Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ME6602 Notes
ME6602 Notes
com
Unit 1
ENGINE:
Block
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
And slant.
backwards Crankshaft:
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Crankshaft bearings:
Uses a steel backing with soft metal on crankshaft side.(lead, tin, copper,
silver, cadmium)
The flywheel (known as the flex plate when used with an automatic
transmission) carries the engines inertia in between power strokes.
It is the powers take off for the engine. The clutch or torque converter bolts
to it. Lastly it has the starter motor’s ring gear
Vibration damper:
The vibration damper smoothes the vibrations caused by the power strokes.
Balancer shafts:
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Many types of materials: rubber, paper, aluminum, steel, cork and more.
Pistons:
Pistons harness the energy of the power stroke and transfer the force toward the crankshaft.
Head or crown
Ring grooves
Ring lands
Skirt
Pin hole
Pin boss
Pin
Rings seal the compression in the combustion chamber and the motor oil
in the crankcase.
Shapes of the ring vary to also help the ring seal better.
Piston pin:
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Pinned to piston.
Press fit.
Connecting rods:
I-beam style rod use to transfer the pistons force to the crankshaft.
Small end contains the piston pin and the big end has a removable cap to
install it to the Crank.
Installation of pistons:
Cylinder number
Piston number
Automotive chassis:
Introduction of Chassis Frame: Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote
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the frame parts or Basic Structure of the vehicle. It is the back bone of the
vehicle. A vehicle with out body is called Chassis. The components of the
vehicle like Power plant, Transmission System, Axles, Wheels and Tyres,
Suspension, Controlling Systems like Braking, Steering etc., and also electrical
system parts are mounted on the Chassis frame. It is the main mounting for all
the components including the body. So it is also called as Carrying Unit.
1. Conventional frame: It has two long side members and 5 to 6 cross members joined
together with the help of rivets and bolts. The frame sections are used generally.
a. Channel Section - Good resistance to bending
b. Tabular Section - Good resistance to Torsion
c. Box Section - Good resistance to both bending and Torsion
2. Integral Frame: This frame is used now days in most of the cars. There is no frame
and all the assembly units are attached to the body. All the functions of the frame
carried out by the body itself. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to
less weight most economical also. Only disadvantage is repairing is difficult.
3. Semi - Integral Frame: In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on
which engine gear box and front suspension is mounted. It has the advantage
when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame can be taken easily to
replace the damaged chassis frame. This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and
some of the European and American cars.
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Unit 2
A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray
fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with
the correct air-fuel mixture for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor,
however, PRESSURE, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the engine. This
makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.
A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel
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system.
1. Improved atomization. Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure
that helps break fuel droplets into a fine mist.
2. Better fuel distribution. Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
3. Smoother idle. Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of
better fuel distribution and low-speed atomization.
* Increased engine power. Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air
flow can result in more horsepower output.
Types:
The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system. A
single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector nozzles
in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into the top center of
the intake manifold .
A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel
passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each
intake valve. Thereby, the term multipoint (more than one location) fuel injection is used
System component:
Fuel tank
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Fuel filter
Electronic Injectors
fuel
is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an engine system in
which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released (pressurized
gas) into an engine.
Storage of fuel (the system must contain a given quantity of fuel and must
avoid leakage and limit evaporative emissions)
Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, Gauging (the remaining
quantity of fuel in the tank must be measured or evaluated)
Venting (if over-pressure is not allowed, the fuel vapors must be managed
through valves)
An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. The pump must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi
depending on the application) so the injectors can spray the fuel into the engine.
Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank,
Some vehicles may even have two fuel pumps (a transfer pump inside the tank, and a
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An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. The pump must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi
depending on the application) so the injectors can spray the fuel into the engine.
Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank,
Some vehicles may even have two fuel pumps (a transfer pump inside the
tank, and a main fuel pump outside).
Most newer vehicles use a "turbine" style fuel pump. A turbine pump has an impeller ring
attached to the motor. The blades in the impeller push the fuel through the pump as the impeller
spins. This type of pump is not a positive-displacement pump, so it produces no pulsations, runs
very smoothly and quietly. It is also less complicated to manufacture and is very durable. Some
aftermarket pump supplies use this type of pump to replace the older designs.
Fuel Filter:
The fuel filter is the fuel system's primary line of defense against dirt, debris
and small particles of rust that flake off the inside of the fuel tank.
Many filters for fuel injected engines trap particles as small as 10 to 40 microns in size.
In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any
embedded system that controls one or more of the electrical systems or
subsystems in a motor vehicle.
An engine control unit (ECU), also known as power-train control module (PCM), or
engine control module (ECM) is a type of electronic control unit that determines the
amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters an internal combustion engine
needs to keep running. It does this by reading values from multidimensional maps
which contain values calculated by sensor devices monitoring the engine.
Working of ECU:
Control of fuel injection: ECU will determine the quantity of fuel to inject based on a
number of parameters. If the throttle pedal is pressed further down, this will open the
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throttle body and allow more air to be pulled into the engine. The ECU will inject
more fuel according to how much air is passing into the engine. If the engine has
not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected.
Control of idle speed: Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the
ECU. The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which
plays a primary role in the engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events,
and valve timing. Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an
idle air bypass control stepper motor.
The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are
electrically activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is
mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the
desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors
are electrically actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very
near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If
the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and
rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.
The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are
supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure
accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator
supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel.
Electronic injectors:
The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized
fuel as long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil.
When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the combustion
chamber. Depending on engine operating condition ,injection quantity will vary.
Fuel line:
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Fuel line hoses carry gasoline from the tank to the fuel pump, to the fuel filter, and
to the fuel injection system. While much of the fuel lines are rigid tube, sections of it
are made of rubber hose, which absorb engine and road vibrations.
There are two basic types of fuel hose: Fuel and oil hoses that meet the SAE
30R7 standard, and fuel injection hose that meets the requirements of SAE 30R9.
When the driver turns the ignition key on, the power train control module (PCM)
energizes a relay that supplies voltage to the fuel pump. The motor inside the pump
starts to spin and runs for a few seconds to build pressure in the fuel system. A
timer in the PCM limits how long the pump will run until the engine starts.
Fuel is drawn into the pump through an inlet tube and mesh filter sock
The fuel then exits the pump through a one-way check valve and is pushed
toward the engine through the fuel line and filter.
The fuel filter traps any rust, dirt or other solid contaminants that may have passed
through the pump to prevent such particles from clogging the fuel injectors.
The fuel then flows to the fuel supply rail on the engine and is routed to the
individual fuel injectors. A fuel pressure regulator on the fuel rail maintains fuel
pressure, and recirculates excess fuel back to the tank.
The fuel pump runs continuously once the engine starts, and continues to run as
long as the engine is running and the ignition key is on. If the engine stalls, the
(PCM) will detect the loss of the RPM signal and turn the pump off.
Unit-3
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Transmission systems
Advantages
Combined with MacPherson struts: less unsprung weight for better handling
Manual Transaxle:
Differential assembly
Gear shafts
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Transverse transaxles
Advantage
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Automatic transaxle:
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Transverse engine
Chain drive
Allows transaxle to be mounted slightly below and to the side of the engine
Universal joint changes output speed twice in every revolution when run
at an angle
CV joint classifications
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Axle shafts:
Characteristics
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When different lengths: long one twists and lags before puts its
torque to the wheel
CV joint boots:
CV joint boot
Attached to axle and stub shafts with plastic or steel bands or straps
Unit 4
Steering systems:
Any mode of transportation used by people must have some means of control.
For the automobile, two primary control systems are at the driver's disposal: (1)
the steering system, and (2) the braking system.
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The steering mechanism converts the driver's rotational input at the steering
wheel into a change in the steering angle of the vehicle's steering road wheels.
For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the
inside wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a
tighter turn than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each
wheel, the lines will intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of the
steering linkage makes the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.
Steering behavior
2. The basic design of the steering kinematics must satisfy the Ackermann
conditions: the extensions of the wheel axes of the left and right front wheels,
when at an angle, intersect on an extension of the rear axle.
3. When the steering wheel is released, the wheels must return automatically
to the straight-ahead position and must remain stable in this position.
The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far
the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the
steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the
steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have
to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance.
However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio.
Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks.
The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the
steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable
trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio,
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Steering Wheel – used by the driver to rotate a steering shaft that passes
through the steering column.
Steering Shaft – transfers turning motion from the steering wheel to the
steering gearbox.
- high rigidity,
- readjustability.
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The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering
wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack.
It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion
needed to turn the wheels.
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to
make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right).
The primary components of the rack and pinion steering system are:
Rubber bellows
Pinion
Rack
Tie-rod
Rubber Bellows:
This rubber bellows is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It protects the
inner joints from dirt and contaminants. In addition, it retains the grease
lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing. There is an identical bellows on
the other end of the rack for the opposite side connection.
Pinion:
The pinion is connected to the steering column. As the driver turns the
steering wheel, the forces are transferred to the pinion and it then causes
the rack to move in either direction. This is achieved by having the pinion in
constant mesh with the rack.
Rack:
The rack slides in the housing and is moved by the action of the meshed pinion into the
teeth of the rack. It normally has an adjustable bush opposite the pinion to control their
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The inner ball joint is attached to the tie-rod, to allow for suspension
movement and slight changes in steering angles
Tie rod:
A tie rod end is attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is
extended or retracted when the vehicle is negotiating turns. Some tie-rods and
tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded. This allows toe-in or toe-out to be
adjusted to the manufacturer's specifications.
Toe:
Toe is defined as the difference of the distance between the leading edge of the
wheels and the distance between the trailing edge of the wheels when viewed
from above. Toe-in means the front of the wheels are closer than the rear; toe-
out implies the opposite. Figure 7.20 shows both cases.
For a rear-wheel-drive vehicle, the front wheels normally have a slight amount of toe-
in.. When the vehicle begins to roll, rolling resistance produces a force through the
tire contact patch perpendicular to the rolling axis. This force produces a torque
around the steering axis that tends to cause the wheels to toe-out. The slight toe-in
allows for this, and when rolling, the wheels align along the axis of the vehicle.
Conversely, front-wheel-drive vehicles require slight toe out. In this case, the tractive
force of the front wheels produces a moment about the steering axis that tends to toe
the wheels inward. In this case, proper toe-out absorbs this motion and allows the
wheels to parallel the direction of motion of the vehicle.
Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is
connected to the rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston.
Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to
move, which in turn moves the rack, providing the power assist.
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The forces generated between steering worm and steering nut are transmitted
via a low-friction recirculating row of balls. The steering nut acts on the steering
shaft via gear teeth. A variable ratio is possible with this steering box,
Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns
the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.
The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. The first part is a block
of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside
of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above). The
steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that sticks into the
hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of
twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed
so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the
wheels.
Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads
are filled with ball bearings that recirculate through the gear as it turns. The balls
actually serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear;
second, they reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when you change the
direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth
would come out of contact with each other for a moment, making the steering
wheel feel loose.
Power steering helps drivers steer vehicles by increasing steering effort of the
steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the
steering mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only slight effort regardless
of conditions. Power steering helps considerably when a vehicle is stopped or
moving slowly. As well, power steering provides some feedback of forces acting
on the front wheels to give an ongoing sense of how the wheels are interacting
with the road; this is typically called "rοad feel"·
Representative power steering systems for cars increase steering effort via an
actuator, a hydraulic cylinder, which is part of a servo system. These systems
have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage
that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still
permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead
of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in
this case) is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system.
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Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the
middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to
steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame
relative to each other to steer.
Energy source
The energy source consists of a vane pump (generally driven by the engine) with
an integral oil-flow regulator, an oil reservoir and connecting hoses and pipes.
The pump and the system components must be designed such that the
operating temperature of the hydraulic fluid does not rise to an excessive level
(<100°C) and such that no noise is generated and the oil does not foam.
Control Valve:
All power steering pumps have a flow-control valve to vary fluid flow and power
steering system pressures. A pressure relief valve prevents excessive pressures
developing when the steering is on full-lock, and held against its stops. The flow
control valve is located at the outlet fitting of the pump.
During slow cornering, or when parking, pump speeds are normally low. There is less
demand for fluid flow, but to provide the required assistance, high pressure is needed.
Discharge ports direct the fluid to the outlet, and then to the steering gear. The outlet
fluid pressure is slightly lower than the internal high pressure coming from the pump.
Pump:
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump. This
pump is driven by the car's engine with a belt and pulley. It contains a set of
retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.
As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and
force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump
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depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide
adequate flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves much
more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.
The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not get
too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.
Rotary Valve:
A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the
steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force
(such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The
device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.
Pull-Drift Compensation starts with EPAS technology, which replaces the traditional
hydraulic-assist powersteering pump with an electric motor. This increases fuel economy
because the electric motor operates only when steering assistance is required.
Unit-5
Alternative fuels:
As the cost of conventional fuels goes up, the interest in other fuel sources increase.
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Ethanol
Natural gas
Propane
Hydrogen
Biodiesel
Electricity
Methanol
Ethanol:
One acre of corn can produce 300 gal. Of ethanol per growing season.
So, in order to replace that 200 billion gal. Of petroleum products,
American farmers would need to dedicate 675 million acres, or 71 percent
of the nation's 938 million acres of farmland, to growing feedstock.
Natural gas:
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The United States has vast natural gas reserves across the country
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen and oxygen from air fed into a proton exchange membrane fuel cell
produce enough electricity to power an electric automobile, without producing
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Currently there are no original equipment manufacturer vehicles available for sale to
the general public. Experts estimate that in approximately 10-20 years hydrogen
vehicles, and the infrastructure to support them, will start to make an impact.
Bio diesel:
Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form but it may require certain
engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems
and may not be suitable for wintertime use.
Need to heat storage tanks in colder climates to prevent the fuel from gelling
Like E85, biodiesel began with farm co-ops and local entrepreneurs.
High fuel prices affect farmers, too, and here was an opportunity to
make money from otherwise fallow farmland
Electricity:
EVs have lower "fuel" and maintenance costs than gasoline-powered vehicles.
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Methanol:
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