Essentials of Marketing Research A

Hands-On Orientation 1st Edition

Malhotra
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CHAPTER 7

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Introduce the concepts of measurement and scaling and show how scaling may be
considered an extension of measurement.
2. Discuss the primary scales of measurement and differentiate nominal, ordinal, interval,
and ratio scales.
3. Classify scaling techniques as comparative and noncomparative, and describe the
comparative techniques of paired comparison, rank order, and constant sum.
4. Describe the noncomparative scaling techniques, distinguish between continuous and
itemized rating scales, and explain Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.
5. Discuss the variations involved in constructing itemized rating scales.
6. Discuss the criteria used for scale evaluation and explain how to assess reliability and
validity.
7. Discuss the considerations involved in implementing scales of measurement in an
international setting.
8. Explain how social media can be used to implement comparative and noncomparative
scaling techniques.
9. Understand the ethical issues involved in selecting scales of measurement.

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AUTHOR’S NOTES: CHAPTER FOCUS
This chapter provides an introduction to primary scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio. Scaling techniques are classified as comparative and noncomparative. The
comparative techniques consisting of paired comparison, rank order, and constant sum are
discussed. This is followed by a discussion of noncomparative scales. We cover continuous
scales and the commonly used itemized rating scales: Likert, semantic differential and Stapel.
After presenting multiitem scales, we show how to evaluate such scales for reliability and
validity. We also devote attention to the choice of a scaling technique.
The discussion of scaling techniques is much more extensive as compared to competing
texts. One whole chapter is devoted to covering in detail the type of scales used in marketing
research. Examples, including instructions for administering these scales, have been provided.
This chapter could be taught by focusing on the Learning Objectives, sequentially. Greater
emphasis could be placed on the concept of measurement and scaling (Learning Objective 1), the
primary scales of measurement (Learning Objective 2), and comparative and noncomparative
scaling techniques (Learning Objectives 3 and 4). In addition, material on conducting
international marketing research (Learning Objective 7), social media (Learning Objective 8),
and ethical considerations (Learning Objective 9) could be discussed.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Overview
2. Measurement and Scaling
3. Primary Scales of Measurement
i. Nominal Scale
ii. Ordinal Scale
iii. Interval Scale
iv. Ratio Scale
4. Comparative and Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
5. Comparative Scaling Techniques
i. Paired Comparison Scaling
ii. Rank Order Scaling
iii. Constant Sum Scaling
6. Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
i. Continuous Rating Scale
7. Itemized Rating Scales
i. Likert Scale
ii. Semantic Differential Scale
iii. Stapel Scale
8. Noncomparative Itemized Rating Scale Decisions
9. Variations in Noncomparative Itemized Rating Scales
10. Multi-item Scales
11. Scale Evaluation

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 i. Reliability
ii. Validity
iii. Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
12. Choosing a Scaling Technique
13. International Marketing Research
14. Marketing Research and Social Media
15. Ethics in Marketing Research
16. Summary
17. Key Terms and Concepts
18. Acronyms

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Learning Objective 1

* Explain the differences between measurement and scaling.

Distinguish the two concepts by noting that measurement precedes scaling in test
construction. Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of
objects according to certain prespecified rules. Scaling is an extension of measurement where it
involves the generation of a continuum upon which measured objects are located.

Learning Objective 2

* Discuss and illustrate the primary scales of measurement.

1. Nominal scale: this is used only as a labeling scheme where numbers serve only as labels
or tags for identifying and classifying objects. The numbers in a nominal scale do not
reflect the amount of a characteristic possessed by the objects; rather, they are used only for
identification--for example, numbers on baseball players’ uniforms, street names, or social
security numbers.
2. Ordinal scale: this is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate
the relative extent to which some characteristic is possessed. It is then possible to
determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object--for
example, rankings of teams for the NCAA Basketball tournament, socioeconomic status,
and quality rankings.
3. Interval scale: numbers are used to rank objects such that numerically equal distances on
the scale represent equal distances in the characteristic being measured. Examples include
time and temperature.
4. Ratio scale: this is used to identify or classify objects, rank order the objects, and compare
intervals or differences--for example, height, age, and income.
Figures 7.2 and 7.3 and Tables 7.1 and 7.2 provide a framework and examples for
explaining the primary scales.

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Learning Objective 3

* Distinguish the two broad scaling measures.

Begin by stating the two types of scales: comparative and noncomparative.
Comparative scales - a direct comparison of stimulus objects is elicited. Thus, two
brands may be compared along a dimension such as quality.
Noncomparative scales - the respondent provides whatever standard seems appropriate
to him/her, thus, only one object is evaluated at a time. In this case, one brand is rated on
a scale independent of other brands.

See Figures 7.4 and 7.5 for the classification of scaling procedures.

* Describe the different comparative scaling techniques. If available, bring

examples of different scales to class to show to students.
Begin by recalling that all comparative scaling techniques involve a direct comparison of
stimulus objects with one another. This should be highlighted as each of the scales is discussed
in turn.

1. Paired comparison scaling: here a respondent is presented with two objects at a time
and asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterion. The data obtained
is ordinal in nature. This is frequently used in marketing when comparisons of products
or brands are being made.
2. Rank order scaling: respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and
asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. This is commonly used to
measure preferences for brands as well as the importance of attributes.
3. Constant sum scaling: respondents are required to allocate a constant sum of units such
as points, dollars, chits, stickers, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with respect to
some criterion. Specific instructions are provided that if an attribute is not at all
important, it is possible to assign zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as
some other attribute it should receive twice as many points.

Learning Objective 4

* Describe the different noncomparative scaling techniques. If available,

bring examples of the different scales to class to show to the students.
Begin by defining noncomparative scaling as the type of scaling which does not compare
the object against another object or some standard. Rather, the rater uses whatever standard
seems most appropriate to him or her.

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 1. Continuous rating scale: the respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the
other. The form of the continuous scale varies considerably depending on the imagination of
the researcher. Their use in marketing has been limited because they are not as reliable as
itemized scales, the scoring process is cumbersome, and they provide little additional
information.
2. Itemized rating scale: the respondents are provided with scales having numbers and/or brief
descriptions associated with each category. The respondents are required to select one of the
specified categories that best describes the object being rated.

* Discuss the various types of itemized rating scales.

Likert scale: the respondents are required to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement
with each of a series of statements related to the stimulus objects. The Likert scale is often used
in marketing. It is easy to construct and administer, it is easy for respondents to complete, and it
is suitable for mail, telephone, and personal surveys.
Semantic differential scale: is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with
bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. Respondents are required to rate objects on a number
of itemized, seven-point rating scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives. This
scale is popular in marketing and has been used in image studies, promotion strategy, and new
product development studies.
Staple scale: is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a
neutral point. Respondents are asked to indicate how accurately or inaccurately each term
describes the object by selecting an appropriate numerical response category. Though easier to
construct than the Semantic Differential, while giving the same results, the Staple scale has not
been widely applied in marketing.

Learning Objective 5

* Highlight the major decisions involved in constructing itemized rating

scales. Use a running example like McDonald’s to aid in student
understanding.

1. Number of scale categories to use: the number of categories should be between five and
nine; however, there is no single, optimal number of categories, which would be applicable
for all scaling situations.
2. Odd or even number of categories: with an odd number of categories, the middle scale
position is generally designated as neutral. If a neutral or indifferent scale response is a
possibility for at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories should be
used. Students can debate the effect of a neutral category on the data obtained.
3. Forced versus non-forced scales: a forced rating scale does not have a "no opinion" or "no
knowledge" option. Thus, the respondents without an opinion may mark the middle scale
position. If a sufficient proportion of the respondents in fact do not have an opinion on the
topic, marking the middle position in this manner will distort measures of central tendency

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 and variance. In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the
accuracy of the data may be improved by having a nonforced rating scale, which includes a
"no opinion" or "no knowledge" category. Students should discuss the appropriateness of a
forced/nonforced rating scale.
4. Nature and degree of verbal description: the strength of the adjectives used to anchor the
scale has a slight tendency to influence the distribution of the responses. With strong
anchors, respondents are less likely to use the extreme scale categories. Have the students
reach consensus on the scale anchors. Try to encourage multiple anchors, which can be used
in the survey.
5. Physical form of the scale: there is no agreement as to which form is the most appropriate,
but scales could be presented vertically or horizontally, categories could be expressed in
terms of boxes, discrete lines, or units on a continuum and may or may not have numbers
assigned to them, and numerical values could be positive or negative or both. The students
should decide which format to use for the scales. Have them justify their reasons for the
scale they choose.

Learning Objective 6

* Explain the criteria used to evaluate a multi-item scale.

1. Measurement accuracy: refers to capturing the responses as the respondent intended them
to be understood. Errors can result from either systematic error, which affects the observed
score in the same way on every measurement, or random error, which varies with every
measurement.
2. Reliability: refers to the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated
measurements are made on the characteristic. Thus, the scale is free from random error.
3. Validity: refers to the accuracy of measurement. Validity of a scale may be defined as the
extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on
the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random errors.
Figure 7.7 can be used to discuss the issues involved in scale evaluation.

Learning Objective 7

* Identify the measurement and scaling issues in International research .

From the view point of the respondents, nominal scales are the simplest to use, whereas
ratio scales are the most complex. Respondents in many developed countries, due to higher
education and consumer sophistication levels, are quite used to providing responses on interval
and ratio scales; however, such is not the case in less developed countries. Preferences can,
therefore, be best measured by using ordinal scales in less developed countries. In particular, the
use of binary scales (e.g., preferred/not preferred) is recommended.
EXAMPLE: While measuring preferences for jeans in the United States, Levi Strauss &
Co. could ask consumers to rate their preferences for wearing jeans on specified occasions using

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a seven point interval scale. However, consumers in Papua New Guinea could be shown a pair
of jeans and simply asked whether or not they would prefer to wear it for a specific occasion
(e.g., when shopping, working, relaxing on a holiday, etc.).

* Discuss pan-cultural scales vs. scales that use a self-defined cultural

norm.
The pan-cultural approach is used to develop scales, which are free of cultural biases. Of
the scaling techniques we have considered, the semantic differential scale may be said to be pan-
cultural. It has been tested in a number of countries and has consistently produced similar
results.
An alternative approach is to develop scales that use a self-defined cultural norm as a base
referent. This approach is useful for measuring attitudes that are defined relative to cultural
norms (e.g., attitude toward marital roles). In developing response formats, verbal rating scales
appear to be the most suitable.

* Identify other international concerns.

• Special attention should be devoted to determining equivalent verbal descriptors in
different languages and cultures.
• It is important that the scale end points and the verbal descriptors be employed in a
manner that is consistent with the culture.
• In designing the scale or response format, respondents' educational or literacy levels
should be taken into account.
• It is critical to establish the equivalence of scales and measures used to obtain data
from different countries.

Learning Objective 8

* Discuss how social media can be used to implement the primary type of
scales.
All the primary scales and all the comparative scales that we have discussed in this chapter
can be easily implemented in social media. No additional requirements are imposed by social
media. The principles underlying scaling and measurement and the comparative scaling
techniques also remain the same. An analysis of social media content can shed light on the level
of measurement that is appropriate in a given project. It can also provide guidance on the type of
scaling techniques, comparative or noncomparative, to use. In addition, it is convenient to use
multiple scaling techniques in a given project.

* Discuss the role of social media in facilitating noncomparative scaling.

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 All the noncomparative scales that we have discussed in this chapter can be easily
implemented in social media. Even continuous scales can be used efficiently given the
computerized nature of measurement. An analysis of social media content can provide guidance
on whether continuous or itemized rating scales should be used. It can also aid the researcher in
making appropriate rating-scale decisions. Furthermore, it is quite feasible to employ more than
one scaling method to measure a given construct so as to obtain evidence on convergent validity.

Learning Objective 9

* Discuss the ethical concerns of scaling.

The researcher has the responsibility to use the appropriate type of scales to get the data
needed to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. For example, if personality
characteristics are measured using ordinal scales, these data cannot be easily used in multivariate
analysis. To examine differences in the personality characteristics and relate them to other
consumer behavior variables, interval scale data are needed.
After the data have been collected, they should be analyzed correctly. If ordinal scaled
data are collected, statistical procedures developed for use with interval or ratio data should not
be used. Conclusions based on the misuse of statistics are misleading. Using the personality
example above, if after data collection the client wishes to know how the users and nonusers
differed, the researcher should treat these data correctly and use nonmetric techniques for
analysis (discussed in Chapter 15). When the researcher lacks the expertise or the computer
software to compute these statistics, ethical dilemmas arise. Either an outside statistician should
be hired or the relevant software should be obtained.

* Discuss the ethical implications of misusing scale descriptors.

Ethical issues can arise in the construction of noncomparative scales. Consider, for example, the
use of scale descriptors. The descriptors used to frame a scale can be manipulated to bias results in any
direction. A researcher who wants to project the client's brand favorably can ask respondents to indicate
their opinion of the brand on several attributes using seven-point scales framed by the descriptors from
extremely poor to good. Using a strongly negative descriptor with only a mildly positive one has an
interesting effect. As long as the product is not the worst, respondents will be reluctant to rate the
product extremely poorly. In fact, respondents who believe the product to be only mediocre will end up
responding favorably. Try this yourself. How would you rate BMW automobiles on the following
attributes?

Reliability Horrible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good

Performance Very poor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good
Quality: One of the worst 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good
Prestige: Very low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Good

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 Thus, we see how important it is to use balanced scales with comparable positive and
negative descriptors. When this guide is not practiced, responses are biased and should be
interpreted accordingly.

* Identify other areas of ethical concern.

Ethical concerns also underscore the need to adequately establish the reliability, validity,
and generalizability of scales before using them in a research project. Scales that are invalid,
unreliable, or not generalizable to the target market provide the client with flawed results and
misleading findings, thus raising serious ethical issues.

Internet Emphasis

* Identify software programs relevant to measurement and scaling.

All the primary scales of measurement can be implemented on the Internet. The same is
true for the commonly used comparative scales. Paired comparisons involving verbal, visual, or
auditory comparisons can be implemented with ease; however, taste, smell, and touch
comparisons are difficult to implement. The process of implementing comparative scales may be
facilitated by searching the Internet for similar scales that have been implemented by other
researchers. Database managers allow researchers to develop and test several different scales to
determine their appropriateness for a particular application. Microcomputers have been used to
administer paired comparison scales in taste tests.

* Discuss the use of the Internet in scale development and testing.

Continuous rating scales may be easily implemented on the Internet. The cursor can be
moved on the screen in a continuous fashion to select the exact position on the scale which best
describes the respondent’s evaluation. Moreover, the scale values can be automatically scored
by the computer, thus increasing the speed and accuracy of processing the data.
Similarly, it is also easy to implement all three itemized rating scales on the Internet.
Moreover, using the Internet, one can search for and locate similar scales used by other
researchers. The Office of Scales Research at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale, best
known for the production of Marketing Scales Handbook, has posted its technical reports on the
Internet (http://www.siu.edu/departments/coba/mktg/osr).

iRESEARCH
It should be noted that a variety of answers are appropriate. The ones given here are merely illustrative.

iResearch: Burger King

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Marketing Strategies:
• Seasonal Promotions
• Use the power of Internet to reach out to customers.
• Target families, as they are the biggest consumers of fast foods.
• Use local media, such as local newspapers and TV, to advertise.

Nominal scales can be used to assign numbers to the stores for identification purposes. Ordinal scales
can be used to rank order the stores based on customer satisfaction.
Various characteristics need to be measured to get a holistic picture. An initial study needs to be
conducted to identify the characteristics that need to be measured based on their relevance to customer
satisfaction.

iResearch: Coach
Consumer preferences for leather good are determined by factors such as finish, durability, comfort,
brand name, price, etc.
The use of intervals would be a good idea since preferences can be rated from 1 to 5, where 1 implies
very poor and 5 implies excellence. Ratio scales that measure the amount of money spent on leather
goods during a specified time period can also be used.

1. Identify which qualities are valued by consumers.

2. Find qualities associated with most successful products.

3. Demographic variations in preferences.

4. Price versus quality tradeoff can be used for segmentation.

iResearch: Disney
Information on movie preferences can be obtained from sources such as
http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/sfischo/media3.html.
There are a number of bodies offering secondary data on ratings of individual movies based on surveys
and opinion polls. Prominent among them is Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA). Ratings
for any movie can be obtained from their database which can be accessed through the following link.
http://www.mpaa.org/movieratings/search/index.htm

Ratings for similar movies which were released in the same season can be studied to get an idea of
possible reaction from audience. As the movie is being made, audience reaction can be measured using
continuous measurement or itemized rating scales. The movie can be altered to the taste of the
audience.
• No simple formula
• Study responses to various movie types
• Analyze changing trends and tastes
• Understand demographic, ethnic and gender centric preferences
• Understand the popularity of actors and actresses and perceptions about them in the minds of
the viewers

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iResearch: Rockport
• A Likert Scale can be used to measure consumer preferences.
• Hypotheses can be formed as to what is important to the customers and what is their
preference?
• The hypothesis can be tested against customer opinion using a Likert scale model survey.

Likert scale:
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree

I prefer dress shoes to casual shoes 1 2 3 4 5

• Consumer preferences can be used to improve design.

• Make tradeoffs between more desirable versus less desirable features.
• Find demographic changes in tastes.
• Use this information for market segmentation.
• Ensure product-segment fit.

DECISION RESEARCH SCENARIO:

New Balance: Attaining a Balance in Marketing Strategy
The Situation
The U.S. athletic footwear market is likely to grow slowly from during 2012 to –2015 and be,
characterized by good volume sales and falling prices, according to a recently published report
from Mintel International (www.mintel.com). It projects annual growth of less than 3 percent,
before inflation. This is due to factors such as overly complex manufacturer/retailer relationships
that sap brand loyalty and foster excessive bargain hunting, a slow- growth economy, and
competition from brown- shoe manufacturers of shoes of other types as the previously distinct
line between athletic and brown other shoes becomes blurred. Alongside this, weak retail pricing
is likely to lead to more of a two-tier market—an upscale shoe market for those most dedicated
to athletic shoes (young males) and those with higher levels of discretionary income, and a mass
market for the rest of the nation. One bright spot revealed by Mintel’s consumer research is that
respondents overwhelmingly agree that they are willing to “spend money on good sneakers.”
Jim Davis, CEO of New Balance Athletic Shoe, Inc., is trying to appeal to those consumers
Mintel’s research is talking about. New Balance rose quickly starting in the mid-1990s to be the
third -largest seller of athletic shoes. Its strategy mirrored Nike’s in launching the largest
possible number of shoe styles and selling primarily through specialty athletic shoe stores and
sporting goods stores. A big difference, however, was that New Balance created an upscale
brand image that aimed to attract a greater number of 35- to 64-year-olds. Times are changing,
however, and New Balance is learning that it must also change to keep improving its market
growth and profits.

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The Marketing Research Decision
1. New Balance would like to determine consumer preferences for its brand as compared to
Nike, Reebok, and Adidas. Which scaling technique should be used?
a. Paired comparison
b. Rank order
c. Constant sum
d. Continuous rating scales
e. Itemized rating scales
2. Discuss the role of the type of scaling technique you recommend in enabling Jim Davis to
determine consumer preferences for New Balance as compared to Nike, Reebok, and Adidas and
increase the market share of New Balance.

The Marketing Management Decision

1. In order to increase the market share of New Balance, Jim Davis should:
a. Use celebrity endorsements.
b. Introduce lower-priced shoes.
c. Enhance the style and color of New Balance shoes.
d. Increase the promotional budget.
e. Sell New Balance shoes on the Internet.
2. Discuss how the marketing management decision action that you recommend to Jim
Davis is influenced by the scaling technique that you suggested earlier and by the findings of that
research
.
What Jim Davis Did
Rather than use endorsements, New Balance looked at sponsorships and promotions as a way to
gain notoriety for its product. Some of the events included the Chicago Marathon, the title
sponsorship for the national indoor track and field championships in New York, various walking
organizations, and the U.S. modern pentathlon team. Along the promotional aspect, the company
offered The Million Dollar Challenge, a seven7-figure$1,000,000 prize to the man or woman
who broke existing U.S. marathon records. Also, its sponsorship of the Race for the Cure, in
partnership with Susan G. Komen (www.komen.org), has raised money and awareness of New
Balance among women.
To continue its success, New Balance added style and color to its already available models, but
not enough to lose integrity with old customers. This helped New Balance attract new consumers
while maintaining the old ones. New Balance is also is planning to boost media spending. In
addition, New Balance is looking at other market opportunities, such as lower price points, that
would best be accomplished under a different brand name.

DECISION RESEARCH ANSWERS

It should be noted that a variety of answers are appropriate. The ones given here are merely illustrative.

The Marketing Research Decision

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1. B, C and E

2. Rank order provides an easy comparison of brand preferences; however, the constant sum
method has the advantage that it provides a measure of the degree of preference. While both
methods will give a relative order of brand preferences, the magnitude of difference in
preference between brands will not be obvious using these methods. To get an idea of the
absolute preference, itemized rating scales should be used.

The Marketing Management Decision

1. A, C, D

2. Scaling techniques can reveal brand preferences, consumer priorities and perceptions.
Marketing decisions can be taken based on these facts. In this case, New Balance is a
premium brand aiming the high end market. They should be aiming youngsters who are
serious about athletic shoes and affluent customers with a greater propensity to spend. While
they are successful with the affluent group, they need to launch newer models (more
colorful) to attract the young men. Celebrity (such as Nike’s NBA campaign) endorsements
and increased promotional spending should be able to win the attention of this segment.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
7-1. Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain prespecified rules.

7-2. The primary scales of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

7-3. The differences between a nominal and an ordinal scale are that in nominal scales, the
numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects, while in an
ordinal scale the numbers are used as a ranking device. Although both nominal and
ordinal scale data can be used for counting operations, ordinal scales permit the use of
statistics based on centiles.

7-4. The implications of having an arbitrary zero point in an interval scale means that any
positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the properties of the
scale. Hence, it is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values.

7-5. The advantages of a ratio scale over an interval scale is that the origin is fixed. Hence, it
is meaningful to take ratios of scale values. Statistics such as the geometric mean,
harmonic mean, and coefficient of variation can be applied to analyze ratio scale data.

7-6. All the primary scales and all the comparative scales that we have discussed in this
chapter can be easily implemented in social media. No additional requirements are
imposed by social media. The principles underlying scaling and measurement and the

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 comparative scaling techniques also remain the same. An analysis of social media content
can shed light on the level of measurement that is appropriate in a given project. It can
also provide guidance on the type of scaling techniques, comparative or noncomparative,
to use. In addition, it is convenient to use multiple scaling techniques in a given project.

7-7. A comparative rating scale involves the direct comparison of stimulus objects with one
another.

7-8. In paired comparison scaling, a respondent is presented with two objects at a time and
asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterion.

7-9. Paired comparison scaling is useful when the number of brands is limited because it
requires direct comparison of brands. Thus, the disadvantages of paired comparison
scaling is that with a large number of brands the number of comparisons become
unwieldy, violations of the assumption of transitivity may occur, the order in which the
objects are presented may bias the results, and they bear little resemblance to the
marketplace situation involving multiple alternatives.

7-10. In a constant sum scale, the respondents are required to allocate a constant sum of units
such as points, dollars, chits, stickers, or chips among a set of stimulus objects with
respect to some criterion. The constant sum is a more refined ranking scale in that it
allows fine discrimination among stimulus objects without requiring too much time.

7-11. A semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with
bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. This scale is used in comparing brand,
product, and company images, developing advertising and promotion strategies, new
product development studies, and in a variety of other applications.

7-12. The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements related to the stimulus objects.

7-13. The differences between the Staple scale and the semantic differential is that in the Staple
scale there is no need to pretest the adjectives or phrases to ensure true bipolarity, and the
Staple scale can also be administered over the telephone. The semantic differential is
more popular than the Staple scale.

7-14. All the noncomparative scales that we have discussed in this chapter can be easily
implemented in social media. An analysis of social media content can provide guidance
on whether continuous or itemized rating scales should be used. It can also aid the
researcher in making appropriate rating-scale decisions. Furthermore, it is quite feasible
to employ more than one scaling method to measure a given construct so as to obtain
evidence on convergent validity.

7-15. As the name implies, multi-item scales consist of multiple items that need to be evaluated
in order to obtain a given measurement.

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7-16. Reliability refers to the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated
measurements are made on the characteristics.

7-17. Validity refers to the accuracy of measurement. Validity of a scale may be defined as the
extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among
objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random errors.

7-18. The relationship between reliability and validity can be understood in terms of the true
score model. If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable. If a measure is
perfectly reliable, it may or may not be perfectly valid, as systematic error may still be
present. The lack of reliability constitutes negative evidence for validity. Reliability is a
necessary, but not a sufficient, condition for validity.

7-19. When choosing a particular scaling technique, an attempt should be made to use the
scaling technique, which will yield the highest level of information feasible in the given
situation. In many situations it may be desirable to use more than one scaling technique
or to obtain additional measures using procedures other than the conventional scaling
techniques.

APPLIED PROBLEMS
7-20. a. Interval - The scale represents increasing and uniform degrees of agreement.
b. Ratio - An absolute 0 is assumed.
c. Ordinal - Rankings display a relationship of order between the scale items.
d. Nominal - A simple matching has occurred.
e. Ordinal- The more minutes spent studying, the higher the scale response.
f. Ratio - An absolute 0 is assumed.

7-21. The following are examples of each scale. Student answers may vary, but should have
similar form.
Likert Scale
Instructions:
Listed below are statements that describe different opinions about Store X. Please
indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by using the following
scale:
1 = Strongly Disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly Agree

Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

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 Disagree Agree
I do most of my shopping at
store X. 1 2 3 4 5

Semantic Differential
Instructions:

This study measures different concepts related to Store X. Place an X along the line
according to how well the subject is related to the adjectives on the end of the scale.

1. I do most of my shopping at store X.

Never --:--:--:--:--:--:-- Always

Stapel Scale
Instructions:

Please evaluate how accurately the word or phrase describes each of the subjects (e.g.,
Store X) listed below by selecting a number for the word(s). The more accurately you
think the words describe the subject, the larger the plus number you should choose. You
should select a minus number for words you think do not describe the subject accurately.
The more accurately you think the word describes it, the larger the plus number you
should choose. Therefore, you can select any number from +5 for words that you think
are very accurate, all the way to –5, for words that you think are very inaccurate.

------------------------------------------------
Store X
------------------------------------------------
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
I do most of my shopping at this store.
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

7-22. Many variations of the scale can be constructed. It should be a multiitem scale and should
have anchors that are both relevant to attitudes on internationalization of the management
curriculum and understandable. The scale should contain five to nine values and be

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 uniform throughout the items. Reverse scoring should be used for the negative items. For
assessing reliability see the answers to review questions. For assessing validity see the
answer to question 7-17.

7-23. Listed below are statements that describe different opinions about the Internet. Please
indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement:

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree
1. The Internet is a useful
source of general
information 1 2 3 4 5
2. It is easy to find
information on the Internet 1 2 3 4 5
3. When I need information, I
would rather read the
newspaper than surf the
Internet 1 2 3 4 5
7-24. (a) Reverse the scoring for items 1 and 3. Then, sum all the four items. The higher
the score, the more favorable the attitude toward new technology.
(b) Place an X along the line according to how well your attitude toward new
technology is related to the adjectives on the end of the scale.

I avoid new technology --:--:--:--:--:--:-- I embrace new technology

I keep up with new I am ignorant of new
technology --:--:--:--:--:--:-- technology
I am late to adopt new I am quick to adopt new
technology --:--:--:--:--:--:-- technology
I advise others about new I seek advice about new
technology --:--:--:--:--:--:-- technology

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 (c) Please evaluate how accurately the word or phrase describes your attitude toward
new technology

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
I avoid new technology
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
I keep up with new technology
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

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 +5
+4
+3
+2
+1
I am late to adopt new technology
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
I advise others about new technology
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

(d) The Likert scale is the easiest to administer in a telephone interview. The
respondents simply have to state their degree of (dis)agreement, one scale item at
a time.

INTERNET AND COMPUTER EXERCISES

7-25. The URLs of several marketing research firms are given in Table 1.1. The criteria for
evaluation should follow the guidelines given in this chapter.

7-26. The students should be encouraged to find examples of the four primary scales discussed
in this chapter by conducting an Internet search (as described in Chapter 3).

7-27. This exercise is designed to give the students firsthand experience in constructing an
actual ranking scale.

7-28. Likert scales can be developed to measure the usefulness of Ford Motor Company’s Web
site at www.ford.com. Scale items should include: availability of information, visual
search, price information availability, ease of navigation, dealer information and linkages
to dealers and other relevant sites, service to customers, user groups and links to user
groups, and the visual attractiveness of site.

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7-29. Bi-polar adjectives such as reliable—unreliable, on-time delivery—late delivery,
trustworthy—untrustworthy, global service—domestic service, customer friendly—
customer unfriendly, competitively priced—high priced, excellent service—poor service,
etc., can be used.

7-30. Many types of examples can be located. The Likert type scales are the most popular.

7-31. Several different applications can be identified. The scales should be related to specific
marketing research and corresponding managerial contexts.

ROLE PLAYING
Q1. You are a marketing research analyst with the Coca-Cola Company. Before introducing
a new soft drink brand that will compete with Pepsi’s Mountain Dew, management is
considering conducting taste tests. You are asked to write a technical report on the uses
and limitations of taste tests and make a recommendation about whether taste tests should
be used for this new brand. Present your report to a group of students representing Coca-
Cola management.

A1. Taste tests have the following applications:

(a) allow for direct comparison of the new soft drink versus other products
(b) allow for responses that are based on an actual sample of the drink as opposed to an
imagined sample
(c) allow for manipulation of marketing parameters on attitude toward the product
Taste tests have the following disadvantages:
(a) cannot measure attitude towards brand image
(b) must determine how much information to reveal to respondent
Taste tests offer a contribution to product planning, but they must be constructed to solve
the problem that has been specified. If they are improperly structured, misleading results
can emerge.

Q2. You work in the marketing research department of a firm specializing in developing
decision support systems (DSSs) for the health- care industry. Your firm would like to
measure the attitudes of hospital administrators toward DSSs. The interviews would be
conducted by telephone. You have been asked to develop an appropriate scale for this
purpose. Management would like you to explain and justify your reasoning in
constructing this scale.

A2. An itemized rating scale would need to be used since no comparison to a particular DSS
is being made and the telephone mode of data collection rules out the continuous rating
scale’s use. In this instance, the Likert scale is most suitable since the procedure is easily
understood over the phone, statements about various aspects of DSS usage can be
constructed easily, and evaluating results is straightforward.

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FIELD WORK
Q1. Develop three comparative (paired comparison, rank order, and constant sum) scales to
measure attitudes toward five popular brands of toothpaste (Crest, Colgate, Aim,
Pepsodent, and Ultra Brite). Administer each scale to five students. No student should
be administered more than one type of scale. Note the time it takes each student to
respond. Which scale was the easiest to administer? Which scale took the shortest time?

A1. The purpose of this exercise is to have the students gain hands-on experience in devising
and administering a scale. Students should also gain an understanding of the
misinterpretations and mistakes that are possible when laymen try to use scales. In
general, the paired comparison scaling should be the easiest to administer since
preference between two objects is a relatively simple cognitive operation as compared to
ranking or assigning values. The amount of time a scale takes to finish may vary across
students.

Q2. Develop a constant sum scale to determine preferences for department stores. Administer
this scale to a pilot sample of twenty students to determine their preferences for some of
the popular department stores in your city. Based on your pilot study, which store is most
preferred?

A2. The purpose of this exercise is similar to Question 1 above, however, the student is also
given the task of analyzing the results from a constant sum scale.

Q3. Develop a semantic differential scale to measure the images of two major airlines that fly
to your city. Administer this scale to a pilot sample of twenty students. Based on your
pilot study, which airline has a more favorable image?

A3. The goal of this exercise is to have the students construct a scale, administer it, and
interpret the results. It is intended to make the students apply the material in the chapter
to a real world setting. In evaluating their work, you should check that the scale they
develop is indeed a semantic differential and that it is properly designed.

GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Q1. “A brand could receive the highest median rank on a rank order scale of all the brands
considered and still have poor sales.” Discuss.

A1. Pertinent to this discussion is the issue of what is being measured. Products can be
perceived very positively, yet economic or marketing considerations may negatively
impact sales. If we are measuring attitude toward the brand, it can be very highly rated,
however, a high price may be charged which eliminates most buyers, e.g., in the auto
market consider a Porsche. Attitudes and intentions do not perfectly correlate with
behavior because there are additional factors affecting behavior.

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 Another issue is that none of the brands considered may be desirable. Hence, even the
top ranked brand may not be desirable.

Q2. “It really does not matter which scaling technique you use. As long as your measure is
reliable, you will get the right results.” Discuss this statement in a small group.

A2. The issues behind this statement center on the appropriateness of a particular scale. There
is a great difference in the results obtained from comparative and noncomparative scales
and this distinction should be made. In addition, for noncomparative scales, the
researcher must make decisions with respect to the number of scale categories, balanced
versus unbalanced scales, odd or even number of categories, forced versus non-forced
scales, nature and degree of verbal description, and the physical form or configuration.
Each of these decisions will affect the information gathered from respondents and should
be discussed. Finally, the nature of reliability is important to consider. Even though a
scale is reliable, it does not mean that the information is pertinent to the issue at hand.
Misapplied scales can be very reliable, yet be of little help or even misleading if they do
not relate to the problem at hand.

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