Topic 2 form 4

EVOLUTION
Outline
 Explain the meaning of evolution
 Explain the current concepts of evolution
 State and explain the various evidences of evolution
 State and explain the Mechanisms of evolution
- Larmarck’s theory / theory of use and disuse
- Darwin’s theory of natural selection
 Explain the meaning of struggle for existence and survival for the fittest
 Evolution in progress - Natural selection in action (industrial Melanism )
- Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics

Meaning of Evolution

 Evolution is a process of gradual change in living organisms from simple life

forms to more complex forms over a long period of time.
 Evolution offers a scientific explanation why we have a great diversity of
living organisms with similar or different structures.
Diversity ………. Means variety

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

There are many theories that explain the origin of life but at our level we
examine two:

 Special creation theory

 Organic /Chemical evolution theory
i. Special creation theory
 Special creation involves the action of a Supreme Being (God).
 it states that a Supreme Being created all forms of life.
 It is a belief held by all major religions which includes Christianity,
Judaism and Islam.

1
  The evidence is found in religious writings like in holy Quran and
bible and also in folklores.

Views about special creation

 Life was brought into existence by Supreme Being.

 Life forms were created in a perfect form and have remained unchanged
over time.
 This knowledge is based on faith cannot be disputed.

Organic /Chemical evolution

 Is the formation of complex molecules from simple molecules like

water, ammonia and methane
 The theory states that life came into existence through combination
of such chemicals.
 The theory is based on organic evolution.

Definition of Organic evolution

 Is the process in which the present complex living organisms developed

from simple pre-existing earlier forms of life over a long period of time?

Evidences that support organic evolution

 Fossil records
 Geographical distribution of organisms
 Comparative embryology
 Comparative anatomy
 Cell biology
 Comparative serology

a) Fossils records /paleontology

 Fossils are remains of ancestral organisms that were accidentally
preserved in naturally occurring materials such as sedimentary rocks,
plant resin acted over a long period of time.

2
  Fossils give direct evidence of the type of plant or animal that existed
during a certain geological era.
 This because fossils show morphological chances of the organisms
over the millions of years.
 E.g the evolution of the skull of man from Homo habilis (earliest
species of man) to Homo sapiens (present species of man) has been
documented through the fossils records.
 The exact age of fossils can be determined using radioactive carbon
dating techniques.

Importance of fossils as evidence

 Gives direct evidence of the type of animals and plants that existed at
certain geological age.
 By comparing the fossils of different organisms it is possible to tell the
phylogenic relationship between the organisms.
 Fossil records also show gradual increase in complexity of organisms over
time.
 Fossils are used to construct an almost complete evolutionary history of the
development of certain organisms e.g. Fossils records of human skull show
progressive change in form and structure of human species.

Limitations of fossils records

 There are several missing links in some fossil records.
 Distortion of some parts during sedimentations which may give wrong
impressions.
 Destruction of fossil structures by geological activities e.g. earth quakes,
faulting, uplifting and mass movement.
b) Geographical distribution of organisms
 This Is based on the theory that before continental drift occurred,
the present continents were joined together one single large land
mass called Pangaea .

3
  The land mass later split to the present and modern continents
which later drifted apart to their present locations………
Continental drift theory/ Plate tectonics theory.
 Later after the drift, animals with common ancestry become
isolated by physical barriers e.g. mountains, deserts, oceans etc.
hence they i.e animals evolved into different species after a long
period.
Examples
(i) Illamas of the Amazon forest and the camels of Africa and Asia
both show resembles of a common ancestry.
(ii) The tiger of the Asia jungle resembles the leopard and cheetah.
(iii) Kangaroos in Australia and the jaguars in South America show a
common ancestry.

c) Comparative embryology
 A comparison of embryos of common vertebrates such as fish,
chicken, lizards, mammals etc. shows morphological or structural
similarities in their early stages of development.
 This shows that they had a common origin/ancestor.

d) Comparative anatomy
 Members of a phylum or closely related group show similarities in
the body structures or organs performing the same body
functions e.g. digestive system, urinary system, nervous system
etc.
 Such structures show that these groups of organisms may have
had a common origin/ancestor.

 Divergent evolution.
 Is a type of evolution where one basic structure is modified to
given rise to various forms leading to adaptive radiation

4
  Adaptive radiation
 Occurs in divergent evolution where a basic structure has been
modified over a long period of time to perform different functions
for the purpose of occupying different ecological niche for the
survival of the species.
 An example of adaptive radiation is the possession of homologous
structures.

 Homologous structures:
 These are structures that have a common embryonic origin but
have been modified to perform different functions for the
purpose of exploiting different ecological niches e.g. pentadactyl
limbs of vertebrates’ i.e. where;
i) The forelimbs of birds/bat have been modified into wings
for flight.
ii) The forelimb of a horse has been elongated for fast
running.
iii) The forelimb of a mole has been modified into a hand for
digging.
iv) The forelimb of a whale has been modified into flippers for
swimming.
 The importance of divergent evolution is that; it results in
adaptations that enable organism to exploit different ecological
niche leading to the formation of new species/speciation.
 Convergent evolution
 Is a type of comparative anatomy where different basic structures
of different embryonic origin have been modified to form
analogous structures.
 Analogous structures:
 Are structures of different embryonic origin but have been
modified to perform similar functions for the purpose of
exploiting the same ecological niche.

5
Examples of analogous structures

 Wings of birds and wings of insects----Both have different embryonic

origin but have been modified to perform similar function of flight.
 Eye structure in human and in octopus…… Both structures have different
embryonic origin but have been modified to perform similar function of
sight.
 Limbs of Arthropods and mammals…...have different embryonic origin
but used for similar functions
 Vestigial structures
 These are structures in mammals that have ceased to be functional in
course of time and therefore have reduced in size i.e. become
rudimentary over a long period of time.
Examples.
 Appendix in man……. has no digestive function in man though it is
well developed in herbivores to provide bacteria that produce
cellulase enzymes to digest cellulose to sugars……These bacteria
are Eschiria colli
 Wings of flightless birds ……..e.g. kiwi, ostriches, emu etc. these
are birds whose wings have become functionless in course of time
and reduced in size.
 Nictitating membrane in the eye of man……… in man it is
reduced and has become functionless while in birds and fish it is
well developed and functions as the third eyelid for protection of
the eye during movement.
 Vestigial tail in humans……... has been reduced to a coccyx
 The python and the whale have no externally visible hind limbs
but their original presence is evidenced of a rudimentary pelvic
girdle.

6
 e.) Comparative cell biology

 Occurrence of common organelles e.g. mitochondria, ribosome, Golgi

bodies etc. in both plants and animals cells shows similarities that
suggest a common origin /ancestor.

f.) Comparative serology

 Comparison of blood groups, their antigen-antibody reactions and
rhesus factor, show similarities, hence showing that different
organisms are related and hence a common ancestor.

An example

Human evolution
 Man, apes, and monkeys belong to the Order- primates, hence they are
believed to have had a common ancestor a long time ago.
 Results of discovery of fossils in various archeological sites by Scientists
have been able to construct/ show the evolutionary history of man.
 The earliest primate to have evolved is the Proconsul which gave rise to the
two families of primates i.e.
 Homonidae (humans)
 Pongidae (apes)
 The homonidae is divided in two genera – plural for genus- namely;
 Australopithecus.
 Homo.
 The genus homo has three species.
 Homo habilis
 Homo erectus
 Homo sapiens

Characteristics of Homo sapiens

 Standing upright /erect.

7
  Bigger brain/higher intellectual capacity.
 Communication through language.
 Expression of moral judgment.

Structural differences between apes and human

APES HUMAN

 Low learning capacity  High intellectual capacity

( average brain size of 500cm3) (average brain size of 1350cm3)

 Have well developed canines  Have reduced incisors and

and incisors useful in defense canines unsuitable for killing
and killing prey. prey or for self-defense.

 Have narrow and elongated  Have broad and flattened

pelvis. pelvis.

 The forelimbs have opposable  The forelimb has opposable

thumbs used for arboreal and thumbs used for manipulation
walking e.g. tool making.

 Locomotion is quadripedal.  Locomotion is bipedal.

 Hind foot has opposable toe  Hind foot has non-opposable

for grasping tree branches. toe used mainly for stability on
the ground.

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION

8
 These are ideas that explain how evolution has occurred. They include:
 Lamarck’s theory.
 Evolution theory by natural selection— (Darwin’s theory)

1. Lamarck’s theory of evolution.

 John Baptiste De Lamarck- a French scientist
 It is also called the theory of environmental influence on inherited
characteristics/inheritance of acquired characteristics.
 The theory suggested that changes in an organism over time are due
adaptations of the organism to its environment.
 Due to the law of use and disuse, parts that are more often used are
more developed and adapted while parts that are less used are less
developed and adapted.
 According to Lamarck, such acquired structures when developed in the
life of organisms are passed onto the offspring and subsequent
generations resulting in the emergence new forms of organisms.
 This new forms acquire certain advantages over their ancestral forms in
exploitation of a particular ecological niche.

 He gave the example of the long neck of the giraffe…………According

to this theory, structures that are not used become reduced in size
and finally become functionless
 Vestigial like the wings in kiwi or ostrich.

Limitations of Lamarck’s theory

 Phenotypic acquired traits cannot be transmitted to the offspring.

Only changes in the DNA can be transmitted.

2. Darwin’s theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

 Proposed by Charles Darwin
9
  Natural selection is a process where nature selects those individuals
which are sufficiently well adapted and allow them to survive and
reject those that are poorly adapted which die out.

 Main features of the theory of natural selection are;

a) Variations occur by chances and within the individual. Through sexual

reproduction these characteristics are transmitted to successive offspring.
Some of the variations are advantageous to the individuals while others are
disadvantageous.
b) Each generation of a population has offspring more than the number of
parents.
 However, despite the very many offspring produced, the population
of species remains relatively constant in the environment.
 He / Darwin noted that there are many eliminating factors that
affect the survival of the species in the environment. This includes;
 Adverse environment conditions
 Competition for food, space, mates, and predators.
 As a result of these eliminating factors, organisms need to struggle
for existence or to live.
 Struggle for existence is where the members of the population are
constantly competing with each other for resources e.g. food, space,
mate etc. in an effort to survive.
 Darwin also observed that, offspring show variation from each other
and from their parents.
 Some of these variations may enable the members of the species
possessing them to survive to adulthood.
 He therefore, explained that in the struggle for existence, there is
among the organism in a particular environment Survival of the
fittest.
 Survival of the fittest is where individuals with advantageous
variation are well adapted to the environment, hence they are

10
 selected to survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly
adapted perish or die and do not transmit their bad characteristics.
Note:
 The struggle for existence is created by the environmental
pressure on the population on the resources or competiton for
resources.
 Survival of the fittest comes as a result of any advantageous
variations that an individual poses which makes it to survive.
 Those individuals that are selected for reproduction pass their
variation or traits onto their offspring.
 The gradual accumulation of variations from generation to
generation over a long period of time leads to emergence of
new forms of species.

Note

 The theory of natural selection explains how new species arose from
pre-existing ones.
 The basic concept of natural selection is that nature selects how well
a particular trait of organism can make the organism survive in a
particular environment and pass the advantageous trait in its
subsequent generations.
 According to Darwin variations are the raw materials for evolution.

Summary of Theory of Natural Selection

 The theory does not explain how the variations come into existence
or how they are inherited.
 How natural selection brings about adaptation of species to its
environment.
 Individuals of the same species show certain variations or differences
that are caused by genetic differences among individuals of the same
species.

11
  These genetic differences can be passed from parent to offspring
through genetic inheritance.
 Generally, most organisms produce more offspring than the
environment can support.
 Therefore, there is always a tendency for struggle for existence due
to competition among individuals for survival.
 Those individuals that possess favorable characters that enable them
to compete successfully among themselves are able to survive to
reach the reproductive age and hand over their favourable
characteristic/gene to their offspring.
 Those individuals that possess unfavourable characters are not able
to compete successfully, hence they fail to reach their maturity age
hence, do not pass their traits to their offspring’s so they perish
leaving the well adapted individual to survive.
 Modern scientist believe that variation is caused by mutations.
 They also suggest that variations are determined by genes which are
passed from parents to their offspring.

Significance of Mutations in Evolution

 Mutations bring about variations which can be inherited.

 Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism while others
are disadvantageous.
 Advantageous variations favour certain organisms to compete better in
the struggle for survival.
 This results in more and well adapted organisms to the environment.
 Those organisms with disadvantageous variations are therefore
eliminated from the population.
 Those organisms that are well adapted eventually pass-over the
advantageous variations to their offsprings over a period of time.
 Thus mutations, natural selection and evolution are related.

12
  Mutation provides the new materials or genes which are acted upon by
natural selection to produce evolution and emergence of new species.

Evolution in Progress and speciation

 Answers the question whether evolution still goes on ………….where the
answer is yes.

Examples to Support this are;

a) Industrial melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia)

b) Sickle cell trait
c) Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics.

a) Peppered moth

 Before the industrial revolution in Britain (England), there existed a variety

of peppered moth that was speckled white in colour, which
blended/camouflaged well with tree trunks.
 However, the industrial revolution caused pollution where the soot from
the industries covered the tree trunks.
 After the industrial revolution, a melanic form that was speckled black
emerged that camouflaged well with tree trunks that were darkened by
soot from the industrial smoke.
 As a result, the dark melanic form was common in towns while in rural
areas the white speckled form common.
 In the industrial areas the white speckled form was easily seen and eaten
by their predators such as birds while the dark speckled form was easily
predated in the rural areas.
 Therefore, occurrence of the melanic forms could have been due to
mutation and this represents a possible transition towards speciation.

b) Sickle cell trait

13
  It is known that there is a high frequency of these mutant genes in
places where malaria incidences is high.
 This is because those who are heterozygous (Hb A Hbs) have immunity
against malaria, a situation know as ‘’heterozygous advantage’’ thus
the heterozygous individuals are selected for i.e survive malaria
pandemics.

a) Resistance to drugs, antibiotics and pesticide

 Drugs, antibiotics and pesticides are chemical substance used to kill
disease causing micro-organisms and pest respectively.
 Some pathogen and pests usually survive and reproduce even when
they are exposed to the drugs, antibiotics and pesticides repeatedly.
 These shows that, in the population some individuals possess the
genes for resistance or acquire it through mutation hence survive the
chemicals.
 Those that survive pass the trait to their offspring thus establishing a
new population of resistant forms.
 Those which do not have the genes to make them resistant to the
chemicals die.

Examples

i) Resistance of some bacteria to antibiotics like penicillin, tetracycline

etc. if mutations occurs in a population of bacteria, the mutant
bacteria produces enzymes that break down penicillin, hence
continued use of penicillin fails to treat the bacterial disease.
ii) New varieties of fungi are resistant to fungicide.
iii) Mosquitoes and houseflies are resistant to DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane) pesticide. This is because the flies posses genes
which make them synthesis an enzyme against DDT.
iv) Resistance of plasmodium parasites to anti- malaria drugs e.g malaria
quine, chloroquine, fansider etc. this because the plasmodium has
the ability to change rapidly.

14
 v) Resistance of ticks to various acaricides.

Speciation
 Speciation is the emergence of new species.

15