crazy?” It is an interrogative exclamative statement.
Other examples: “This is true?” It is a declarative question.
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“You must do your homework.” It is a declarative directive.

“He’s here, isn’t he?” It is a declarative question.
6. AMORPHUS SENTENCE
Amorphus sentences are used to express the emotional side of
human beings. We cannot identify Subject or Predicate clearly
when reading them. The context will tell us whether they are an
exclamation, a question, etc.
E.g. Great! It is not a sentence in the Surface Structure. In the Deep
Structure it would read as follows: It is great.
Other examples: Yeah! Sorry.

Good morning. Bye!
7. SYNTACTIC CLASSIFICATION:
1.SIMPLE SENTENCE: It contains only one clause (i.e. Subject +
Verb).
E.g.
________S________ ________P________
I am a teacher.
________S________ _________P__________
Peter and Tom are friends.
_________S________ _________P_____________
She likes cooking and ironing.
_________S_________ ________________P______________
She went to her mother’s and asked for help.
2.COMPOUND SENTENCE: It consists of two or more simple

sentences coordinated by means of coordinating conjunctions (and,
but, or, so), conjuncts (still, yet, then, however, etc.) or parataxis (, / ;).
20
E.g.
(Peter went to the cinema) and (he met Mary there).
(I wanted to see him) but (he didn’t go).
3.COMPLEX SENTENCE: It contains one Main Clause (MC) and

one, two or more Subordinate Clauses. (1)
E.g.
___MC__ ______MC______
The man who is wearing a hat is my uncle Tom.
Subordinate Clause (Relative Clause)
He told me that he looked smart.

MC Subordinate Clause
(Nominal Clause)
If you work hard, you will have a lot of money.

Subordinate Clause MC
(Adverbial Clause)
(1) They are Relative Clauses, Noun/Nominal Clauses and Adverbial Clauses.
They depend on the Main Clause.
4.COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE: It consists of two or more

MCs coordinated and, at least, one Subordinate Clause.
E.g.
(Mary went to her mother’s) but (she couldn’t find her
because she wasn’t there).
Subordinate Clause (Adverbial Clause)
8. GUIDE TO ANALYSE A SIMPLE SENTENCE

1st Example:
Avalanches are extremely dangerous and can happen very suddenly.
1. Kind of sentence: Simple, declarative positive statement.
2. Finite verb or phrase: are (main verb) / can happen (modal
auxiliary + main verb)
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3. Kind of finite: are (IVIP) / can happen (IVCP)

4. Analysis:
____S___ _ __________________________P_________________________
Avalanches are extremely dangerous and can happen very suddenly.
H/N FV PM/Adv. H/Adj. CCC FV PM/Int. H/Adv.
____________________ _____________
SC/Adj. Ph. AA of manner/ Adv. Ph.
NB: CCC means Cumulative Coordinating Conjunction. For further information, see
COORDINATORS.
2nd Example:
He laid his sweating hand on my shoulder and talked affectionately.
2. Finite verb: laid (main verb) / talked (main verb)
3. Kind of finite: laid (TVCP) / talked (IVCP)
4. Analysis:
___S___ _________________________P____________________________
He laid his sweating hand on my shoulder and
H/PP FV PM/Det. PM/Adj. H/N PM/Det. H/N CCC
______________________ ___ ______________
DO/Noun Ph. H/P C/N.Ph.
____________________
AC of Place/Prep. Ph.
__________P__________
talked affectionately.
FV H/Adv.
_____________
AA of Manner/Adv.Ph.
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9. COORDINATORS
A COMPOUND SENTENCE is a sentence containing two or more
statements connected by means of coordinators. These coordinators
can be divided into three groups:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Conjuncts
3. Parataxis
1. Coordinating Conjunctions: AND – Cumulative (It gives idea of

addition)
OR – Alternative (It gives idea of choice)
BUT – Adversative (It gives idea of contrast)
SO – Illative (It gives idea of consequence)
BOTH …AND – Correlative Cumulative (It is used to express addition)
EITHER …OR/NEITHER …NOR OR ELSE – Correlative Alternative
2. Conjuncts: They are words or group of words used to join sentences
in an utterance. They are regarded as text organizers. E.g. moreover,
however, then, yet, still, as a result, for example, therefore, summing
up, as a result, for example, that is to say, what is more, etc.
3. Parataxis: Here we include the comma (,), the semi-colon (;) and
the colon (:).
10. GUIDE TO ANALYSE A

COMPOUND SENTENCE
Example:
Mary went to the movies and Peter stayed at home.

1. Kind of sentence: Compound
2. First member: Mary went to the movies
3. Kind of member: Simple, declarative positive statement (or member)
4. Finite verb: went (main verb)
5. Kind of finite: IVCP
6. Analysis:
23
_____S______ _________________P______________
Mary went to the movies.
H/N FV PM/ H/N
RD/DA
___ ______________
H/Prep. C/Noun Ph.
___________________
AC of Place/Prep.Ph.
7. Connective between the first and the second members: and

(CCC = Cumulative Coordinating Conjunction)
8. Second member: Peter stayed at home
9. Kind of member: Simple, declarative positive statement (or
member)
10. Finite verb: stayed (main verb)
12. Analysis:
_____S______ ________________P______________
Peter stayed at home.
H/N FV H/N
____ __________
H/Prep. C/Noun Ph.
_________________
11. COMPLEX SENTENCES
A COMPLEX SENTENCE is a sentence with a MAIN CLAUSE and

one or more SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. The latter can be adverbial,
relative (or adjectival) or nominal clauses.
Adverbial Clauses function as adverbial adjuncts (AA of …) or
adverbial complements (AC of …). These clauses are introduced
by Subordinating Conjunctions, which convey meaning but do
not have internal syntactic function in the Adverbial Clause. The
Subordinating Conjunction is the word that specifies the meaning
24
of the Adverbial Clause, i.e. it is the semantic scope.
Example:
_SC_(1)
(As he is an only child), (he gets a great deal of affection).
________________________ _______________________________
Adverbial Clause/ AA of Reason Main Clause
(1) As = Because
12. GUIDE TO ANALYSE A COMPLEX SENTENCE

Example:
As he is an only child, he gets a great deal of affection.
1. Kind of sentence: Complex, declarative positive statement
2. Main Clause: S1 (= Sub-clause 1), gets a great deal of affection.
3. Finite verb: gets (main verb)
4. Kind of finite : TVCP
5. Analysis:
_Disc. P__ __S___ ________Discontinuous P.____________

S1/ he gets a great deal of affection.
AA of Reason H/PP FV PM/RD/Quant. H/N
_________________________
DO/N. Ph.
6. S1: As he is an only child

7. Kind of clause: Adverbial declarative positive clause
8. Function: Adverbial Adjunct of reason
9. Finite verb: is (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: IVIP
11. Connective: as
12. Kind of connective: Subordinating Conjunction
13. Internal function: 0
14. Analysis:
25
____S_____ _________________P____________________ _
As he is an only child.
Sub. H/PP FV PM/ RD/ PM/Post-Det. H/N
Conj. IA Numeral
________________________________
SC/Nom.Ph.
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13. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

They are connectives used to introduce Adverbial Clauses. As
regards meaning, they can be classified as follows:
Time: when, while, whenever, before, after, until, since, once, as,
now that, as soon as, whereas, as long as, be the time, all the time,
every time, immediately, no sooner…than, scarcely…when.
e.g. The dog started to bark when he whistled.
Place: where, wherever, whence, whither, wheresoever, whithersoever,

whereso, everywhere, as, as far as.
e.g. The stores were empty everywhere we went.
Bob’s garage is on the left as you enter town.
Manner: as, as if, as though, in that, like, how, in the manner that,
in the way that, in what way, (as it were, as I recall, as it happened).
e.g. Do it like I told you. He tried to do the job how the boss wanted
it done.
Degree or comparison: as, as…as, so…as, than.

e.g. She can’t work as fast as she used to.
Attendant Circumstances: as, while, that, but (it substitutes that in

negative sentences).
e.g. As I was going to St. Ives, I met a man with seven wives.
You hold him while I hit him.
Result: so that, so…that, such (a)…that, that (rare).

e.g. The smaller burglar had such a winning smile that we couldn’t
help liking him.
His sales talk was so poor that Aunt Flo decided not to buy the
cement mixer.
Purpose: that, in order that, lest, for fear (that), in case (They answer
the question what for?)
e.g. School was closed early in order that the children might get
27
home ahead of the storm.
Cause or reason: because, since, as, inasmuch as, seeing (that),

considering (that), now (that), that (rare), whereas (sometimes when,
once, after).
e.g. I guess I’ll have to take him to the movies after I said I would.
Condition: if, unless, provided that, so long as, in case, in so far

as, on condition (that), so/as long as, suppose, supposing, (less
common only, so, so that).*
e. g. We won’t be able to open the door unless we get the key.
*If we omit the conjunction, we may introduce the clause by means

of SHOULD or WERE (Inversion).
Should you hear anything, let me know.
Concession: although, though, even though, while, whereas, even if,

no matter how, not withstanding that, as, no matter however we…
e.g. Though he is young, he behaves like an adult.
NB: Subordinating Conjunctions do not have internal function, except for those
words ending in ever such as however, whatever, whoever.
28
14. SPECIAL TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES:

HOW TO ANALYSE THEM
1) She is so pretty that everybody admires her beauty.

2. Main clause: She is so pretty S1
5. Analysis:
____S_____ ___________P______________
She is so pretty S1.
H/PP FV PM/ H/Adj. AA of Result/Adv. Clause
Intens.
____________
SC/Adj.Ph.
6. S1: that everybody admires her beauty

8. Function: AA of Result
9. Finite verb: admires (main verb)
10. Kind of finite : TVCP
11. Connective : so…that
12. Kind of connective : Correlative Subordinating Conjunction
13. Internal function: 0 but so is PM of pretty in the main clause
14. Analysis:
____S_____ _________P_________________
so…that everybody admires her beauty.
CSC H/Ind.P. FV PM/RD/ H/N
Poss.Det.
________________
DO/N.Ph.
29
Another way of analysing sentence 1:
____S____ _________________P_______________________
She is so pretty S1.
H/PP FV PM/Int. H/Adj. Post-Mod./Adv. Clause
__________________________________
SC/Adj.Ph.
2) He is such a clever boy that everybody looks at him.

2. Main clause: He is such a clever boy S1
5. Analysis:
___S____ _________________________ P ________________________

He is such a clever boy S1.
H/PP FV PM/PD/ PM/RD/ PM/Adj. H/N AA of Result/
PA/Intens. IA Adv.Clause
6. S1: such…that everybody looks at him

7. Kind of clause: Adverbial declarative positive statement
8. Function: AA of result
9. Finite verb: looks at (main verb/prepositional verb)
10. Kind of verb: TVCP
11. Connective: such…that
12. Kind of connective: Correlative Subordinating Conjunction
13. Internal Function: 0 but such is PM of boy in the main clause
14. Analyis:
____S_____ __________P______________
such…that everybody looks at him.
CSC H/Ind.P. FV H/Obj.P.
__________
DO/Pron.Ph.
NB: SO premodifies adjectives and adverbs (e.g. so nice, so quickly); SUCH

premodifies nouns (e.g.: such a nice girl, such good news, such good people).
30
3) However hard he tried, he couldn’t get the money.
1. Kind of sentence: Complex, declarative negative statement

2. Main clause: S1, he couldn’t get the money
3. Finite verb: could (modal auxiliary) get (main verb)
4. Kind of finite: get (TVCP)
5. Analysis:
_Disc.P___ ___S_____ ____ Disc.P.__________________________

S1 he could n’t get the money.
AA of Concess./ H/PP H/Adv. PM/RD/ H/N
Adv. Clause _____ DA
AA of negation/ ________________
Adv.Ph. DO/N.Ph.
_____..........._____
Disc. V.Ph.
6. S1: However hard he tried

7. Kind of clause: Adverbial, declarative positive clause
8. Function: AA of Concession
9. Finite verb: tried (main verb)
11. Connective: However
13. Internal function: intensifier premodifying HARD (=very)
14. Analysis:
_______DP________ ____S____ _____DP_______

However hard he tried.
PM/Intens. H/Adv. H/PP FV
__________________
AA of Manner/Adv.Ph.
4) Hard though he may try, he won’t get the money.

2. Main clause: S1, he won’t get the money.
3. Finite verb: will (modal auxiliary) get (main verb)
31
4. Kind of finite: get (TVCP)

5. Analysis:
__DP______ ___S____ _________DP____________________

S1 he wo ‘nt get the money.
AA of Concess./ H/PP H/Adv. PM/RD/ H/N
Adv. Clause ______ DA
AA of Neg./ ______________
Adv.Ph. DO/N.Ph.
____..........._____
D.V.Ph.
6. S1: Hard though he may try

8. Function: AA of Manner
9. Finite verb: may (modal auxiliary) try (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: try (IVC))
11. Connective: though
14. Analysis:
___DP_____ ____S_____ ____DP_________

Hard though he may try
H/Adv. Sub.Conj. H/PP FPh.
_________
AA of Manner/
Adv.Ph.
NB: In sentence 4) the formal expression Hard though means Although.
15. RELATIVE OR ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

Relative Clauses modify nouns and complete sentences. There
are two types of Relative Clauses:
1. Defining Relative Clauses or Restrictive Relative Clauses
32
2. Non-defining Relative Clauses or Non-restrictive Relative

Clauses
1. Semantically DRC (= Defining Relative Clauses) define the noun

modified by the clause. The information provided by the clause is
essential to the meaning of the sentence.
E.g. The man who is sitting over there* is Tom Cruise. *(Essential
information)
In the written language, DRC are not separated by commas from

the antecedent (i.e. the noun modified). In the spoken language,
DRC belong to the same intonation pattern as that of the antecedent.
2. On the contrary, NDRC do not define the noun modified since the
antecedent (in this case, man) is already definite.
E.g. Tom Cruise, who is my favourite actor*, is sitting over there.

NDRC
* (Extra information which can be omitted without damaging or changing the
meaning of the sentence)
In the written language, NDRC are set off by commas. Besides, they
have a different intonation contour (i.e. you make a pause when
reading them).
NDRC are typical of the written language (or formal language). In
spoken or less formal language, we tend to use separate sentences
in coordination.
More examples of DRC and NDRC:
The car which I bought yesterday proved to be really good.

The house where I used to spend my holidays was demolished.
Paris, which is the centre of the world fashion, was chosen to be the
site for the International Fashion Show.
John John Kennedy, who died in a plane accident last month, was
33
another of the victims of the family tragedy.

NB: The connective THAT is never used to introduce a NDRC. You have to use
WHICH or WHO instead.
We have already seen that Adverbial Clauses are introduced by

Subordinating Conjunctions. Relative or Adjectival Clauses are
introduced by RELATIVES.
RELATIVES have internal function. There are three types of

RELATIVES:
1. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: who, whom, which, that, as, but

2. RELATIVE DETERMINERS: whose, which
3. RELATIVE ADVERBS: where, when, why, that
• How to analyse a RC introduced by a RELATIVE PRONOUN
1) The man who is sitting there is Tom Cruise.

2. Main clause: The man S1 is Tom Cruise.
5. Analysis:
____________S_________________ _______P__________
The man S1 is Tom Cruise.
PM/RD H/N Post-Mod./ FV SC/N.Ph.
DA DRC
6. S1: who is sitting there

7. Kind of clause: Defining Relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent man
9. Finite verb: is (auxiliary for the progressive) sitting (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: sitting (IVCP)
11. Connective: who
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE PRONOUN
34
13. Internal function: subject

14. Analysis:
_____S______ _____________P______________________
who is sitting there.
H/Relative Pronoun FV AA of place/Adv.Ph.
(The man is sitting there.)

(Subject in the deep structure)
2) This is the car that I bought yesterday.

2. Main clause: This is the car S1
5. Analysis:
_____S______ _________________P_____________________
This is the car S1
H/RD/ FV PM/RD/ H/N Post-Modifier/
Demonstrative DA DRC
Determiner nominalized ___________________________
SC/NPh.
6. S1: that I bought yesterday

7. Kind of clause: Defining relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent car
9. Finite verb: bought (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: TVCP
11. Connective: that
13. Internal function: DO
14. Analysis:
35
___DP_______ ___S____ _______DP______________

that I bought yesterday.
H/RP H/PP FV H/Adv.
______ __________
DO/Pronominal Ph. AA of Time/Adv.Ph.
3) This is the film about which they talked.

2. Main clause: This is the film S1
5. Analysis:
____S____ ____________P_________________________
This is the film S1
H/RD/Dem.Nom. FV PM/RD/DA H/N Post-Mod./DRC
______________________________
SC/NPh.
6. S1: about which they talked

8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent film
9. Finite verb: talked about (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: TVCP Prepositional verb
11. Connective: which
14. Analysis:
_______D.P________ ___S____ _____D.P_______

about which they talked (*)
Disc.V.Ph. H/Rel.Pron. H/PP Disc.V.Ph.
________
DO/Pron.Ph.
(*) Another way of analysing this verb phrase:

talked: IVCP
about which: AA of Subject Matter/Prepositional Phrase
36
4) She is not the woman she used to be.
1. Kind of sentence: complex, declarative negative statement

2. Main clause: She is not the woman S1
5. Analysis:
____S____ __________________P__________________________
She is not the woman S1.
H/PP FV H/Adv. PM/RD/DA H/N Post- Mod./DRC
______ ____________________________
AA of Neg./ SC/NPh.
Adv.Ph.
6. S1: (that) she used to be

7. Kind of clause: Defining Relative declarative positive contact
(*) clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent woman
9. Finite verb: used to (modal auxiliary) be (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: be (IVIP)
11. Connective: omitted (that)
12. Kind of connective: (RELATIVE PRONOUN)
Internal Function: (SC)
14. Analysis:
___DP_____ ____S_____ _______DP_________

(that) she used to be.
H/Rel.Pron. H/PP FV
__________
DO/NPh.
(*) The word contact means that the connective does not appear in the
surface structure. However, as we already know, a Relative Clause is always
introduced by a connective (relative pronoun/determiner/adverb). That is the
reason why we place it between brackets.
37
• How to analyse a RC introduced by a RELATIVE DETERMINER
1) Peter, whose daughter lives in California, will travel to the States

soon.
6. S1: whose daughter lives in California

7. Kind of clause: Non-defining relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent Peter
9. Finite verb: lives (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: lives (IVCP)
11. Connective: whose
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE DETERMINER
13. Internal function: Pre-modifier of daughter
14. Analysis:
_________S____________ ___________P______________
whose daughter lives in California
PM/Rel.Det. H/N FV H/Proper N
____ __________
H/P C/N
__________________
2) We arrived in Paris, in which centre we intended to stay.
6. S1: in which centre we intended to stay

7. Kind of clause: Non-defining Relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent Paris
9. Finite verb: intended to (semi-modal) stay (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: stay (IVCP)
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE DETERMINER
13. Internal function: Pre-modifier of centre
14. Analysis:
38
____________DP___________ __S___ _______DP_________

in which centre we intended to stay (*)
PM/Rel.Det. H/N H/PP FPh.
___ ___________________
H/P C/NPh.
_________________________
(*) Another way of analysis:

intended: TVCP
to stay in which centre: DO/Infinitival phrase
• How to analyse a RC introduced by a RELATIVE ADVERB
1) This is the place where I was born.
6. S1: where I was born

8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent place
9. Finite verb: was (auxiliary for the passive) born (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: was born (IVCP)
11. Connective: where
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE ADVERB
13. Internal function: Adverbial Adjunct of Place
14. Analysis:
____DP_____ __S___ _____DP_________

where I was born.
H/Rel.Adv. H/PP FV
____________
AA of Place/
Adv.Ph.
2) Tomorrow is the day when I’ll meet him.
6. S1: when I’ll meet him

7. kind of clause: Defining relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent day
39
9. Finite verb: will (modal auxiliary) meet (main verb)

10. Kind of finite: meet (TVCP)
11. Connective: when
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE ADVERB
13. Internal function: Adverbial Adjunct of Time
14. Analysis:
____DP_______ __S___ _______DP_____________

when I ‘ll meet him
H/ Rel.Adv. H/PP FPh. H/OP
__________ ______
AA of Time/Adv.Ph. DO/Pron.Ph.
3) This is the way you have to do it.
6. S1: (that) you have to do it

clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent way
9. Finite verb: have to (modal auxiliary) do (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: do (TVCP)
12. Kind of connective: (RELATIVE ADVERB)
13. Internal function: (AA of manner)
14. Analysis:
____DP_____ ____S____ ________DP______________

(that) you have to do it
H/Rel.Adv. H/PP FPh. H/OP
_________ _______
AA of Manner/Adv.Ph. DO/Pron.Ph.
16. SENTENTIAL RELATIVE CLAUSE

It modifies the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE, i.e. the whole
sentence. It is always a NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE.
40
I was able to meet Tom Cruise, which made me feel happy.
___S____ ______________P_________________ __SRC___

I was able to meet Tom Cruise , S1
FPh. DO
6. S1: which made me feel happy

7. Kind of clause: SENTENTIAL relative declarative positive clause
8. Function: Post-modifier of its antecedent THE SENTENCE
9. Finite verb: made (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: made (TVIP)
13. Internal function: Subject
14. Analysis:
____S_______ _________________P________________________
which made me feel happy
H/Rel.Pron. FV H/OP IVIP SC/Adj.Ph.
______ ______________
DO/Pron.Ph. OC/Infinitival Ph.
17. USES OF THAT, WHICH, WHO

1. We use: WHICH for the semantic feature [- human].
WHO for the semantic feature [+ human] and [- human] but only for
pets or personification.
THAT for the semantic feature [+human] and [- human].
2. We cannot use THAT in NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.

We can only use WHICH, WHO or WHEN.
e.g. Paris, which is a nice city, has got many interesting places to
visit.
3.When the ANTECEDENT is pre-modified by an adjective in the
41
superlative degree, we can only use THAT.

e.g. This is the best book THAT I’ve ever read.
This is the fastest train THAT crossed the country.
4. We cannot use WHICH when the antecedent is an INDEFINITE

PRONOUN (everything, nothing, anything).
e.g. There is nothing THAT I can do.
BUT………. There is something WHICH we use at home.
5. WHOM can function as DO or Complement to the preposition.

e.g. This is the man to whom I spoke.
In very formal English:
WHOM did you meet yesterday? (Nowadays we use WHO)
This is the man who I spoke to. (Less formal)
This is the man I spoke to. (In this case we omit the Relative)
6. We can omit the RELATIVE PRONOUN when:
• They do not function as SUBJECT or COMPLEMENTS OF A

PREPOSITION following it:
e.g. This is the man I met yesterday.
7. We cannot omit the RELATIVE PRONOUN when it functions as

the subject of the clause or when it is the COMPLEMENT OF A
PREPOSITION:
e.g. This is the man WHO opened the door.
This is the man about WHOM we talked.
BUT ……..This is the man we talked about.
8. We cannot omit the RELATIVE PRONOUN in NON-DEFINING

RELATIVE CLAUSES.
18. NOMINAL OR NOUN CLAUSES

Nominal Clauses can take the place of nouns or nominal phrases.
They can have the following syntactic functions:
42
1. SUBJECT: That she has recovered is a consolation.

2. DIRECT OBJECT: He told me that she was wrong.
3. SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: The problem is that she won’t
be able to come.
4. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: You can call me whatever you like.
5. COMPLEMENT OF A PREPOSITION: He is aware of what I write.
6. COMPLEMENT OF A NOUN: (i.e. Noun Clause in Apposition)
The idea that Peter will come annoys me.
7. COMPLEMENT OF AN ADJECTIVE: (i.e. Noun Clause
Complementary Adjunct) I am sure that things will improve.
There are three types of Nominal Clauses:

1. THAT / IF / WHETHER Clauses
2. WH- Clauses (Relative Nominal)
3. WH- Clauses (Interrogative Nominal)
Nominal Clauses introduced by THAT / IF / WHETHER
1ST Example: Everyone could see that poor John was scared.
6. S1: that poor John was scared

7. Kind of clause: Nominal declarative positive clause
8. Function: DO
9. Finite verb: was (main verb)
12. Kind of connective: COMPLEMENTIZER (*)
14. Analysis:
______S_________ _______P__________
that poor John was scared
COMPLEMENTIZER PM/Adj. H/Proper FV H/Adj.
Noun ________
SC/Adj.Ph.
(*) COMPLEMENTIZERS are left out of the analysis, i.e. they do not belong to
the subject or the predicate, for they have no internal function.
2nd Example: I don’t care if he is wrong.
43
6. S1: if he is wrong
8. Function: DO
11. Connective: if
12. Kind of connective: COMPLEMENTIZER
14. Analysis:
____S___ _______P__________
if he is wrong
COMPLEMENTIZER H/PP FV H/Adj.
_________
SC/Adj.Ph.
3rd Example: It depends on whether they go with us.
6. S1: whether they go with us

8. Function: DO
11. Connective: whether
12. Kind of connective: COMPLEMENTIZER
14. Analysis:
____S_____ ___________P___________
whether they go with us
COMPLEMENTIZER H/PP FV H/OP
_____ __________
H/P C/Pron.Ph.
_________________
AA of Company/Adv.Ph.
NB: 1. The complementizer THAT can be omitted when the sentence

44
is brief and uncomplicated. For example, He told me I was the best.

But when the sentence is too long and there are other clauses that
separate it from the main verb, we cannot omit it.
E.g. Everyone could see (that) he was frightened.

Everyone could see, I believe, that he was frightened. (In this case
you must use it.)
2. When we have a second clause, we cannot omit the

complementizer. For example,
Everyone could see (that) he was frightened and that he would have
an attack.
3. We cannot omit THAT when the clause is subject.

E.g. That she is clever is obvious. (or The fact that she is clever is
obvious.)
4. The connectives WHETHER/IF can be used in Dependent

Alternative Questions, ending in … or not.
E.g. I don’t know whether/if it will rain or not.
DAQ (It is always placed at the end of the sentence.)
5. Only WHETHER can be directly followed by … or not. For

example, I don’t care whether or not she comes.
6. A clause beginning with WHETHER cannot be made negative.

E.g. I don’t care if she doesn’t come.
Negative Clause
However, after certain adjectives or verbs that make the clause
positive in meaning, we are allowed to use WHETHER. For example,
I wonder whether he doesn’t expect too much.
7. The complementizer IF cannot introduce a clause functioning as

subject. For example, Whether we can help you is a difficult question.
Subject
8. WHETHER is obligatory when the clause follows a preposition.

45
E.g. It depends on whether we have enough money.
9. WHETHER is obligatory when the Noun Clause precedes the

Main Clause:
Whether we can really help you, I don’t know yet.
Noun Clause Main Clause
46
19. RELATIVE NOMINAL CLAUSES

They are introduced by RELATIVE NOMINAL PRONOUNS
(which, who, whom, what), RELATIVE NOMINAL DETERMINERS
(which, whose, what) and RELATIVE NOMINAL ADVERBS (where,
when, how, why). All these connectives have internal function.
Besides, they are called RELATIVE NOMINAL because in the deep
structure the Noun Clause is, in fact, a Relative Clause functioning as
a Post-modifier of a nominal antecedent. This nominal antecedent
is dropped in the surface structure so the clause is now a Nominal
Clause with nominal function.
E.g. I know who opened the door.
SS ___S____ _______P_________
. I know S1.
. TVCP DO/Nominal Clause
.
DS ____S____ _______________P___________________
I know the person who opened the door.
TVCP H/N PM/DRC (= S1)
____________________________________
DO/Nominal Clause
• How to analyse a RNC
1st Example: I know who opened the door.
6. S1: who opened the door

7. Kind of clause: Relative Nominal declarative positive clause
8. Function: DO
9. Finite verb: opened (main verb)
11. Connective: who
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE NOMINAL PRONOUN
14. Analysis:
47
___S_____ ___________P_________________
who opened the door.
H/Rel.Nom.P FV PM/RD/ H/N
DA
______________
DO/NPh.
2nd Example: I took what they offered me. (*)
6. S1: what they offered me

7. Kind of clause: Relative Nominal declarative positive clause
8. Function: DO
9. Finite verb: offered (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: TVCP (Ditransitive verb)
11. Connective: what
12. Kind of connective: RELATIVE NOMINAL PRONOUN
14. Analysis:
___DP______ ____S____ ______DP_______________

what they offered me.
H/Rel.Nom.P H/PP FV H/OP
__________ _________
DO/Pron.Ph. IO/Pron.Ph.
(*) In the deep structure: I took the thing that they offered me.
NB: The connective what cannot be used in Relative Clauses.
20. INTERROGATIVE NOMINAL CLAUSES

They show a gap of information which Relative Nominal Clauses
do not show. In deep structure this type of clauses are similar to
Relative Nominal ones. In fact, they resemble a question.
Let us compare the following sentences:
I know who opened the door.
48
I don’t know who opened the door. (> Who opened the door?)
In the second sentence there is, obviously, a gap of information.
The difference is only semantic.
Relative Nominal Clauses are introduced by INTERROGATIVE
NOMINAL PRONOUNS (who, which, whom, what),
INTERROGATIVE NOMINAL DETERMINERS (which, what, whose)
and INTERROGATIVE NOMINAL ADVERBS (where, when, why,
how).
The gap of information is always represented by a WH- word
(who, which, etc.) and there is no answer.
Other examples of INC:
I wonder who broke the window.
I am not sure where he lives.
I can’t imagine what they want with your address.
• How to analyse an INC
1st Example: The problem is who will water my plants while I am

away.
6. S1: who will water my plants + S1a

7. Kind of clause: Interrogative Nominal declarative positive
clause
8. Function: SC
9. Finite verb: will (modal auxiliary) water (main verb)
11. Connective: who
12. Kind of connective: INTERROGATIVE NOMINAL PRONOUN
14. Analysis:
_____S_______ _______________P_________________________
who will water my plants S1a.
H/Int.Nom.P FPh. PM/RD/ H/N AA of Time/
______________ Adv.Clause
DO/NPh.
49
2nd Example: They did not consult us on whose name should be put
forward.
6. S1: whose name should be put forward

7. Kind of clause: Interrogative Nominal declarative positive clause
8. Function: DO
9. Finite verb: should (modal auxiliary) be (auxiliary for the passive)
put forward
(main verb)
11. Connective: whose
12. Kind of connective: INTERROGATIVE NOMINAL DETERMINER
13. Internal function: PM of name
14. Analysis:
___________S__________ ___________P_______________
whose name should be put forward.
PM/Int.Nom.P H/N FPh.
21. NOUN CLAUSE COMPLEMENTARY

ADJUNCT
It is a Nominal Clause functioning as a complement of an adjective.
In the deep structure the adjective is followed by a prepositional phase
which is its complement. In the surface structure the preposition
is deleted and the Noun Clause becomes the complement of the
adjective.
Example:
I’m sure that things will improve. (SS)
Adj. Complement/Noun Clause
I’m sure of something.

Adj. Complement/Prepositional Phrase (DS)
50
How to analyse a sentence containing a NC Complementary Adjunct
I’m sure that things will improve.

2. Main clause: I’m sure + S1
3. Finite verb: am (main verb)
5. Analysis:
___S_____ _____________P_________________
I ‘m sure S1.
H/PP FV H/Adj. C/Nom.Clause
______________________
SC/Adj.Ph.
6. S1: that things will improve

7. Kind of clause: Noun Clause Complementary Adjunct
declarative positive
8. Function: Complement of the adjective sure through the
deletion of the preposition of
9. Finite verb: will (modal auxiliary) improve (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: improve (IVCP)
12. Kind of connective: Complementizer
13. Internal Function: 0
14. Analysis:
____S_____ _________P__________
that things will improve.
Complementizer H/N FPh.
22. NOUN CLAUSE IN APPOSITION

It is a Nominal Clause which functions as a complement of a noun.
Example:
We must face the fact that we have spent all our money.
Noun Complement/Noun Clause
51
• How to analyse a sentence containing a NC in apposition

2. Main clause: We must face the fact S1
3. Finite verb: must (modal auxiliary) face (main verb)
5. Analysis:
________ _______________________________________
We must face the fact S1.
H/PP FPh. PM/RD/ H/N Apposition/Nom.Clause
DA
___________________________
DO/NPh.
6. S1: that we have spent all our money

8. Function: Apposition of fact
9. Finite verb: have (auxiliary for perfection) spent (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: spent (TVCP)
14. Analysis:
____S_____ ______________P_________________
that we have spent all our money.
Complementizer H/PP FPh. PM/PD/ PM/RD/ H/N
Quantifier Genitive
________________________
DO/NPh.
52
23. RELATIVE CLAUSE VS.

NOUN CLAUSE IN APPOSITION
1. Post-modifier of its antecedent noun 1. Complement of antecedent noun
2. THAT: Relative Pronoun (It has function) 2. THAT: Complementizer (0 function)
3. THAT = WHICH 3. THAT # WHICH
4. The fact is that we have to face??? # 4. The fact is that we have spent all … =
synomym of its antecedent synonym of its antecedent
Examples:
This is the fact that we have to face.
PM/RC
APPOSITION/NC
24. GUIDE TO ANALYSE A

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
Example:
I’m afraid we have to accept the fact that, unfortunately, criminals
are getting younger all the time, so we must ask ourselves what
is wrong with our society.
1. Kind of sentence: Compound-Complex statement

2. First member: I’m afraid we have to accept the fact that,
unfortunately, criminals are getting younger all the time
3. Kind of member: Complex, declarative positive statement
4. Main clause: I’m afraid S1
6. Kind of finite: am (IVIP)
7. Analysis:
53
___S____ ___________P________________
I ‘m afraid S1.
H/PP FV H/Adj. C/Nom.Clause
____________________
SC/Adj.Ph.
8. S1: (that) we have to accept the fact S1a

9. Kind of clause: Noun, declarative positive contact clause
complementary adjunct
10. Function: Complement of the adjective AFRAID through the
deletion of the preposition OF
11. Finite verb: have to (modal auxiliary) accept (main verb)
12. Kind of finite: accept (TVCP)
13. Connective: (that) omitted
16. Analysis:
___S___ _______________P____________________
(that) we have to accept the fact S1a
Complem. H/PP FPh. PM/RD/ H/N Appos./NCl.
DA
___________________
DO/NPh.
17. S1a: that, unfortunately, criminals are getting younger all the time
18. Kind of clause: Noun, declarative positive clause
19. Function: Apposition of fact
20. Finite verb: are (auxiliary for progression) getting (main verb)
21. Kind of finite: getting (IVIP)
22. Connective: (that) omitted
23. Kind of connective: complementizer
25. Analysis:
54
____Disj.(*)__ ___S_____ ________P____________...

(that) unfortunately criminals are getting younger
Complem. H/Adv. H/N FPh. H/Adj.
Comparative
___________ _________
Adv.Ph. SC/Adj.Ph.
…__________P_______
all the time
PM/Pre- PM/RD/ H/N
Art./Det. DA
_____________________
AA of time/Adv.Ph.
26. Connective: so / ,
27. Kind of connective: Illative Coordinating Conjunction /
Parataxis
28. Second member: we must always ask ourselves what is
wrong with our society.
29. Kind of member: Complex, declarative positive statement
30. Main clause: we must ask ourselves S2
31. Finite verb: must (modal auxiliary) ask (main verb)
32. Kind of finite: ask (TVCP) Ditransitive verb
33. Analysis:
___S_____ ______________P________________________
we must ask ourselves S2.
H/PP FPh. H/Reflex.P DO/Int.Nom.Cl.
_________
IO/Pron.Ph.
34. S2: what is wrong with our society

clause
36. Function: DO
38. Kind of finite: is (IVIP)
55

40. Kind of connective: Interrogative Nominal Pronoun
42. Analysis:
____S____ ____________________P____________________
what is wrong with our society.
H/INP FV H/Adj. H/Prep. PM/RD/ H/N
Poss.Det.
_________________
C/NPh.
________________________
C/Prep.Ph.
___________________________________
SC/Adj.Ph.
(*) Adverbials: An adverbial is often one word, i.e. an ADVERB. For

example, Sit there quietly, and listen to the music. She will be here
soon. It is very cold today. However, an adverbial can also be a group
of words, such as an adverb phrase (He did not play well enough to
win.), a prepositional phrase (The children were playing in the park.), a
noun group, usually a time expression (Come and see me next week).
Within the group of adverbials we an find four specific groups:
1. Adverbial Adjuncts: They are WITHIN the clause structure. They
relate directly to the meaning of the verb (modifying it) or to the whole
sentence. The latter are called sentence adjuncts and can occur at
the beginning or at the end of the clause. For example: On Saturday
he was bitten by a dog. He was bitten by a dog on Saturday. Adverbial
Adjuncts convey a wide range of meanings: place, time, frequency,
manner, reason, condition, purpose, concession, instrument, etc.
2. Disjuncts: They are PERIPHERAL in the clause structure, i.e. they
play a superior role in the clause for they behave as if they were
outsiders. Most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses. They
can be divided into two main classes: Style Disjuncts and Attitudinal
Disjuncts. The first ones indicate how the speaker is speaking. The
second ones comment on the content of the communication. For
example, Confidentially, the driver was inexperienced. (Style Disjunct)
Candidly, honestly, frankly speaking, to put it bluntly, if I may put it, so
to say, etc.; Fortunately, they arrived home safe and sound. (Attitudinal
Disjunct) Admittedly, indeed, doubtless, curiously, most likely/unlikely,
56
thankfully, of course, to our surprise, even more important, etc..

3. Conjuncts: They are PERIPHERAL in the clause structure. They
are text organizers, i.e. they are primarily connective. Their function
is to “conjoin” independent grammatical units such as paragraphs,
sentences and clauses. That is the reason why they are sometimes
called “connectors” or “linking phrases”. They usually have initial
position, separated from what follows by a tone unit boundary in
speech or comma in writing. For example, However, they couldn’t find
the right answer. They can also appear in questions. For example,
Anyway, do you know the answer? There are seven main types of
conjuncts based on their meanings: listing (Moreover…), summarizing
(To sum up…), similar meaning (For instance…), expressing results
(Consequently…), inferring (In that case…), contrasting (However …),
attention shifting (By the way…).
4. Subjuncts: They play a SUBORDINTATE role to one of the other
elements of the clause or to the whole clause. They cannot be used
as frequently as adjuncts but they also have a wide range of meanings
such as emphasis (really), attention focusing (at least), time (just, still),
etc.
57
APPENDIX
THEME AND FOCUS

In the same way that we have a syntactic order in a sentence,
there is also a way of organizing the information we are conveyed.
The old information (i.e. the given information), called THEME or
TOPIC, is normally placed initially and in English it is generally the
SUBJECT of the sentence.
The given information may be:
a) Shared by the speakers and listeners because they interact in
the same environment. For example: The exam will be easy.
b) Linguistically created, i.e. information already mentioned. For
example: I saw a man this morning. The man was standing next
to a tree.
The new information, FOCUS/COMMENT or RHEME, normally

goes at the end of the information unit and in English it is generally
the PREDICATE. This means that the predicate of a sentence is
generally the new information.
There are two principles concerning the organization of the
information:
1. The END-FOCUS PRINCIPLE
2. The END-WEIGHT PRINICPLE
1. It has to do with the fact that the new information, i.e. the FOCUS,
is normally and naturally placed at the end of the information unit
(what is new intends to be at the end of a sentence).
2. It has to do with the fact that the new information requires a
longer and heavier structure (what is new contains more ideas).
MARKED FOCUS VS. UNMARKED FOCUS
When the focus is in its usual position (i.e. the end), we call it
UNMARKED FOCUS. No extra prosodic prominence is required.
Example:
I didn’t know the truth.
In the following sentence, the focus has been moved to another
position in order to emphasize it and give prominence to it. This is
61
what we call MARKED FOCUS.

Example:
The truth, I didn’t know.
ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT CATAPHORIC

REFERENCE (ASCR)*
It is commonly used when the REAL SUBJECT is longer than the
predicate in both speech and writing. The subject is better placed
at the end of the sentence in accordance with the informational
principle of END-WEIGHT. And this subject is called REAL SUBJECT
IN EXTRAPOSITION (RSEP).
Let us see the transformation in the following examples:
_______________S________________________ _____P_____
To study Grammar I very early every Tuesday is fun.
_ASCR_ ___P_____ _______________RSEP______________________

It is fun to study Grammar I very early every Tuesday.
When the reference of the subject comes after IT, it is called

CATAPHORIC. But when the reference is before IT, it is called
ANAPHORIC. Example: This is her house. IT is very beautiful.
There are only FOUR structures that can function as RSEP:
1. INFINITIVAL PHRASES:
__ASCR___ ________P___________ ______RSEP_____________

It makes one sad to see such poverty.
2. NOMINAL CLAUSES:
It is a pity that you are leaving so soon.

__ASCR___ _______P_________ ___RSEP______
It is a pity S1.
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3. GERUNDIAL PHRASES:
a) Rather informal: __ASCR__ _____P______ ___RSEP_____

It was nice seeing you.
b) + no good/no use: __ASCR__ _____P______ ____RSEP_______

It is no good waiting any longer.
c) + worth: __ASCR__ ______P_____ ______RSEP__________

It is not worth getting angry with her.
4. DEFINITE NOUN PHRASES + RELATIVE CLAUSE: (rather informal)
It is very nice the place where she lives.

__ASCR__ ______P______ _____RSEP_________
It is very nice the place S1.
ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT THERE

The ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT THERE, which is unstressed, as
opposed to the adverb there, which is stressed, is a representative
device for EXISTENTIAL SENTENCES. It is followed by a verb,
generally the verb TO BE, and a nominal group which is the REAL
SUBJECT and represents new information. This nominal group,
which is generally indefinite, is better placed at the end of the
sentence or after the verb in accordance with the END-FOCUS
PRINCIPLE.
Example:
There is a man at the door. (A man is at the door.)
Anticipatory Subject Indefinite Subject
I saw him there.

Adverb
An indefinite construction at the beginning of a sentence will

violate the listener’s expectation regarding the development of the
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message. That is the reason why it is better placed at the end of the
sentence, which is the normal position of new information.
These constructions are called EXISTENTIAL because they refer
to the existence of something. The AS THERE can be followed by
other verbs such as appear, disappear, come, run, etc.
Example:
There disappeared an exceedingly singular person.
There ran across the field an old dog.
• Sentences with AS THERE:
1st Example:
(*)
___AS____ ___DP___ ____RS/NPh.___ ______DP____________
There is a man at the door.
IVCP _______________
SC/Prep.Ph.
2nd Example:
___AS_____ ___P_____ __________RS/NPh.________

There is a man waiting for you.
IVCP or H/N PM/Present Participial Ph.
IVCP 0 SC
3rd Example:
There are some people who want to see you.

____AS_____ __P___ ______RS/NPh._______________
There are some people S1.
IVCP or H/N PM/DRC
IVIP 0 SC
(*) In this case, the REAL SUBJECT is not extraposed, for it is new information
which is situated where it should be.
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4th Example:
____AS____ ___P____ __________RS/NPh.___________

There is the washing-up to do.
IVCP H/N PM/Infinitival Ph.
SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF THE REAL SUBJECT

1. INDEFINITE NOUN PHRASES:
There is a book on the table.

There are three things to do.
There are some problems to solve.
2. DEFINITE NOUN PHRASES IN RATHER INFORMAL STYLE:
There is the washing-up to do.

There is your mother to be considered.
3. GERUNDIAL PHRASES IN THIS CONSTRUCTION:
There + be + no + gerund
There is no insisting on the matter.

There is no telling what he will do.
THE VERB
The sentence can be analysed into four different types of

elements: SUBJECT , VERB/VERB PHRASE, COMPLEMENTS
(we can include the objects such as DO, IO, SC, OC and AC) and
ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS.
If we concentrate on the PREDICATE, we shall see that it is the
VERB that determines the kind of clause structure. VERBS can be
divided into FINITE and NON-FINITE VERBS.
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FEATURES OF FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERBS
FINITE VERBS:
1. They agree in number and person with the Subject. In English,

the verb has two persons: 3rd person singular present and common
person (writes/write), except for the verb TO BE which has three
persons (am/is/are).
2. They show tense. Morphologically speaking, there are only two
tenses in English: PAST and NON-PAST/PRESENT (went/go). Finite
verbs may be combined with auxiliaries for progression or perfection
(is going/had gone) or with modality verbs (will go) to form the “so-
called” tenses we already know (Present Continuous, Present
Perfect, Past Perfect Continuous, etc.).
3. They show mood, which refers to the speaker’s attitude or feelings
towards what is being said. Modal verbs (can, must, will, would, etc.)
are used to show mood and they can only be combined with finite
verbs.
4. Aspect is another characteristic of finite verbs. The English
language has two aspects: perfective and progressive.
He is going to school now. He has gone somewhere.

Aux. for the progressive aspect Aux. for the perfective aspect
5. Finite verbs can also show voice: active and passive.
The exercise was finished an hour ago.

Aux. for the passive voice
NON-FINITE VERBS:
1. Non-finite verbs do not agree in number and person with the

Subject.
2. They do not show tense.
3. They cannot show mood.
4. They show aspect.
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He is supposed to be studying now. He is said to have robbed the bank.

Aux. for the progressive aspect Aux. for the perfective aspect
5. They show voice.
There is a sentence to be analysed.

Aux. for the passive voice
There are four non-finite forms in English:
1. The INFINITIVE, which can be full or marked if it is headed by the

word TO(1), and bare or unmarked when it is not headed by the empty
carrier TO. The INFINITIVE can have a NOMINAL, ADJECTIVAL or
ADVERBIAL function within the sentence.
Example:
He made me cry. (bare-infinitive/without TO)
OC (ADVERBIAL FUNCTION)
I want to go home. (full-infinitive/with TO)

DO (NOMINAL FUNCTION)
He was the first man to travel through the space. (full-infinitive/with TO)
PM (ADJECTIVAL FUNCTION)
2. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE is a verb ending in –ING with

ADJECTIVAL or ADVERBIAL function.
Example:
Walking along the street, I met Tom Cruise.
AA of Manner/Time (ADVERBIAL FUNCTION)
(Present Participial Phrases)
The man walking along the street is Tom Cruise.

(1) TO is known as empty carrier, which is a dummy element.
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3. The GERUND is a verb ending in –ING. It has NOMINAL function

(as Subject, DO, IO, Apposition, etc.).
Example:
Walking is my favourite pastime.
Subject
Walking along the street is my pastime.
Subject
(Gerundial Phrases)
I like swimming in the lake.
DO
4. The PAST PARTICIPLE (–EN) has ADVERBIAL or ADJECTIVAL

function.
Example:
She stood before me, her blind face thrown upwards.
AA of Manner (ADVERBIAL FUNCTION)
I had my hair cut very short.

OC (ADVERBIAL FUNCTION)
The man dismissed from the company by the system is my best friend.
MORPHOLOGY OF VERBS
The verb undergoes two morphological processes: derivation

and inflection.
Derivation: It is a process of word formation. We have affixes in
the language; they are divided into prefixes and suffixes. The former
are morphemes that are added to the beginning of the word; the
latter are added to the end of the word.
Example:
neighbour + hood = neighbourhood
noun suffix new word/noun
able + un = unable
adj. prefix opposite of able/adj.
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friend + ly = friendly
noun suffix new word/adj.
large + en = enlarge
adj. prefix new word/verb
NB : Derivation is a feature of English and Spanish languages. The following are
suffixes to form verbs:
ate: stimulate, exaggerate, originate.
ise/ize: criticize, modernize, organize.
fy: satisfy, justify, modify.
ish: publish, finish.
en: strengthen, shorten, widen, threaten.
There is another process of word formation called compounding.

By means of this process, we combine two words to form only one.
Example:
to wash + the brain = to brain-wash
Verb Object Verb (compound/hyphenated word)
to lip-read = to read the lips

to house-keep = to keep the house
to day-dream = to dream during the day
to chain-smoke = to smoke one cigarette after another
to sleep-walk = to walk when you are asleep
to window-shop = to go window-shopping
to baby-sit = to sit with the baby, i.e. take care of it when its
parents are away
Inflection: It is a process of grammatical adaptation. It changes

the word grammatically, but it does not change its category or kind
of word it is.
Example:
friend ----------- friends (plural inflection)
big ----------- bigger (comparative form inflection)
The verb suffers the following inflections: 1. The –s for the third
69
person singular Simple Present (go/goes, write/writes); 2. The Past

tense inflection, for regular and irregular verbs (turn/turned, go/
went); 3. The –ing inflection for the Present Participle and Gerund
(go/going); 4. The Past Participle inflection (go/gone).
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
1. Full lexical verbs: They are verbs that convey meaning such as
sleep, drink, go, want, etc.
2. Auxiliaries: BE (for the passive and for progression)
HAVE (for perfection)
MODALS (=modal auxiliaries or modality verbs): can,
could, will, would, may, might, shall, should, ought to, be able to,
have to, would rather, had better, used to.
EMPTY CARRIERS: do, does, did.
3. Semi-auxiliaries: They are full-lexical verbs which are followed
by another full lexical word.
Example:
I want to go home.
TVCP DO/Infinitival Phrase
But I want to go. (want indicates mood; go conveys lexical meaning)

Semi-auxiliary Main verb
Semi-auxiliaries are divided according to what they express:

a) Semi-modals: They show mood, the speaker’s feelings. Some
of them are: want to, prefer to, prefer + -ing, try to, like to, like +
-ing, be about to, be bound to, wish to, hope to, decide to, resolve
to, etc.
b) Aspectual semi-auxiliaries: They indicate aspect, the beginning,
middle or end of the action. For example, start, begin to, finish, stop,
end, keep on, carry on, etc.
70
• How to analyse them:

1st Example:
1st Way:
_S__ ____________P_________________
I want to go home.
EC MV AC of place
______ ______________________
FV DO/Inf.Ph.
2nd Way:
__S___ ___________P__________________
I want to go home.
Semi-modal MV
_________________ ______
FPh. AC of place
2nd Example:
1st Way:
__S____ ________________P____________________
He started to play the guitar.
EC MV DO
_________ ______________________
FV DO/Inf.Ph.
2nd Way:
___S____ _________________P____________________
He started to play the guitar.
Aspectual Semi- MV
Auxiliary
______________________ __________
FPh. DO
CLASSIFICATION OF FULL LEXICAL VERBS
• INTRANSITIVE VERBS OF COMPLETE PREDICATION: They do

not take objects; for example, boil, fall, lie, etc. Some of them take
Adverbial Complements, such as go, come, leave, reach, leave, get
(to a place), weigh, cost, etc. Example: I went to Madrid last year. It
cost me two dollars.
71
• INTRANSITIVE VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION: They are

also known as copulative or linking verbs. They are divided into four
groups:
a) Verbs of appearance: seem, look, appear, etc. She looks tired.
b) Verbs of the senses: They show physical perception, feelings
and sensation: feel, sound, taste, smell. Silk feels soft. He sounded
surprised. The coffee tastes bitter.
c) Verbs of change, of process, of becoming, resulting, copulas
or inchoative verbs: The Subjective Complement shows the result
of the event or process described in the verb: become, get, go,
come, grow, turn, run, wear, fall, etc. In fact, they are all synonyms
of become. He grew tired. He went mad. Your dreams will come
true. He fell sick. This material is wearing thin.
d) Passive state verbs: keep, lie, stand, sit, rest, remain, etc. He
lay still. Stand still, please. Keep calm.
NB: Verb TO BE is a verb copula, i.e. a linking or copulative verb.
• TRANSITIVE VERBS OF COMPLETE PREDICATION: They can be

monotransitive or ditransitive.
a) Verbs with obligatory DO: make, ask, enjoy, consider, etc.
b) Verbs with optional DO: write, read, knit, draw, paint, drive,
hunt, sing, play, etc. He is singing. Write to me soon. (Intransitive
verbs in the Surface Structure or Transitive of Complete with implied
DO, for the DO is in the Deep Structure)
c) Intransitive verbs turned into transitive verbs: to run a race, to
live a happy life, to sing a song, to die a miserable death, to think
unkind thoughts. The objects that accompany the verbs have the
same root as the verbs: to live a happy life (Here life is a cognate
object).
d) Middle verbs: These verbs take a DO, but they cannot be turned
into the passive voice. Besides, they are all monotransitive verbs:
have (= possess), suit, fit, become (= suit), marry, equal, resemble,
etc. The dress fits you. Blue becomes you. I have a new car. Tom
married Susan. Two plus two equals four.
• DITRANSITIVE VERBS:(Verb + DO + IO or Verb + IO + DO)
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a) Verbs of giving: give, hand, send, show, sell, lend, offer, pay,
etc. She has shown me her wedding dress.
b) Verbs of communication: tell, say, inform, teach, advise,
recommend, explain, etc. He advised me to do that.
c) Miscellaneous: do, take, bring, etc. He did me a favour.
• TRANSITIVE VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION: They

require OC.
a) Verbs of calling or naming: call, baptize, appoint, choose,
crown, elect, nominate, etc. You can call me Sue. They appointed
him president.
b) Verbs expressing feelings, volition or emotional states: like, want,
wish, prefer, expect, etc. I prefer my coffee black. I wish him dead.
c) Verbs of physical perception: see, watch, hear, smell, feel,
observe, etc. I can smell something burning. I saw them crossing
the street. (crossing shows a complete action) I saw them cross the
street. (cross shows part of the action)
d) Causative verbs: have, get, cause, make, force, oblige, compel,
urge, etc. (Verb + DO + OC) He had his car washed. He got them to
paint his house.
e) Verbs expressing mental perception or states: know, believe,
consider, find, imagine, guess, regard, etc. Most people considered
him innocent. They thought him wise.
f) Verbs taking an adjective that expresses result: push, make,
set, paint, drive, boil, etc. (The adjective functioning as OC
expresses the result of the action) He pushed the door open. She
made her meaning clear. He drove me crazy. You should boil the
eggs hard.
g) Miscellaneous: leave, implore, help, warn, tempt, let, intend,
etc. Help me carry this. Let me help you. He left me in tears.
• PREPOSITIONAL VERBS: They consist of Verb + Preposition.

They are always transitive. In the example Look at me, the verb look
is stressed but the preposition at is weakly stressed. Besides, we
cannot change the position of the DO and the preposition, i.e. the
DO cannot be placed between the verb and the preposition (you
cannot say “Look me at”.
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• PHRASAL VERBS: They consist of Verb + Adverbial Particle. They

can be transitive or intransitive. The adverbial particle is stressed.
When the phrasal verb is transitive, we can place the DO between
the verb and the particle. And if the object is an objective pronoun,
it must be placed between the verb and the particle.
Examples:
Intransitive Phrasal Verbs:
Don’t give in! All the birds died off. You have to slow down.
Transitive Phrasal Verbs:

Give up smoking. She made up a story. (or She made the story up.)
DO between the verb and the particle:

Give it up. Make it up.
NB: The main difference between phrasal and prepositional verbs is that phrasal
verbs have a different semantic value from that of the verb alone.
• PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERBS: They consist of Verb +

Adverbial Particle + Preposition. They are always transitive and the
particle is stressed. Besides, they have a different semantic value
from that of the verb.
Examples: I can’t put up with me.
Particle Preposition
_______________________
TVCP
She had to walk fast to keep up with them.

When Tom broke his leg, his wife was really cut up about it.

• GROUP VERBS (1): They consist of Verb + Adjective/Noun +
Preposition.
Examples: Be afraid of, take care of, pay attention to, look forward
to, make a mess of, etc.
(1) Group verbs in English are also known as Idiomatic Expressions; in Spa-
nish they are called Giros Idiomáticos.
74
There are two ways of analysis: (However, the 1st way is the one
recommended)
1st:
__S__ ___________P______________
I am afraid of lions.
IVIP SC
2nd:
__S___ ___________P_____________
I am afraid of lions.
IVCP/ Group Verb SC
NB: If the VERB is transitive, all the GROUP VERB is transitive. If it is intransitive, all
the GROUP VERB will be intransitive.
• PREPOSITIONAL VERBS THAT ARE DITRANSITIVE: Ditransitive

prepositional verbs are those that take two objects. For example,
compare something with/to, base something on, relate something
to, confuse somebody with, etc. There are two ways of analysing
them:
1st:
Compare something with something else
_____ _ _ _ _________ _ _ _ ___ ______________
Prep. V. IO Prep. V. DO
2nd :
Compare something with something else
________ _________ _________________
V. DO AC of Subject Matter
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COMPLEMENTS AND MODIFIERS

The head of a Noun Phrase must be a lexical noun. Its MODIFIERS
include:
a) DETERMINERS: this girl, three books, our house, etc.
b) ADJECTIVE PHRASES: that little girl, a very high wall, etc.
c) RELATIVE CLAUSES: that little girl who lives next door, the
box which was delivered here yesterday,etc.
d) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES (especially those with locative
and temporal senses): the man over there, those stimulating
discussions after midnight, etc.
MODIFIERS supply a description which is added to the meaning

of the head word. They can function as PRE-MODIFIERS or POST-
MODIFIERS.
Its COMPLEMENTS include:

a) NOUN CLAUSES IN APPOSITION: the rumour that he
died yesterday, the belief that the company was not making
a profit, the question whether this is all comprehensible, the
story that Mary had met the senator, etc.
b) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: the teacher of English,
an argument about Linguistics, the news of her marriage, etc.
c) NOUNS: generation gap, the car key, etc.
d) INFINITIVES: your plan to build three chalets here, etc.
COMPLEMENTS normally specify the content of the head noun.

Thus, in one of the previous examples, the clause “that Mary had
met the senator” is the content referred to as “the story”, and “of
her marriage” is the content referred to as “the news”.
NB: Head nouns taking clauses as complements are abstract nouns such as fact,
idea, belief, rumour, story, news, etc.
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DETERMINERS
DETERMINERS are words that pre-modify nouns determining them.
We set up a class, different from adjectives, for determiners because
they behave differently. Those differences are clearly seen in the
following chart:
DETERMINERS ADJECTIVES
They determine, limit, restrict, They qualify (add a quality)
Semantically quantify the noun. the noun.
a. They can also take –er, -est a.Some take –er, -est for the
but in a restricted way: fewer, comparative and superlative.
fewest; little, less, least; much/ b. Not inflected for number.
many, more, the most. c. Partially variable: the
Morphologically b. Some show number: this and long adjective shall not be
that have Z2 inflection. inflected.
c. Except for a. and b. they are d. Mono or polisyllabic.
invariable.
d. Monosyllabic in general.
Unstressed weak forms (ex- Strong forms.

Phonologically
cept for emphasis)
They precede the adjective in They follow the determiner.

the Noun Phrase. (exc.: super- a. They can precede or
lative adjectives may precede follow the noun, though the
numerals: second position is rare for
My best two friends. adjectives: The city proper.
a. Position: They never follow the b. They may be used predi-
Syntactically
noun. (exc.: Two books more.) catively and after intensifiers
b. Predicative use: In general (quite, so, etc.).
they can´t be used predicatively
after TO BE (only when they are
nominalized): I like this.
Number of
Close class. Function words. (1) Open class. Content words. (2)
items
(1) They are words with little lexical meaning but important grammatical
function. See (5) in THE SUBJECT: TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL FORMS.
(2) They are full lexical words. See (5) in THE SUBJECT: TYPICAL AND
ATYPICAL FORMS.
77
NB: The inflection “–s” can be represented in these three different ways:
Z1: 3rd person singular simple present tense
Z2: plural number
Z3: genitive case
CLASSIFICATION OF DETERMINERS
Det. + N quant. + of (a piece of, a lot of , a quart of, etc.)

1. Predeterminers Det. + of (some of, those of, three of, all of, both of, etc.)
All, both, half, such (a), many (a), quite (a), only, just, even,
2. Prearticles once, twice, rather.
3. Regular a. Articles: the, a (n)

Determiners b. Quantifiers: some, any, no, neither, every, several,
enough, each, another, either, etc.
c. Demonstratives: this, these, that, those.
d. Genitives: my, your, etc., Noun + Z3 (John´s)
4. Post-Determiners a. Intensifiers: mere, utter, real, same, very.

b. Numerals: Ordinal: first, second, last, initial, next, other
Cardinal: one, two, several, many, few, only.
c. Comparative and superlative: many, more, most, few,
fewer, fewest.
d. Quantifiers: whole, enough, etc.
*Notes on the chart:

1. Predeterminers: They come before another determiner: The first of
those barrels of beer, a piece of that cake, none of the other animals,
both of the last two pieces, half of those boys, etc.
The verb will agree with the predeterminer if it is preceded by a
definite article, in which case the predeterminer might be considered
the head of the Noun Phrase.
The number of these boys was small.
A number of these boys were playing.
2. Prearticles: They only precede the definite or indefinite articles:

All the meat, both the students, half the time, many a case.
ONLY, JUST and EVEN are removed from the Noun Phrase in the
agentive mode and placed outside the prepositional phrase when
78
the passive transformation is applied. This fact enables us to assume

that they are really adverbs.
Only the boys finished the work. (In this case only functions as a
subjunct)
The work was finished only by the boys.
3. Regular Determiners: Demonstratives have plural agreement.

These= this + Z2 ; those= that + Z2
4. Post- Determiners: They follow the RD (Regular Determiner). They

are classified into:
a. Intensifiers: A mere child can do it.
(abstract N. +N. clause) The mere fact that he was there amazed her.
b. Numerals: The next few days, an only child, some two miles
of more.
c. Superlative adjectives: They have been placed among
determiners because they often precede numerals: The best
three books I have read.
d. Quantifiers: The three whole days.
79
THE SUBJECT: TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL FORMS

TYPICAL FORMS:
1. NOUN PHRASES: London is an important capital city.

The boy is playing outside.
Books is what I need.
2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS: He is at home.
3. INFINITIVAL PHRASES: To err is human.
4. GERUNDIAL PHRASES: Smoking is dangerous for your health.
5. NOUN CLAUSES: What he said is wrong.
6. ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT IT: It is difficult to dance Tango.
7. ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT THERE: There was a man at the door.
ATYPICAL FORMS:
1. ADVERBS: Tomorrow is the day.

2. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: In London is where he lives. (1)
3. NOMINALIZED ADJECTIVES: The poor need money. (2)
4. NOMINALIZED PRESENT PARTICIPLES: The suffering need
help. (3)
5. NOMINALIZED PAST PARTICIPLES: The wounded will be cured.
(4)
6. QUOTATIONS: “To err is human, to forgive is divine” is an old
saying.
7. FUNCTION WORDS: (5) But is an adversative coordinating
conjunction.
(1) In this sentence, In London is, according to Jespersen, the GRAMMATICAL

SUBJECT. The LOGICAL SUBJECT, instead, is he, which is also within the sen-
tence.
(2) (3) (4) In the Surface Structure, the noun PEOPLE is dropped, so the adjecti-
ve/present participle/past participle becomes the HEAD of the Nominal Phrase.
(The poor people, the wounded people, etc.).
(5) Function words are words which have little lexical meaning but important
grammatical function. For example, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, etc.
On the contrary, Lexical words are the ones which have meaning in isolation,
such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc.
80
KINDS OF IT AS SUBJECT
1. PERSONAL PRONOUN IT WITH ANAPHORIC REFERENCE:
I bought the blue dress. It is a beautiful dress.

Anaphoric reference
2. ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT IT WITH CATAPHORIC REFERENCE:
It is nice where he lives.

Cataphoric reference
3. TEMPORAL OR EMPTY IT: (It is used with expressions connected

with atmospheric conditions, time or distance. It is known as
EMPTY or IMPERSONAL for it has no meaning. It is also called
METHEOROLOGICAL IT.
It is raining. It is Tuesday. It’s windy! It is too late. It is 10 km to Escobar.
4. EMPHATIC IT IN CLEFT SENTENCES: (A CLEFT sentence is

an emphatic sentence. Its pattern is: IT + BE + Marked Focus +
Emphatic Clause.)
It was Peter who saw her.
Another possibility:
It was she/her who Peter saw.
NB: We can emphasize any part of the sentence with a CLEFT sentence, except
the verb. If we want to emphasize the VERB, we have to use a PSEUDO-CLEFT
sentence. Its patterns can be:
1. RNC + BE + (To) Infinitive = What he did was (to) see her.
2. Bare Infinitive + BE + RNC = See her is what he did.
81
KINDS OF IT AS DIRECT OBJECT

1.OBJECTIVE PRONOUN IT WITH ANAPHORIC
REFERENCE:
A: I bought a new dress.

B: Where did you buy it?
2.ANTICIPATORY DIRECT OBJECT IT WITH CATAPHORIC

REFERENCE:
I find it difficult to talk to you about anything serious.

Real DO/Inf.Ph.
I think it important that you should keep calm.
Real DO/Nom.Clause
You must find it flattering having so many fans.
Real DO/Gerund.Ph.
I find it expensive the car you want to buy.
Real DO/Nom.Ph.
NB: When the DO is a Noun Clause, an Infinitive, a Gerund or a Noun Phrase

postmodified by a Relative Clause, and there is an OC referred to the DO, we place
the Anticipatory DO IT before the OC, which will be followed by the Real DO in
extraposition in accordance with the informational principle of END-WEIGHT. The
DO is always longer than the OC.
3.EMPTY IT AS DO: (No referent may be assigned to it.

They are idiomatic expressions.)
Take it easy. Have it your own way. I must have it out with him.
I had it from John. Can we make it?
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THE QUASI-PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION

They are sentences in ACTIVE VOICE, but their meanings are in
PASSIVE VOICE. For example:
a) I had my hair cut. ( = My hair was cut by the hairdresser)
(Causative have)
b) Our house sold in a week. (= It was sold)
The letter reads as follows… (= It is read)
c) This soup tastes good. (It is good when you taste it)
Fat meat cooks fine.
The air smells clean.
d) This book is now publishing.
The Educational Reform is shaping slowly. (Progressive Tense)
e) These walls need painting.
Your attitude requires explaining. (Verbs denoting necessity
+ Gerunds)
THE QUASI-PREDICATIVE
When the PREDICATIVE forms an essential part of a sentence (but
the verb has its ordinary full force, i.e. a verb of complete predication
with full lexical meaning), it is called QUASI-PREDICATIVE.
Examples:
The meat cuts tough.
IVCP Quasi-predicative
He looked at her fascinated.

He passed unnoticed.
The man stood up astonished.
They were born poor.
If we paraphrase some of the examples given above, for instance,

we will find an Adverbial Adjunct of time or reason in the deep
structure:
When they were born, they were poor.
When he looked at her, he was fascinated.
83
In a few idiomatic expressions, where we have the same structure,

the verb may be taken as IVIP + SC since it has lost much of its
original meaning:
The natives go naked all the year round.
(= are) SC
IVIP
She stood godmother to his child.
IVIP SC
84
EXERCISES
1. State what part of speech completes each blank. Justify your

choice.
That tea thing again

In view of the avalanche of letters condemning the (1)__________
of tea served (2)_________ Bottin´s Tea Time in Martinez (Platter
Chatter May 26th) it was evident that an (3)____________visit was
required to (4)________ what was up. That I did and this is what I
found.
Frank, who runs Bottin´s with his wife (in charge of the scones, cakes,
tarts and biscuits) let me into the inner workings (5)_________ his
teashop so that I could see for myself how it was run. (6)__________
water is brought daily in demi-johns from a well in Don Torcuato:
it is not like the usual highly chlorinated liquid we get normally
thanks to Aguas Argentinas. This undoubtedly accounts for the (7)
_______________ black colour of the tea itself, the only factor during
my visit which (8) ____________ could point out as being unusual. The
tea itself -unless one specifically asks for a special brand, whether
imported (9) ___________ local- is a personal mixture prepared by
Frank of Earl Grey and Taragui “with a special family secret” which
he (10) ____________ not divulge. I saw the tea prepared in porcelain
(11) ______________ with boiling water and I tasted it both alone
(without sugar, milk, lemon or anything else, as I normally drink my
tea) and then with a (12) ______________ sugar. Both times I found
the tea strong (13) ______________ good. Two good ladies (14)
_____________ their cuppa alongside my table, on being asked their
opinions, agreed that it was perfectly acceptable.
The eats -about which nobody (15) __________ complained- were
excellent. The lemon pie tasted of pure lemon, and a new addition
to the family, hazelnut cookies, were (16) ________________. The
brownies were less moist and sticky (17) ____________ most people
enjoy, but not to be despised at all. To sum up: I still (18) _____________
Bottin´s reliable teashop. If you are specially (19) _____________
about your tea, make certain you ask for (20) ____________ favourite
brand. D.F.
Buenos Aires Herald, June 9, 1996.

87
2. Fill in each blank with the words below.
I than
particular urgent
of teapots
quality or
but outstanding
your had
consider at
little investigate
incredibly enjoying
the would
3. Match the predicates (a)-(j) to their corresponding subjects (1)-

(10).
1. A sentence (a) are usually optional.

2. The subject (b) is the most important copular verb.
3. The verb (c) contains a subject and a predicate.
4. The predicate (d) only occur with transitive verbs.
5. The main elements (e) have to occur in every sentence.
of sentence structure
6. Not all of these (f) usually comes before the verb.
7. Objects (g) follow copular verbs like be or
become.
8. Subjective (h) are subject, verb, object,
complements complement and adverbial.
9. The verb be (i) consists of a verb and possibly other
elements.
10. Adverbials (j) has to agree with the subject.
88
4. Complete the following sentences using the correct words given

below:
1. _________________ can be dynamic, finite, full, transitive, etc.

2. Collective, countable, genitive, proper are used when we describe
___________
3. Attributive, predicative, comparative, superlative are related to
______________
4. Demonstrative, interrogative, personal, relative describe different
kinds of _____
5. _______________often tell us how, when, where or why something
happened.
6. Many _____________ have meanings connected with place or
time. They connect two units of a sentence together and show a
relationship.
7. The articles a, an and the are special kinds of __________________.
8. ________________ join words, phrases and clauses together.
Some are coordinating and some are subordinating.
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS DETERMINERS

NOUNS PRONOUNS VERBS PREPOSITIONS
5. ODD WORD OUT: Choose the word that does not belong to that
particular word class.
Example: door, garden, built, room, window (The others are NOUNS)
1. may, should, will, may, want
2. did, was, has, can, are
3. they, me, every, ours, someone
4. into, at, after, during, upwards
5. too, when, or, and, because
6. grammar, teacher, class, college, learn
7. hungry, angry, silly, obviously, lonely
8. suggest, cause, must, insist, persuade
9. how, an, my, whose, no
10. now, friendly, badly, soon, afterwards
89
6. Analyse these sentences taking into account the basic patterns.
Example:
____S________ ___________P_________
He turned the page.
TVCP DO
1. The leaves turned yellow.
2. She is smelling the food.
3. This tea smells good.
4 He became a lawyer.
5. He made me cry.
6. It feels soft.
7. Your language does not become a man of your education.
8. They appointed him secretary of State.
9. The doctor felt my pulse.
10. This dress suits you.
11. I got to the airport in time.
12. I lived in the country for more than ten years.
13. Maria told her parents a lie.
14. The tallest tree in my garden is really old.
15. Peter puts some money on the table.
16. The old lady in blue was very happy.
17. The audience shouts loudly.
18. Yesterday I received some interesting magazines.
19. Julie gave me a nice present.
20. It is snowing.
7. Analyse the different underlined phrases (nominal, adjectival, etc.)

included in these sentences.
Example:
She is at home. at home
SC/Prep.Ph. H/P C/NPh.
1. Could you call me a porter?

2. You can keep the change.
3. The old lady has grown bitter.
90
4. I can’t keep my hands warm.

5. He grows tomatoes.
6. Could you keep me a seat?
7. This exercise was done at home.
8. That plane isn’t new.
9. He calls himself a porter.
10. Peter’s father greeted the headmaster warmly.
11. That made John angry.
12. His annoyance did not last.
13. People are killed on the road every day.
14. We were handed a leaflet.
15. The walls were painted bright pink.
16. My father washes the dishes at night.
17. The officer examined his passport very carefully.
18. Her parents are here.
19. A small black puppy is sleeping by the fireplace.
20. I wear jeans because of the fashion.
8. Analyse these SIMPLE SENTENCES following the guide.
1. He proved himself a great soldier but threw himself from the horse.
2. The short, thickest Neanderthals were ousted from the evolutionary
scene by the direct ancestors of modern man, the Cromagnons.
3. I felt tired, miserable and slightly frightened and sat for ten minutes
without moving.
4. Increased leisure also allowed the advanced hunters ample time
for artistic deeds.
5. They became skilful carvers, competent sculptors and consummated
painters.
9. Analyse these COMPOUND SENTENCES following the guide.
1. I liked the salesman, therefore I gave him an order.

2. Paul was anxious to get home and his footsteps rang loudly on
the pavement.
3. Either the cat is wearing slippers or I’m seeing things.
4. I put my hands over my eyes and tried to scream and suddenly I
91
found myself awake.

5. The captain telegraphed the authorities so the police were waiting
for the ship’s arrival in New York.
10. Are the following sentences SIMPLE or COMPOUND? Analyse

them applying the correct guide.
1. A signal may be perfectly friendly in one culture, but rude in

another one.
2. In Izumi’s lifetime, Japan has changed and become one of the
most important industrial countries.
3. Chomsky set the goal of linguistic theory as the description of the
ideal speaker-hearer’s competence, his knowledge of grammaticality.
11. Analyse the following sentences. In each case, apply the right
guide.
1. The crowd roared as the ball went into the net.

2. Mary treated him, as she treated everyone, with a certain disdain.
3. We came back because the car broke down.
4. I have not seen him since we were at school together.
5. The citizens of Venice had seen the old senator climbing the
highest bell-tower.
6. I was in Africa for a term of twenty months and the gorillas soon
became quite used to my presence.
7. He fastened the sunshade securely, so that it wouldn’t blow away.
8. He won’t come into the house as long as I’m alive.
9. Were it mine, I’d call the vet.
10. Whatever you do, you can’t miss the play.
12. Analyse these COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES:
a) When mother works, economic advantages accrue, but children

lose something of great value if mother’s employment prevents her
from being home when they return from school.
b) In so far as any enquiry is a secret one, it naturally limits all those
engaged in carrying it out and sometimes the secrecy goes to such
92
an extent that the whole nature of the research cannot be mentioned.
13. State whether the underlined subclauses are RELATIVE or

NOMINAL ones. Then analyse them following the guide.
1. Macy’s is where I buy my clothes.

2. You can call me whatever you like.
3. This is the reason why I’m so happy.
4. He is aware of what I write.
5. How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
6. He gave whoever asked for it a copy of his latest paper.
7. I can’t imagine what they want with your address.
14. Are these sentences COMPLEX or COMPOUND COMPLEX?

Use the right guide to analyse them.
a) If you have to fill in your college application form, the best advice
is to imagine that you are the person who is choosing the applicants
and to ask yourself what valuable qualities you can bring to the
College in question.
b) Although game shows were not the kind of programmes I would
normally have watched, I began to enjoy them and I must have
watched hundred of them after I arrived in the place I live now.
c) After I had thought about it for a while, I felt that the phenomenon
of connecting all the computers in the world has such a wide reach
that it would affect a number of industries we do business with.
15. The following sentences contain Anticipatory Subjects IT and

There. Apply the guide to analyse them.
a) It is significant to note that during this period he told his friend

Conrad that it would be interesting to cut oneself into pieces and to
see if the fragments that remained would sprout.
b) When you arrive home from your holidays, there are always
hundreds of letters waiting for you, all of which have to be answered;
and everything has died in the garden since there has been no rain.
93
16. Analyse the verb phrases in bold in two different ways:
1. He is certain to arrive on time.

2. He seems to be tired.
3. He kept on screaming.
17. Identify the verb phrases in the sentences below (prepositional

verbs, group verbs, etc.). Then, if possible, analyse them in two
different ways.
1. They made a mess of the house.

2. They have to apply for the job.
3. I don’t approve of your behaviour.
4. Fill out the form.
5. I’m looking forward to hearing from you.
6. Put an end to the story.
7. Don’t insist on that.
8. I got hold of the bag.
9. He looks up to his father.
10. The plane took off at five.
18. State whether the underlined phrases or words (within the noun
phrases) are functioning as MODIFIERS or COMPLEMENTS.
1. The citizens of Venice had seen the old senator climbing the highest bell-tower.
a) b)
2. The whole nature of research cannot be mentioned.
a) b)
3. The man that is waiting outside cannot be patient.
4. The phenomenon of connecting all the computers in the world has such a
a)
wide reach that it would affect a number of industries which we do business with.
b)
5. The fact that she is clever is obvious.
6. This is the fact that we have to face.
94
7. Dr. Brown produced the arrogant statement that there were no large
a)
animals to be discovered.
b)
8. The Greens have recently moved into their charming old house in the country.
a) b)
9. They decided to scrape away all the faded green wall-paper.
a) b) c)
10. Only the student next to the window was able to find the answer to this
question. a) b)
95
KEY TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1/2:
1. quality – abstract noun – Because there is a definite article before it.

2. at – preposition – It refers to a place, connecting a verb and a noun.
3. urgent – adjective – It modifies “visit” (between a determiner and a noun)
4. investigate – infinitive verb (non-finite) – It indicates an action.
5. of – preposition – place - It connects two nouns.
6. the – definite article (determiner) – It comes before a noun.
7. incredibly – adverb – It modifies an adjective (black)
8. I – personal pronoun – It is a subject.
9. or – alternative coordinating conjunction – It joins two adjectives.
10. would – modal verb
11. teapots – noun – It comes after an adjective (porcelain + noun).
12. little - determiner / quantifier – It denotes quantity.
13. but – adversative coordinating conjunction – It joins two adjectives.
14. enjoying – verb (non- finite) – present participial phrase.
15. had – auxiliary verb – auxiliary for perfection (past perfect).
16. outstanding – adjective – present participial phrase.
17. than – subordinating conjunction
18. consider – finite verb (= conjugated verb)
19. particular – adjective – It modifies the pronoun “you”
20. your – possessive determiner – It pre-modifies “favourite brand”.
Exercise 3:
1. (c) 6. (e)
2. (f) 7. (d)
3. (j) 8. (g)
4. (i) 9. (b)
5. (h) 10. (a)
96
Exercise 4:
1. Verbs 5. Adverbs
2. Nouns 6. Prepositions
3. Adjectives 7. Determiners
4. Pronouns 8. Conjunctions
Exercise 5:
1. Want: It is a full lexical verb(the others are modal verbs/auxiliaries).

2. Can: It is a modal verb( the others are auxiliaries).
3. Every: It is a determiner (the others are pronouns).
4. Upwards: It is an adverb (the others are prepositions).
5. Too: It is an adverb (the others are conjunctions).
6. Learn: It is a full-lexical verb (the others are nouns).
7. Obviously: It is an adverb (the others are adjectives).
8. Must: It is a modal auxiliary (the others are full lexical verbs).
9. How: It is an adverb (the others are determiners).
10. Friendly: It is an adjective (the others are adverbs)
Exercise 6:
1. ______S______ ________P_________
The leaves turned yellow.
IVIP SC
2. _S___ _________P__________
She is smelling the food.
TVCP DO
3. _______S______ __________P__________
This tea smells good.
IVIP SC
4. _S_ ________P__________
He became a lawyer.
IVIP SC
97
5. _S__ ______P________
He made me cry.
TVIP DO OC
6. _S__ ____P_____
It feels soft.
IVIP SC
7. ________S________ __________________P_______________________
Your language does not become a man of your education
_____ AA _______ SC
of Negation
TVCP (DISC. V. PHR.)
8. __S__ _____________P______________
They appointed him secretary of state.
TVIP DO OC
9. _______S_______ _______P________
The doctor felt my pulse.
TVCP DO
10. _______S_______ _____P____

This dress suits you.
TVCP DO
11. _S__ _______________P_______________

I got to the station in time.
IVCP AC OF PLACE AA OF TIME
12. _S__ __________________P_____________________

I lived in the country for more than ten years.
IVCP AC OF PLACE AA OF TIME
13. __S__ __________P__________

Maria told her parents a lie.
TVCP IO DO
98
14. ____________________S______________________ ______P________

The tallest tree in my garden is really old.
IVIP SC
15. The following sentence can be analyzed in two different ways:
1st way:
__S__ ______________P________________
Peter puts some money on the table.
TVCP DO AC OF PLACE
2nd way:
__S__ ______________P______________
Peter puts some money on the table.
TVIP DO OC
16. _____________S____________________ ______P________

The old lady in blue was very happy.
IVIP SC
17. _____S_____ ______P______

The audience shouts loudly.
IVCP AA of Manner
18. _DISC. P_ S ______________DISC. P____________

Yesterday I received some interesting magazines.
AA OF TIME TVCP DO
19. __S__ ___________P____________

Julie gave me a nice present.
TVCP IO OD
20. _S_ _____P______

It is snowing.
FPh.
99
Exercise 7:
1. Could you call me a porter?

H/OP
______
IO/Pron.Ph.
2. You can keep the change.

PM/ H/N
RD/
DA
____________
DO/N.Ph.
_______S______
3. The old lady has grown bitter.
PM/ PM/ H/N
RD/ Adj.
DA
4. I can’t keep my hands warm.

H/Adj.
________
OC/Adj.Ph.
5. He grows tomatoes.
H/N
___________
DO/N.Ph.
6. Could you keep me a seat?

PM/ H/N
RD/
IA
______________
DO/NPh.
100
7. This exercise was done at home.

AUX. FOR MV/
THE PASSIVE TVCP
______________________
FPh.
_______S_____
8. That plane isn’t new.
PM/ H/N
RD/
Demonst.
9. He calls himself a porter.

H/Reflex.
Pronoun
_____________
DO/Pron.Ph.
____S________
10. Peter’s father greeted the headmaster warmly.
PM/RD/ H/N
Genitive
___S___
11. That made John angry.
H/Determiner
Nominalized
_________P_______________
12. His annoyance did not last.
EC H/Adv. MV(IVCP)
______ _______ __________

Disc.VPh. AA of Disc. VPh.
Negation
101
13. People are killed on the road every day.

PM/RD/ H/N
Quantif.
________________
AA of time/ Nom.Ph.
__S__
14. We were handed a leaflet.
H/PP
15. The walls were painted bright pink.

PM/Adj. H/Adj.
________________
RETAINED OC/Adj.Ph.
______S______
16. My father washes the dishes at night.
PM/ H/N
RD/
Gen.
17. The officer examined his passport very carefully.

PM/ H/ADV.
Intensifier
___________________
AA OF Manner/Adv.Ph.
18. Her parents are here.

H/Adv.
_______
SC/Adv.Ph.
___________S______________
19. A small black puppy is sleeping by the fireplace.
PM/ PM/Adj. PM/Adj. H/N
RD/
IA
102
20. I wear jeans because of the fashion.

H/ Prep. PM/ H/N
RD/DA
______________
C/NPh.
___________________________
AA of Reason/Prep.Ph.
Exercise 8:
1. He proved himself a great soldier but threw himself from the horse.
1. Kind of sentence: Simple, declarative positive statement
2. Finite verb: proved (mv) / threw (mv)
3. Kind of finite: proved (TVIP) / threw (TVCP)
4. Analysis:
_S__ _____________________________P______________________________
_
He proved himself a great soldier but threw himself from the horse
H/PP FV H/Ref.Pron. PM/ PM/ H/N ACC FV H/Ref.Pron.H/Prep.PM/ H/N
RD/ Adj. RD/
IA DA
______ _______ _______ _________
DO/Pron.Ph. OC/Nom.Ph. DO/Pron.Ph. C/Nom.Ph.
_______________
103
2. The short, thickest Neanderthals were ousted from the evolutionary

scene by the direct ancestors of modern man, the Cromagnons.

Finite verb: were (auxiliary for the passive) ousted (main verb)
2. Kind of finite: ousted (TVCP)
3. Analysis:
_____________S_______________ _________________P__________
The short, thickest Neanderthalswere ousted from the evolutionary scene
PM/ PM/ PM/ H/N FPh. H/Prep.PM/ PM/Adj. H/N
RD/ Adj. Sup.Adj.
DA
__________________
C/Nom.Ph.
______________________________
AA of Place/Prep.Ph.
______________________P____________________________
by the direct ancestors of modern man, the Cromagnons.
H/P PM/ PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N PM/ H/N
RD/ Adj. Adj. RD/
DA DA
________________
APPOSITION/Nom.Ph.
___________________________________
C/Nom.Ph.
______________________________________________________
C/Prep.Ph.
________________________________________________________________________
C/Nom.Ph.
________________________________________________________________________
AGENT/ Prep.Ph.
104
3. I felt tired, miserable and slightly frightened and sat for ten minutes
without moving.
2. Finite verb: felt (main verb) / sat (main verb)
3. Kind of finite: felt (IVIP)/ sat (IVCP)
4. Analysis:
_S__ _______________________________P__________________________
I felt tired, miserable and slightly frightened and sat for ten minutes
H/PP FV H/Adj. H/Adj. CCC PM/Adv. H/Adj. CCC FV H/P PM/ H/N
RD/Num.
___________________________________ __________
SC/Adj. Ph. C/Nom.Ph.
___________
AA of Time/Prep.Ph.
___________ P______
without moving
H/P H/Gerund (1)
______________
C/Non-Finite Ph. (=Gerundial Ph.)
________________________
AA of Manner/Prep.Ph.
(1) Prepositions are always followed by gerunds; they are never followed by
present participles.
105
4. Increased leisure also allowed the advanced hunters ample time

for artistic deeds.
2. Finite verb: allowed (main verb) (2)
4. Analysis:
_______S_______ __________________________P__________________ ….
Increased leisure also allowed the advanced hunters ample time
PM/ H/N Subjunct FV PM/ PM/Adj. H/N PM/ H/N
Adj. (Additive) RD/DA Adj.
_____________________ __________ .…
DO/Nom.Ph. OC/Nom.Ph.
……_________P______
for artistic deeds.
H/P PM/ H/N
Adj.
______________
C/NPh.
____________________
C/Prep.Ph.
….__________________
OC/Nom.Ph.
(2) The verb “allow(ed)” is a causative verb with an OC. In the Deep Structure
we will find the following sentence: The advanced hunters had ample time for
artistic deeds.
106
5. They became skilful carvers, competent sculptors and consummated

painters.
1. Kind of sentence: simple, declarative positive statement
2. Finite verb: became (main verb)
4. Analysis:
_S_ _______________________________P________________________________
They became skilful carvers, competent sculptors and consummated painters.
H/PP FV PM/Adj. H/N PM/Adj. H/N CCC PM/Adj. H/N
_________________________________________________________
SC/Nom.Ph.(*)
(*) Another way of analysing this predicate is: “became” + “skilful carvers”
(SC) + “competent sculptors” (SC) + “and” + “consummated painters” (SC).
107
Exercise 9:
1. I liked the salesman, therefore I gave him an order.

2. First member: I liked the salesman
3. Kind of member: Simple, declarative positive member
4. Finite verb: liked (main verb)
6. Analysis:
_S_ ________P_________
I liked the salesman
H/PP FV PM/ H/N
RD/DA
______________
DO/NPh.
7. Connective between members: therefore / , (Illative Conjunct

/ Parataxis)
8. Second member: I gave him an order.
10. Finite verb: gave (main verb)
12. Analysis:
_S_ ___________P______________
I gave him an order.
H/PP FV H/OP PM/ H/N
RD/IA
______ ____________
IO/Pron.Ph. DO/NPh.
108
2. Paul was anxious to get home and his footsteps rang loudly on
the pavement.

2. First member: Paul was anxious to get home
6. Analysis:
__S__ ___________________P_________________________
Paul was anxious to get home
H/Proper FV H/Adj. C/Non-Finite Ph./Infinitival Ph.
Noun __________________________________
SC/Adj.Ph
7. Connective between members: and (CCC)

8. Second member: his footsteps rang loudly on the pavement.
10. Finite phrase: rang (main verb)
12. Analysis:
_______S______ ___________________P____________________
his footsteps rang loudly on the pavement.
PM/ H/N FV H/Adv. H/P PM/ H/N
RD/ ________ RD/
Genitive AA of Manner/ DA
Adv.Ph. ________________
C/Nom.Ph.
______________________
109
3. Either the cat is wearing slippers or I’m seeing things.

2. First member: the cat is wearing slippers
3. Kind of member Simple, declarative positive member.
4. Finite verb: is (auxiliary for progression) / wearing (main verb)
5. Kind finite: wearing (TVCP)
6. Analysis:
___S____ _________P___________
the cat is wearing slippers
PM/ H/N FPh. H/N
RD/ ___________
DA DO/Nom.Ph.
7. Connective between members: either…or (CACC)

8. Second member: I’m seeing things.
9. Kind of member: Simple, declarative positive member.
10. Finite phrase: am (auxiliary for progression) / seeing (main
verb)
11. Kind of finite: seeing (TVCP)
12. Analysis:
_S__ ______P___________
I am seeing things
H/PP FPh. H/N
_________
DO/Nom.Ph.
110
4. I put my hands over my eyes and tried to scream and suddenly I

found myself awake.

2. First member: I put my hands over my eyes and tried to scream
(*)
4. Finite verb: put (main verb) / tried to (semi-modal) + scream
(main verb)
5. Kind of finite: put (TVCP + AC or TVIP + OC) / scream (IVCP)
6. Analysis:
(*)The first member of this sentence has two different ways of analysis.
1st way:
_S_ ___________________________P_____________________________
I put my hands over my eyes and tried to scream
H/PP FV PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N CCC semi-modal MV
RD/ RD/
Genit. Genit. _________________
___________ _________ FPh.
DO/Nom.Ph. C/Nom.Ph.
______________
2nd way:
_S_ ___________________________P_____________________________
I put my hands over my eyes and tried to scream
H/PP MV PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N CCC FV DO/Infinitival Ph.
RD/ RD/ (TVCP)
Genit. Genit.
____________ ___________
DO/Nom.Ph. C/Nom.Ph.
___________________
OC/Prep.Ph.
111

8. Second member: suddenly I found myself awake.
10. Finite phrase: found (main verb)
12. Analysis:
___DP____ __S__ __________DISC. P____________

suddenly I found myself awake.
H/ADV H/PP FV H/ Reflex. H/Adj.
__________ Pron. __________
AA of Manner/ __________ OC/Adj.Ph.
Adv.Ph. DO/Pron.Ph.
112
5. The captain telegraphed the authorities so the police were waiting

for the ship’s arrival in New York.

2. First member: The captain telegraphed the authorities
4. Finite phrase: telegraphed (main verb)
6. Analysis:
______S_____ ______________P______________
The captain telegraphed the authorities
PM/ H/N FV PM/ H/N
RD/ RD/
DA DA
________________
DO/Nom.Ph.
7. Connective between members: so (ICC)

8. Second member: the police were waiting for the ship’s arrival
in New York.
9. Kind of member: simple, declarative positive member
10. Finite verb: were (auxiliary for progression) / waiting (main
verb) or waiting for (main verb / prepositional verb)
11. Kind of finite: waiting (IVCP) / waiting for (TVCP)
12. Analysis:
1st way:
____S____ ____________________P________________________________
The police were waiting for the ship’s arrival in New York.
PM/ H/N FPh. H/P PM/ PM/Noun H/N H/P H/Proper Noun
RD/ RD/ Genitive ___________
DA DA C/Nom.Ph.
_______________
C/prep..Ph.
____________________________________
C/Nom.Ph.
________________________________________
AC of Theme or Subject Matter/Prep.Ph.
113
2nd way:
______S_____ ___________________________________________________
The police were waiting for the ship’s arrival in New York.
PM/ H/N FPh. PM/ PM/Noun H/N H/P H/Proper Noun
RD/ RD/ Genitive __________
DA DA C/Nom.Ph.
_______________
C/Prep.Ph.
_________________________________
DO/Nom.Ph.
114
Exercise 10:
1. A signal may be perfectly friendly in one culture, but rude in another
one.

2. Finite verb: may (modal auxiliary) be (main verb)
4. Analysis:
____S_____ _____________________P_______________________________
_......
A signal may be perfectly friendly in one culture, but rude
PM/ H/N FPh. PM/Adv. H/Adj. H/P PM/ H/N ACC H/Adj.
RD/ _________________ RD/ ____
IA SC/Adj.Ph. Num SC/Adj.Ph.
____________
C/Nom.Ph.
________________
AA of Figurative Place/
Prep.Ph.
…… _______P_________________________
in another one.
H/P PM/RD/ H/Replacive Pronoun
Quantifier
___________________________________
AA of Figurative Place/Prep.Ph.
115
2. In Izumi’s lifetime, Japan has chanced and become one of the

most important industrial countries.

2. Finite phrase: has (auxiliary for perfection) / changed/become
(main verbs)
3. Kind of finite: changed (IVCP) / become (IVIP)
4. Analysis:
_______DISC. P_________ __S__ _______DISC P_________.....

In Izumi’s lifetime, Japan has changed and become
H/P PM/Noun H/N H/N FPh. CCC FV
Genitive
…..________________DP_______________________________
one of the most important industrial countries.
H/Det. H/P PM/ PM/ PM/Adj. PM/Adj. H/N
Nomin. RD/DA Sup.Adj.
__________________________________________________________
C/NPh.
_____________________________________________
C/Prep. ph.
___________________________________________________
SC/NPh.
116
3. Chomsky set the goal of linguistic theory as the description of the

ideal speaker-hearer’s competence, his knowledge of grammaticality.
1. Kind of sentence: Simple, declarative positive sentence.

2. Finite phrase: set (main verb)
3. Kind of finite: TVIP + OC or TVCP + AC of Manner
4. Analysis:
____S___ ________________P______________.....
Chomsky set the goal of linguistic theory
H/Prop.N. FV PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N
RD/ Adj.
D/A ________________
C. Nom.Ph.
____________________
C/Prep.Ph.
_______________________________
DO/Nom.Ph.
…..________________________P__________________________________.....
as the description of the ideal speaker-hearer’s competence,
H/P PM/ H/N H/P PM/ PM/ PM/Noun Genitive H/N
RD/ RD/ Adj.
DA DA
___________________________________________________________.....
C/Nom.Ph.
_______________________________________________________________.....
OC/Prep.Ph. or AC of Manner/Prep.Ph.
…..__________________P_______________
his knowledge of grammaticality.
PM/ H/N H/P H/N
RD/ _______________
Gen. C/Nom.Ph.
_____________________
C/Prep.Ph.
_________________________________________
APPOSITION/NPh.
_________________________________________
C/NPh.
_________________________________________
OC/Prep.Ph. or AC of Manner/Prep.Ph.
117
Exercise 11:
1. The crowd roared as the ball went into the net.
1. Kind of sentence: Complex , declarative positive statement.

2. Main cl.: The crowd roared + S1
3. Finite verb: roared (main verb)
5. Analysis:
______S_____ ______P_________
The crowed roared S1
PM/ H/N FV AA of Reason/
RD/ Adv.Clause
DA
6. S1: as the ball went into the net.
7. Kind of clause: Simple, declarative positive clause
8. Function of the clause: AA of Reason
9. Finite phrase: went (main verb)
11. Connective: as
12. Kind of connective: Subordinating Conjunction (SC)
14. Analysis:
____S__ ______P________________
as the ball went into the net.
SC PM/ H/N FV H/P PM/ H/N
RD/ RD/
DA DA
_________
C/Nom.Ph.
______________
118
2. Mary treated him, as she treated everyone, with a certain disdain.

2. Main clause: Mary treated him, S1, with a certain disdain.
3. Finite phrase: treated (main verb)
5. Analysis:
__S__ ____________P______________________________________
Mary treated him , S1 , with a certain disdain.
H/Proper FV H/OP AA of Manner/ H/P PM/ PM/Adj. H/N
Noun _______ Adv.Clause RD/
DO/Pron.Ph. DA
_______________________
C/Nom.Ph.
____________________________
AA of Manner/Prep.Ph.
6. S1: as she treated everyone

8. Function of the cl.: AA of Manner or Comparison
9. Finite phrase: treated (main verb)
11. Connective between members: as
14. Analysis:
_S_ ________P___________________
, as she treated everyone ,
SC H/PP FV H/Indefinite Pronoun
___________________
DO/Pron.Ph.
119
3. We came back because the car broke down.

2. Main clause: We came back + S1
3. Finite phrase: came back (main verb / phrasal verb)
5. Analysis:
_S__ ___________P_____________
We came back S1
H/PP FPh. AA of Reason/
Adv.Clause
6. S1: because the car broke down.

9. Finite verb: broke down (main verb / phrasal verb)
11. Connective between members: because
14. Analysis:
____S____ _____P_______
because the car broke down.
SC PM/ H/N FPh.
120
4. I have not seen him since we were at school together.

2. Main cl.: I have not seen him + S1
3. Finite phrase: have (auxiliary for perfection) / seen (main verb)
4. Kind of finite: seen (TVCP)
5. Analysis:
_S__ ________________P_________________________
I have not seen him S1
H/PP H/Adv. H/ OP AA of Time/
______... ________ …_____ _______ Adv.Clause
Disc.FPh. AA of Neg. Disc.FPh. DO/Pron.Ph.
6. S1: since we were at school together.

7. Kind of clause.: Adverbial, declarative positive clause
8. Function of the clause: AA of Time
9. Finite verb: were (main verb)
11. Connective between members: since
14. Analysis:
__S__ ____________P_________________
since we were at school together.
SC H/PP FV H/P H/N H/Adv.
______ __________
C/Nom.Ph. AA of Manner/
___________ Adv.Clause
SC/Prep.Ph.
121
5. The citizens of Venice had seen the old senator climbing the
highest bell-tower.
1. Kind of sentence: Simple, declarative negative statement

2. Finite verb: had (auxiliary for perfection) seen (main verb)
3. Kind of finite: seen (TVIP) or (TVCP) + DO
4. Analysis:
_____________S___________ ___________________________P___________
________________
The citizens of Venice had seen the old senator climbing the highest bell-tower.
PM/ H/N H/P H/N FPh. PM/ PM/ H/N (1)
RD/ ______ RD/ Adj.
DA C/Nom.Ph. DA
________
C/Prep.Ph. ______________ _________________________
DO/Nom.Ph. OC/Present Participial Ph.
(1) The Non-Finite Phrase “climbing the highest bell-tower” may be included
in the DO and its syntactic function will be: PM/Present Participial Phrase.
122
6. I was in Africa for a term of twenty months and the gorillas soon
became quite used to my presence.

2. First member: I was in Africa for a term of twenty months
6. Analysis:
_S_ ________________________P___________________________
I was in Africa for a term of twenty months (2)
H/PP FV H/P H/N H/P PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N
______ RD/ RD/
C/Nom.Ph. DA DA
___________ ______________________________
SC/Prep.Ph. C/Nom.Ph.
__________________________________
AA of Time/Prep.Ph.
(2) Another way of analyis: “a term of” as Pre-determiner/Quantifier/

Temporal Partitive.

8. Second member: the gorillas soon became quite used to my presence.
10. Finite verb: became
12. Analysis:
_____S____ _________________P__________________________
the gorillas soon became quite used to my presence.
PM/ H/N H/Adv. FV PM/ H/Adj. H/P PM/ H/N
RD/ Intensifier RD/
DA Genit.
_______________
C/Nom.Ph.
___________________
C/Prep.Ph.
_________________________________
SC/ Adj.Ph.
123
7. He fastened the sunshade securely, so that it wouldn’t blow away.

2. Main cl.: He fastened the sunshade securely + S1
3. Finite verb: fastened (main verb)
5. Analysis:
_S__ _____________________P_____________________
He fastened the sunshade securely S1
H/PP FV PM/ H/N H/Adv. AA of Purpose/
RD/ Adv.Clause
_DA__________ _________
DO/Nom.Ph. AA of Manner/
Adv.Ph.
6. S1: so that it wouldn’t blow away.

7. Kind of clause: Simple, declarative negative clause
8. Function of the clause: AA of Purpose
9. Finite phrase: would (modal auxiliary) blow away (main verb/
phrasal verb)
10. Kind of finite: blow away (IVCP)
11. Connective between members: so that (= in order that)
14. Analysis:
__S_ _____________P_____________
so that it (1) would not blow away.
SC H/PP Disc.FPh. H/Adv. Disc.FPh.
______
AA of Negation/
Adv.Ph.
(1) When a Personal Pronoun has its reference before (in this case, “sunshade”),
we call it “Personal Pronoun with ANAPHORIC REFERENCE”.
124
8. He won’t come into the house as long as I’m alive.

2. Main cl.: He won’t come into the house + S1
3. Finite phrase: will (modal auxiliary) come (main verb)
4. Kind of finite: come (IVCP)
5. Analysis:
__S__ ____________________P________________________________
He will not come into the house S1
H/PP Disc. FPh H/Adv. Disc.FPh. H/P PM/ H/N AA of Condition/
______ RD/ Adv.Clause
AA of DA
Negation/ ________________
Adv.Ph. AC of Place/Prep.Ph.
6. S1: as long as I’m alive.

8. Function of the clause: AA of Condition
11. Connective between members: as long as
14. Analysis:
_S__ _____P______
as long as I am alive.
SC H/PP FV H/Adj.
________
SC/Adj.Ph.
125
9. Were it mine, I’d call the vet.

2. Main clause: S1 + I’d call the vet.
3. Finite verb: would (modal auxiliary) call (main verb)
4. Kind of finite: call (TVCP)
5. Analysis:
__Disc.P___ _S_ ____DISC. P______________

S1 I would call the vet.
AA of Condition/ H/PP FPh. PM/ H/N
Adv.Clause RD/DA
__________
DO/NPh.
6. S1: Were it mine

9. Finite phrase: were
11. Connective: if (omitted)
14. Analysis:
__DP__ _S_ __DP___

(If) Were it mine
MV H/PP SC
126
10. Whatever you do, you can’t miss the play.
1. Kind of sentence: Complex, declarative positive statement/

directive
2. Main clause: S1 + you can’t miss the play.
3. Finite verb: can (modal auxiliary) miss (main verb)
4. Kind of finite: miss (TVCP)
5. Analysis:
_ Disc.P_ _S__ ____________P____________________

S1 you can not miss the play.
AA of H/PP H/Adv. PM/ H/N
Concession/ RD/
Adv.Clause DA
____ ____ _____ ___________
Disc.FPh. AA of Disc.FPh. DO/Nom.Ph.
Negation/
Adv.Ph.
6. S1: Whatever you do

8. Function of the clause: AA of Concession
9. Finite verb: do (main verb)
11. Connective between members: whatever (= although)
12. Kind of connective: Relative Pronoun
14. Analysis:
_Disc.P_______ __S___ __Disc.P___

Whatever you do
H/Indefinite Relative Pronoun H/PP MV
_______________
DO/NPh.
127
Exercise 12:
a) When mother works, economic advantages accrue, but children

lose something of great value if mother’s employment prevents her
from being home when they return from school.
1. Kind of sentence: Compound complex statement

2. First member: When mother works, economic advantages accrue,
3. Kind of member: Complex, declarative positive member
4. Main clause: S1 + economic advantages accrue,
5. Finite verb: accrue (main verb)
7. Analysis:
_DP__ ________S____________ __DP__

S1 economic advantages accrue,
AA of PM/Adj. H/N FV
Condition/
Adv.Clause
8. S1: When mother works

10. Function of the clause: AA of Condition or Time
11. Finite verb: works
16. Analysis:
___S__ __P___
When mother works
SC H/N FV
17. Connective between members: but / ,

18. Kind of connective: ACC / Parataxis
19. Second member: children lose something of great value if
128
mother’s employment prevents her from being home when they

return from school.
20. Kind of member: Complex ,declarative positive member
21. Main clause: children lose something of great value + S1
22. Finite verb: lose (main verb)
24. Analysis:
____S___ _______________P__________________________
children lose something of great value S1
H/N FV H/Indefinite H/P PM/ H/N AA of Condition/
Pronoun Adj. Adv.Clause
____________
C/NPh.
________________
C/Prep.Ph.
____________________________
DO/NPh.
25. S1: if mother’s employment prevents her from being home + S1a
28. Finite verb: prevents from (main verb/prepositional verb)
or prevents + DO/Pronominal Phrase + AC of Subject Matter/
Prepositional Phrase (1)
30. Connective: if
33. Analysis:
__________S___________ __________________P__________________
if mother’s employment prevents her from being home S1a
SC PM/Noun H/N ________ H/OP ____ DO/Gerundial AA of Time/
Genitive Disc.FPh ____ Disc.FPh. Ph. Adv.Clause
IO/Pron.Ph.
129
34. S1a: when they return from school.

37. Finite verb: return (main verb)
42. Analysis:
__S__ ________P____________
when they return from school.
SC H/PP FV H/P H/N
________
C/Nom.Ph.
________________
(1) See other examples in Exercise 17.
130
b) In so far as any enquiry is a secret one, it naturally limits all those

engaged in carrying it out and sometimes the secrecy goes to such
an extent that the whole nature of the research cannot be mentioned.
1. Kind of sentence: Compound-complex

2. Fist member: In so far as any enquiry is a secret one, it naturally
limits all those engaged in carrying it out
3. Kind of member: Complex, declarative positive member.
4. Main clause: S1 + it naturally limits all those engaged in carrying
it out
5. Finite verb: limits (main verb)
7. Analysis:
_DP_ _S_ ___________________________DP_________________________

S1, it naturally limits all those engaged in carrying it out
AA of H/PP H/Adv. FV PM/ H/Determ. Post-Modifier/Past Participial
Ph. RD/ Nominalized
Condition/ DA
Adv.Clause ____________________________________________
DO/Nom.Ph.
8. S1: In so far as any enquiry is a secret one

13. Connective: In so far as
16. Analysis:
_____S______ _________P__________
In so far as any enquiry is a secret one
SC PM/ H/N FV PM/ PM/ H/N
RD/ RD/ Adj.
QUA. IA
________________
SC/Nom.Ph.
131
17. Connective between members: and

18. Kind of connective: CCC
19. Second member: sometimes the secrecy goes to such an
extent that the whole nature of the research cannot be mentioned.
20. Kind of member: Complex, declarative positive member
21. Main cl.: sometimes the secrecy goes to such an extent + S1
22. Finite verb: goes (main verb)
24. Analysis:
____DP____ _____S_____ __________DP________________________

sometimes the secrecy goes to such an extent S1
AA of Frequency/ PM/ H/N MV H/P PM/ PM/ H/N AA of Result/
Adv.Ph. RD/ PD/ RD/ Adv.Clause
DA Intens. IA
_________________
C/Nom.Ph.
______________________
AC of Degree or Extent/
Prep.Ph.
25. S1: such …that the whole nature of the research cannot be
mentioned.
27. Function of the clause: AA of Result
28. Finite verb: can (modal auxiliary) be (auxiliary for the passive)
mentioned (main verb)
29. Kind of finite: mentioned (TVCP)
30. Connective: such… that
31. Kind of connective: Correlative Subordinating Conjunction (CSC)
32. Internal function: 0, but such is PM of the noun extent
33. Analysis:
132
__________________S____________ __________P__________
such …that the whole nature of the research can not be mentioned.
CSC PM/ PM/ H/N H/P PM/ H/N H/Adv.
RD/ PD/ RD/ ______
DA Quantifier DA AA of Neg./
_____________ Adv.Ph.
C/Nom.Ph. ____ … … ______
________________ Disc. FPh. Disc.FPh.
C/Prep.Ph.
Excercise 13:
1. Macy’s is where I buy my clothes.
S1: where I buy my clothes.

Kind of clause: Relative Nominal, declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: Subjective Complement (1)
Finite phrase: buy (main verb)
Kind of finite: TVCP
Connective: where
Kind of connective: Relative Nominal Adverb
Internal function: AA of Place
Analysis:
__DP__ _S___ _______DP_________

where I buy my clothes.
H/RNA H/PP FV PM/ H/N
_______ RD/
AA of Place/ Genit.
Adv.Ph. _______________
DO/Nom.Ph.
(1) In the Deep Structure: Macy’s is the place where I buy my clothes.
133
2. You can call me whatever you like.
S1: whatever you like.

Kind of clause: Relative Nominal, declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: Objective Complement
Finite verb: like (main verb)
Connective: whatever
Kind of connective: Relative Nominal Pronoun
Internal function: DO
Analysis:
____DP___ ___S___ __DP__

Whatever you like.
H/RNP H/PP FV
__________
DO/Pron.Ph.
3. This is the reason why I’m so happy.
S1: why I’m so happy.

Kind of clause: Defining Relative declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent reason
Finite verb: am (main verb)
Kind of finite: IVIP
Connective: why
Kind of connective: Relative Adverb
Internal function: AA of Reason
Analysis:
__DP__ _S___ ________DP________

why I am so happy.
H/RA H/PP FV PM/ H/ADJ
______ Intens.
AA of _____________
Reason/ SC/Adj.Ph.
Adv.Ph.
134
4. He is aware of what I write.
S1: what I write.

Kind of clause: Relative Nominal declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: Complement of the preposition “of”
Finite verb: write (main verb)
Connective: what
Analysis:
__DP__ __S___ __DP___

what I write.
H/RNP H/PP FV
_______
DO/Nom.Ph.
5. How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
S1: How the book will sell

Kind of clause: Interrogative Nominal declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: Subject
Finite phrase: will (modal auxiliary) sell (main verb)
Kind of finite: IVCP
Connective: how
Kind of connective: Interrogative Nominal Adverb
Internal function: AA of manner
Analysis:
__DP__ ____S_____ __DP________

How the book will sell
H/INA PM/ H/N FPh.
_______ RD/
AA of DA
Manner/
Adv.Ph.
135
6. He gave whoever asked for it a copy of his latest paper.
S1: whoever asked for it

Kind of clause: Relative Nominal declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: IO
Finite verb: asked for (main verb/prepositional verb)
Connective: whoever
Internal function: Subject
Analysis:
___S___ _____P_________
whoever asked for it (1)
H/RNP FPh. H/OP
______
DO/
Pron.Ph.
(1) In this case the objective pronoun “it” has got CATAPHORIC REFERENCE,
for the reference (“ a copy of its latest paper”) comes after the pronoun.
7. I can’t imagine what they want.
S1: what they want.

Kind of clause: Interrogative nominal declarative positive clause
Function of the clause: DO
Finite phrase: want (main verb)
Connective: what
Kind of connective: Interrogative Nominal Pronoun
Analysis:
__DP__ __S__ __DP__

What they want.
H/INP H/PP FV
_______
DO/Pron.Ph.
136
Exercise 14:
a) If you have to fill in your college application form, the best advice
is to imagine that you are the person who is choosing the applicants
and to ask yourself what valuable qualities you can bring to the
college in question.

2. Main cl.: S1 + the best advice is to imagine + S2 and to ask
yourself + S3
3. Finite phrase: is (main verb)
5. Analysis:
_DP__ _______S________ ________________Disc. P________________

S1 the best advice is to imagine S2 and to ask yourself S3
AA of PM/ PM/ H/N MV DO/ DO/
Condition RD/ Sup.Adj. Nom.Clause Int.Nom.Clause
Adv.Clause DA ________________________________________
SC/Non-Finite Phrase (Infinitival Ph.)
6. S1: If you have to fill in your college application form,

9. Finite verb: have to (modal auxiliary) fill in (main verb)
10. Kind of finite: fill in (TVCP) Phrasal verb
11. Connective: if
12. Kind of connective: SC
14. Analysis:
_S__ _________________P____________________
If you have to fill in your college application form,
SC H/PP FPh. PM/ C/N C/N H/N
RD/Gen.
__________________________________
DO/NPh.
137
15. S2: that you are the person S2a

16. Kind of clause: Nominal, declarative positive clause
17. Function of the clause.: DO
18. Finite verb: are (main verb)
21. Kind of connective: complementizer
23. Analysis:
_S_ _________P_______________
that you are the person S2a
Comp. H/PP FV PM/RD H/N Post-Mod./
DA DRC
______________________
SC/NPh.
24-S2a: who is choosing the applicants

25-Kind of clause: Defining Relative declarative positive clause
26-Function: Post-Modifier of its antecedent person
27-Finite verb: is (auxiliary for progression) choosing (main verb)
28-Kind of finite: choosing (TVCP)
29-Connective: who
30-Kind of connective: Relative Pronoun
31-Internal function: Subject
32-Analysis:
__S__ ________________P_________________
who is choosing the applications
H/Rel.P. FPh. PM/RD/ H/N
DA
______________________
DO/NPh.
138
33. S3: what valuable qualities you can bring to the college in
question.
clause
35. Function of the clause: DO
36. Finite verb: can (modal auxiliary) bring (main verb)
37. Kind of finite: bring (TVCP) Ditransitive verb
39. Kind of connective: Interrogative Nominal Determiner
40. Internal function: PM of qualities
41. Analysis:
__________DP___________ _S_ ___________Disc. P__________________

what valuable qualities you can bring to the College in question.
PM/ PM/ H/N H/PP FPh. H/P PM/ H/N H/P H/N
Int.Nom. Adj. RD/ __________
Det. DA C/NPh.
__________________________ _____________
DO/NPh. PM/Prep.Ph.
__________________________
C/NPh.
_____________________________
IO/Prep.Ph.
b) Although game shows were not the kind of programmes I would

normally have watched, I began to enjoy them and I must have
watched hundreds of them after I arrived in the place I live now.

2. First member: Although game shows were not the kind of
programmes I would normally have watched, I began to enjoy
them
3. Kind of member: Complex declarative positive member
4. Main clause: S1 + I began to enjoy them
5. Finite verb: began to (aspectual semi-auxiliary) enjoy (main
verb)
6. Kind of finite: enjoy (TVCP)
7. Analysis:
139
_DP_ _S__ _____DP____________

S1 I began to enjoy them
AA of H/PP FPh. H/OP
Concess. / _____
Adv.Ph. DO/PPh.
8. S1: Although game shows were not the kind of programmes

+ S1a
9. Kind of clause: Adverbial declarative negative clause
10. Function of the clause: AA of Concession
11. Finite verb: were (main verb)
13. Connective: Although
16. Analysis:
______S_____ _____________________P___________________
Although game shows were not the kind of programmes S1a
SC C/N H/N FV H/Adv. PM/ H/N H/P H/N Post-Mod./
RD/ DRC
DA
_____ _____________________
AA of Neg./ C/NPh.
Adv.Ph. _________________________
C/Prep.Ph.
___________________________________
SC/NPh.
17. S1a: (that) I would normally have watched

clause
19. Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent
programmes
20. Finite verb: would (modal auxiliary) have (auxiliary for
perfection) watched (main verb)
140
21. Kind of finite: watched (TVCP)

25. Analysis:
__DP__ _S_ ______________ DP_________________

(that) I would normally have watched
H/Rel. H/PP ______..... H/Adv. ….____________
Pron. DFPh. DFPh.
______ ____________
DO/NPh. AA of Manner
or Time/ Adv.Ph.
26. Connective between members: and

27. Kind of connective: CCC
28. Second member: I must have watched hundreds of them
after I arrived in the place I live now
29. Kind of member: Complex declarative positive statement
30. Main clause: I must have watched hundreds of them S1
31. Finite verb: must (modal auxiliary) have (auxiliary for perfection)
watched (main verb)
32. Kind of finite: watched (TVCP)
33. Analysis:
_S_ ______________________P_________________________
I must have watched hundreds of them S1
H/PP FPh. PM/ H/OP AA of Time/
RD/ Adv.Ph.
Quantifier
______________________
DO/NPh.
34. S1: after I arrived in the place S1a

37. Finite phrase: arrived
141

39. Connective: after
42. Analysis:
_S_ __________P_______________________
After I arrived in the place S1a
SC H/PP FV H/P PM/ H/N Post-Modifier/
RD/ CDRC
DA
_________________________
C/NPh.
_____________________________
43. S1a: I live now.

44. Kind of clause: Contact Defining Relative declarative positive
clause
45. Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent place
46. Finite verb: live (main verb)
48. Connective: omitted (where/that)
49. Kind of connective: (Relative Adverb)
50. Internal function: AC of Place
51. Analysis:
__DP__ __S_ __DISC. P__

(where) I live now.
H/Relative H/P FV H/Adv.
Adverb __________
__________ AA of Time/
AC of Place/Adv. Ph. Adv.Ph.
c) After I had thought about it for a while, I felt that the phenomenon
of connecting all the computers in the world has such a wide reach
142
that it would affect a number of industries we do business with.

2. Main clause: S1 + I felt + S2
3. Finite verb: felt (*) (main verb)
5. Analysis:
_DP_ _S_ _____DP__________

S1 I felt S2
AA of Time/ H/PP FV DO/Noun Clause
Adv.Ph.
(*) The finite verb FEEL + an adjective is analysed as IVIP + SC. But FEEL + a
noun is analysed as TVCP + DO.
6. S1: After I had thought about it for a while

9. Finite verb: had (aux. for perfection) thought about (main verb)
11. Connective: after
14. Analysis:
_S_ _________________P_______________________________
After I had thought about it for a while
SC H/PP FPh. H/OP H/P PM/ H/N
_____ RD/DA
DO/Pron.Ph. ________________
C/NPh.
______________________
AC of Time or Duration/
Prep.Ph.
15. S2: that the phenomenon of connecting all the computers in

the world has such a wide reach + S2a
143

18. Finite verb: has (main verb)
23. Analysis:
___________________________S_______________________________
that the phenomenon of connecting all the computers in the world
SC PM/ H/N H/P C/Non-finite Ph. (Gerundial Phrase)
RD/ ______________________________________________
DA C/Prep.Ph.
___________________P__________________
has such a wide reach S2a
FV PM/ PM/ PM/ H/N AA of Result/
PA/ RD/ Adj. Adv.Clause
Intens. IA
___________________________
DO/NPh.
24. S2a: that it would affect a number of industries + S2a1

26. Function of the clause: AA of Result
27. Finite verb: would (modal aux.) affect (main verb)
28. Kind of finite: affect (TVCP)
29. Connective: such …that
30. Kind of connective: Correlative Subordinating Conjunction (CSC)
31. Internal function: 0 but such is a PM of reach
32. Analysis:
_S_ _____________________________P_________________
such …that it wouldaffect a number of industries S2a1
CSC H/PP FPh. PM/RD/Quantifier H/N Post-Mod./
DRCC
____________________________________
DO/NPh.
144
33. S2a1: (that) we do business with.

34. Kind of clause: Defining Relative declarative positive Contact
Clause
35. Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent
industries
36. Finite verb: do (main verb)
38. Connective: omitted (that or which)
39. Kind of connective: (Relative Pronoun)
40. Internal function: Complement of the preposition with
41. Analysis:
__DP__ _S__ ______DISC. P________

(that) we do business with.
H/RP H/PP FV H/N H/P
_____
C/Pron.Ph.
______... …_____
AA of Subject AA of Subject
Matter/Disc.Adv.Ph. Matter/Disc.Adv.Ph.
Exercise 15:
a) It is significant to note that during this period he told his friend

Conrad that it would be interesting to cut oneself into pieces and to
see if the fragments that remained would sprout.

2. Main cl.: It’s significant to note + SC1
5. Analysis:
_ASCR_ ______P______ ____RSEP_________________

It is significant to note SC1
FV H/Adj. EC TVCP DO/Nom.Clause
___________
SC/Adj.Ph.
145
6. SC1: that during this period he told his friend Conrad +SC1a
9. Finite verb: told (main verb)
14. Analysis:
________DP______ __S__ ___________DP__________________

that during this period he told his friend Conrad SC1a
H/P PM/ H/N H/PP FV PM/ H/N Restricted DO/Nom.Clause
RD/ RD/ Apposition
Dem. Gen.
_____________ _______________________
C/NPh. IO/NPh.
____________________
AA of Time/Adv.Ph.
15. SC1a: that it would be interesting to cut oneself into pieces

and to see + SC1a1
18. Finite verb: would (modal auxiliary) be (main verb)
23. Analysis:
_ASCR_ ________P_________ _______RSEP/Infinitival Ph. __________

that it would be interesting to cut oneself into pieces and to see SC1a1
Comp. FPh. H/Adj. EC TVIP DO OC CCC EC TVCP DO/
Nom.C.
__________
SC/Adj.Ph.
146
24. SC1a1: if the fragments + SC1a1a + would sprout.

27. Finite verb: would (modal auxiliary) sprout (main verb)
28. Kind of finite: sprout (IVCP)
29. Connective: if
32. Analysis:
_____________S____________ ______P_______
if the fragments SC1a1a would sprout.
Comp. PM/ H/N Post-Mod./ FPh.
RD/DA DRC
33. SC1a1a: that remained

35. Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent fragments
36. Finite phrase: remained (main verb)
41. Analysis:
__S__ ____P_____
that remained
H/RP FV
b) When you arrive home from your holidays, there are always
hundreds of letters waiting for you, all of which have to be answered;
and everything has died in the garden since there has been no rain.

2. First member: When you arrive home from your holidays, there
are always hundreds of letters waiting for you, all of which have
to be answered
147

4. Main clause: SC1 + there are always hundreds of letters
waiting for you, + SC2
5. Finite verb: are (main verb)
7. Analysis:
_DP_ _AS_ ___DP____ _________________RS/NPh._______________

SC1, there are always hundreds of letters waiting for you, SC2
SC/Adv.C. FV H/Adv. PM/RD/Quant. H/N TVCP/Prep.V H/OP Post-Mod./
_________________ NDRC
Post-Mod./
Present Participial Ph.
8. SC1: When you arrive home from your holidays

10. Function of the clause: Subjective Complement with
adverbial meaning
11. Finite phrase: arrive (main verb)
16. Analysis:
__S__ ________________P___________________
When you arrive home from your holidays
SC H/PP FV H//N H/P PM/RD/ H/N
______ Gen.
AC of Place/ _________________
Adv.Ph. C/NPh.
________________________
AA of Origin or Source/
Prep.Ph.
17. SC2: all of which have to be answered;

18. Kind of clause: Non-Defining Relative declarative positive
clause
148
19. Function of the clause: Post-Modifier of its antecedent letters

20. Finite verb : have to (modal auxiliary) be (auxiliary for the
passive) answered (main verb)
21. Kind of finite: answered (TVCP)
25. Analysis:
______S______ _________P_________
all of which have to be answered;
PM/RD/ H/RP FPh.
Quantif.
26. Connective between members: ; / and

27. Kind of connective: Parataxis/CCC
28. Second member: everything has died in the garden since
there has been no rain.
30. Main clause: everything has died in the garden + SC1
31. Finite verb: has (auxiliary for perfection) died (main verb)
32. Kind of finite: died (IVCP)
33. Analysis:
____S____ ____________P______________________
everything has died in the garden SC1
H/ Indefinite Pronoun FPh. H/P PM/ H/N AA of
RD/ Reason/Adv.Ph.
DA
_________________
34. SC1: since there has been no rain.

35. Kind of clause: Adverbial declarative positive in form but
negative in meaning clause
37. Finite verb: has (auxiliary for perfection) been (main verb)
38. Kind of finite: IVIP with 0 Subjective Complement or IVCP
149
39. Connective: since

42. Analysis:
__AS__ ____P____ __RS/NPh.__

Since there has been no rain.
SC FPh. PM/ H/N
RD/Quant.
Exercise 16:
1)
First option:
He is certain to arrive on time.
FV H/Adj. C/Inf.Ph.
________________________
SC/Adj.Ph.
Second option:
He is certain to arrive on time.
SEMI-MODAL MV AC of Time/Adv.Ph.
______________________
FPh.
2)
First option:
He seems to be tired.
FV SC/Inf.Ph.
Second option:
He seems to be tired.
SEMI-MODAL MV SC/Adj.Ph.
__________________
FPh.
150
3)
First option:
He kept on screaming.
TVCP DO/Gerundial Ph.
Second option:
He kept on screaming.
ASPECTUAL MV
SEMI-AUX.
__________________________
FPh.
Exercise 17:
1. They made a mess of the house. = Group verb

MV N PREP DO
_______________________
TVCP
2. They have to apply for the job. = Prepositional verb

TVCP DO
They have to apply for the job.

IVCP AC OF SUBJ. MATTER
3. I don’t approve of your behaviour. = Prepositional verb

TVCP DO
I don’t approve of your behaviour.

IVCP AC OF TOPIC
4. Fill out the form. = Phrasal verb

TVCP DO
151
5. I’m looking forward to hearing from you. = Phrasal prepositional verb

V Adverbial Prep. DO
Particle
___________________
TVCP
6. Put an end to the story. = Group verb

V + N + Prep. DO
_______TVCP_______
7. Don’t insist on that. = Prepositional verb

TVCP DO
8. I got hold of the bag. = Group verb

V + N + PREP. DO
_____TVCP______
9. He looks up to his father. = Phrasal prepositional verb

TVCP DO
10. The plane took off at five. = Phrasal verb

IVCP
Exercise 18:
1. a) COMPLEMENT (Prepositional Phrase); b) MODIFIER (Reduced
Relative Clause/Non-Finite Phrase = Present Participial Phrase)
2. a) MODIFIER (Adjective); b) COMPLEMENT (Prepositional Phrase)
3. MODIFIER (Defining Relative Clause)
4. a) COMPLEMENT (Prepositional Phrase); b) MODIFIER (Defining
Relative Clause)
5. COMPLEMENT (Noun Clause in Apposition)
6. MODIFIER ( Defining Relative Clause)
7. a) MODIFIER (Determiner/Quantifier); b) COMPLEMENT (Infinitival
Phrase)
8. a) MODIFIER (Adjective) ; b) MODIFIER (Prepositional Phrase)
9. a) MODIFIER (Determiner) ; b) MODIFIER (Adjective) ; c) MODIFIER
(Prepositional Phrase)
10. a) MODIFIER (Prepositional Phrase) ; COMPLEMENT (Prepositional
Phrase)
152
ABBREVIATIONS
AA ………. Adverbial Adjunct

AC ………. Adverbial Complement
Adj. ……… Adjective
Adv. ……... Adverb
DA ………. Definite Artocñe
DO ………. Direct Object
DP ………. Discontinuous Predicate
DS ……….. Deep Structure
FPh. ……… Finite Phrase
FV ………... Finite Verb
H …………. Head
IA ………… Indefinite Article
Int. ……….. Intensifier
IO ………… Indirect Object
N …………. Noun/Nominal
Nom. …….. Nominal
OC ……….. Objective Complement
OP ……….. Objective Pronoun
P …………. Predicate
PA ………... Pre-Article
PD ………... Pre-Determiner
Ph. ……….. Phrase
PM ……….. Pre-Modifier (before the noun) or Post-Modifier (after the noun)
Poss.Det. ... Possessive Determiner
PP ………... Personal Pronoun
Prep. ……... Preposition
RD ………... Regular Determiner
S ………….. Subject
SC ………... Subjective Complement
SS ………… Surface Structure
153
FURTHER READING
Biber, Douglas & colleagues (2000) Longman Grammar of Spoken

and Written English, Longman.
Crystal, David (1998) Rediscover Grammar, Longman.
Crystal, David (2004) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language, Oxford University Press.
Eckersley, C.E. & Eckersley, J.M (1973) A Comprehensive English
Grammar,Longman
Foley, Mark & Hall, Diane (2004) Advanced Learner’s Grammar,
Longman.
Jacobs, Roderick A. (1995) English Syntax, Oxford University Press.
Moreno, María Ester (2003) Let’s Analyse These Structures and
Sentences Together, Universidad Libros.
Prodromou, Luke (2000) Grammar and Vocabulary for First
Certificate, Longman Pearson Education Limited.
Side, Richard & Wellman, Guy Grammar and Vocabulary for
Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency Longman.
Willis, Dave (1992) Collins Cobuild Student’s Grammar, HarperCollins
Publishers.
Yule, George (2000) The Study of Language, Cambridge University
Press.
154

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Patricia Silvana Policastro

The Easiest Way

Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires

Whenever we teachers and students hear the word GRAMMAR,

Professor Patricia Silvana Policastro

All the words in the English language can be grouped, according

1. NOUNS: They are words used to refer to people, objects,

2. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

He runs fast. The children are speaking.

Time flies. Some birds were singing outside my window.

I go to school every day. This pencil costs $1.55.

I live in Argentina. The plane arrived at the airport at 10.30.

He is happy. We are at home.

My friend feels tired. Tom became a doctor last month.

He plays the guitar very well. We bought a car.

Mary studies Italian twice a week.

He gave me the money.

They have sent their grandma a Christmas present.

6. S + TVCP + DO + Prepositional IO (to/for)

(meaning direction) or for (meaning intention)

He gave the money to me. He bought a car for me.

Write a letter to him soon.

He painted the door blue. Surface Structure

The door is blue. Deep Structure

They elected him president. Surface Structure

He is the president. Deep Structure

I considered him to be a fool. SS

The headmaster put Peter into the second class.

Pattern 7 can easily be an alternative to this pattern. For

The headmaster put Peter into the second class.

NOUN PHRASES………………… HEAD= NOUN

The HEAD is accompanied by MODIFIERS and COMPLEMENTS.

Complements are OBLIGATORY constructions. They are necessary

(1) This is a COMPLEMENT. Its syntactic function is Adverbial Complement of

The PREDICATE is a FINITE VERB PHRASE. Its patterns are:

1. HEAD + MODIFIER (verb + adverbial adjunct)

3. HEAD + COMLEMENT + MODIFIER (verb + subjective complement

THE NOUN (or NOMINAL) PHRASE: Its analysis

The clever boy

The woman in red

The problem of unemployment

THE ADJECTIVAL PHRASE: Its analysis

My garden is very nice.

so sorry about this

highly interested in grammar

THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE: Its analysis

He runs very quickly.

He works too slowly to finish in time.

too slowly to finish in time

THE VERB PHRASE: Its analysis

The Verb Phrase in English may contain one or more words:

I have always lived in the country.

You must keep calm.

May I offer you a cup of coffee?

I don’t like fish.

• DECLARATIVE = SUBJECT + VERB (positive/affirmative or

How + adjective/adverb: How nice she is!

B) According to the discourse function:

“You must do your homework.” It is a declarative directive.

_Disc. P S_ Discontinuous P.______

_S _ P __

_Disc.P_ _S_ Disc.P.______________________

_DP S _DP_____

DP__ _S _DP________________

_DP_ S_ DP_______

_DP___ _S _DP____________