Fundamentals of

MATHEMATICS
GRADE XI

Prof. Dr. Prakash Muni Bajracharya

Krishna C. Poudel
Keshab Raj Phulara
Mukunda Raj Acharya

Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Science & Technology,

Curriculum Development Centre, Bhaktapur, as an Additional Material from 2077 to 2079
 Fundamentals of
MATHEMATICS
Edition 2021

Copyright © 2020, by the Buddha Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in the Nepal. Except as permitted
under the Nepal Copyright Act of 2059, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
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ISBN: 978-9937-30-362-0
Printed in Nepal
 Preface

This book “Fundamentals of Mathematics” has been prepared in accordance with the
syllabus prescribed by Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) under the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology, Nepal for grade XI.
The book has been written keeping in mind the following objectives:
• To create an interest for Mathematics in those students who show a promise for higher
study in Mathematics,
• To create confidence in others for equipping themselves with the Mathematics needed
for the areas in natural and social sciences.

These objectives were achieved by focusing on

• presentation of materials,
• motivation and development of concepts,
• logical reasoning with rigor and precision,
• problems sets.
To make the book effective from practical as well as theoretical point of view, an attempt
has been made to provide a thorough explanation of many mathematical terms for their
proper use. One of the main features of this book is the attention given to motivating the
concepts under discussion. The authors have tried to make clear the intuitive meaning
of what is taking place and diagrams are provided, whenever it seems feasible to help
the reader develop skill in using his/her imagination to visualize new concepts. We have
avoided use of “or” in the sense of equivalence and use of “log” in the sense of natural
logarithm.
Neglecting rigor and precision in logical reasoning, Mathematics is not really a serious
affair and its aim may get out of sight. Therefore, the book provides every logical reasoning
with rigor and precision.
The book is full of worked out examples presented in a very systematic way, sometimes
they motivate the concept.
The success of any text book depends upon the strength of its problems sets. We have
devoted an extraordinary amount of effort to organizing the problems for this text. The
problems are graded and divided into groups arranging problems in each group to the
level of difficulty as far as possible, in order that the student can have sufficient practice.
Considerable amount of graphing techniques have been included, because the authors are
convinced that the only way to understand the nature and behaviour of functions is to have
graphs of standard functions in mind.
We expect comments and suggestions for the improvement of the book.

We would like to thank Mr. Nabaraj Bajgain of Buddha Publications Pvt. Ltd. for
encouragement and publication of the book. We would also like to express our appreciation
to Mr. Dipendra Shrestha and Ms. Rajani Shrestha for typing and layout.

Every effort has been made to find and correct errors in this book. Experience leads us
to believe, however, that the occasional mistake will have slipped through. The authors
assume responsibility of all errors. Any suggestions for correction of errors and for further
improvement will be highly appreciated.

Authors
 Syllabus

Content Area Contents LH

1 Algebra 1.1 Logic and Set: introduction of Logic, statements, logical connectives, truth 32 hrs
tables, basic laws of logic, theorems based on set operations.

1.2 Real numbers: field axioms, order axioms, interval, absolute value,
geometric representation of real numbers.

1.3 Function: Review, domain & range of a function, Inverse function,

composite function, functions of special type, algebraic (linear, quadratic &
cubic), Trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic)

1.4 Curve sketching: odd and even functions, periodicity of a

function, symmetry (about origin, x-and y-axis), monotonicity of a

function, sketching graphs of polynomials and some rational functions

a, x – a , a
2 2
3 , Trigonometric, exponential,
x + a, ax + bx + c, ax 
2
x x – a
logarithmic function (simple cases only)

1.5 Sequence and series: arithmetic, geometric, harmonic sequences and

series and their properties A.M, G.M, H.M and their relations, sum of infinite
geometric series.

1.6 Matrices and determinants: Transpose of a matrix and its properties,

Adjoint, Inverse matrix, Determinant of a square matrix, Properties of
determinants (without proof)

1.7 Complex number: definition imaginary unit, algebra of complex

numbers, geometric representation, absolute value (Modulus) and conjugate
of a complex numbers and their properties, square root of a complex number,
polar form of complex numbers.

2 Trigonometry 2.1 Properties of a triangle (Sine law, Cosine law, tangent law, Projection laws, 8 hrs
Half angle laws).

2.2 Solution of triangle(simple cases)

3 Analytic 3.1 Straight Line: length of perpendicular from a given point to a given line. 14 hrs
Geometry Bisectors of the angles between two straight lines.

Pair of straight lines: General equation of second degree in x and y,

condition for representing a pair of lines. Homogenous second-degree
equation in x and y. angle between pair of lines. Bisectors of the angles
between pair of lines.

3.2 Circle: Condition of tangency of a line at a point to the circle, Tangent

and normal to a circle.

3.3 Conic section: Standard equation of parabola, equations of tangent and

normal to a parabola at a given point.
4 Vectors 4.1 Vectors: collinear and non collinear vectors, coplanar and noncoplanar 8 hrs
vectors, linear combination of vectors,

4.2 Product of vectors: scalar product of two vectors, angle between two
vectors, geometric interpretation of scalar product, properties of scalar
product, condition of perpendicularity.

5 Statistics & 5.1 Measure of Dispersion: introduction, standard deviation), variance, 10 hrs
Probability coefficient of variation, Skewness (Karl Pearson and Bowley)

5.2 Probability: independent cases, mathematical and empirical definition of

probability, two basic laws of probability(without proof).

6 Calculus 6.1 Limits and continuity: limits of a function, indeterminate forms. algebraic 32 hrs
properties of limits (without proof), Basic theorems on limits of algebraic,
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions, continuity of a
function, types of discontinuity, graphs of discontinuous function.

6.2 Derivatives: derivative of a function, derivatives of algebraic,

trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions by definition (simple
forms), rules of differentiation. derivatives of parametric and implicit
functions, higher order derivatives, geometric interpretation of derivative,
monotonicity of a function, interval of monotonicity, extreme of a function,
concavity, points of inflection, derivative as rate of measure.

6.3 Anti-derivatives: anti-derivative. integration using basic integrals,

integration by substitution and by parts methods, the definite integral, the
definite integral as an area under the given curve, area between two curves.

7 Computational 7.1 Linear programming Problems: linear programming problems(LPP), 10 hrs

Methods solution of LPP by simplex method (two variables)

7.2 Numerical computation Characteristics of numerical computation,

accuracy, rate of convergence, numerical stability, efficiency

8 Mechanics Or 8.1 Statics: Forces and resultant forces, parallelogram law of forces, 12 hrs
Mathematics for composition and resolution of forces, Resultant of coplanar forces acting on a
Economics and point, Triangle law of forces and Lami's theorem.
Finance
8.2 Dynamics: Motion of particle in a straight line, Motion with uniform
acceleration, motion under the gravity, motion down a smooth inclined plane.
The concepts and theorem restated and formulated as application of calculus

8.3 Mathematics for economics and finance: Mathematical Models and

Functions, Demand and supply, Cost, Revenue, and profit functions, Elasticity
of demand, supply and income, Budget and Cost Constraints, Equilibrium
and break even
 C ontents
Principles of
ACCOUNTING-I GRADE XI

PART I: ALGEBRA

CHAPTER 1 Logic and Set

1.1 Logical Connectives................................................................................ 1
1.2 Tautology and Contradiction................................................................... 8
1.3 Some Basic Laws of Logic....................................................................... 10
Exercise 1 (A)................................................................................................ 11
1.4 Sets........................................................................................................ 13
1.5 Algebra of Sets....................................................................................... 15
Exercise 1(B)................................................................................................. 18

CHAPTER 2 Real Numbers

2.1 Number System...................................................................................... 19
2.2 Properties of Real Numbers..................................................................... 21
2.3 Geometrical Representation of Real Numbers........................................... 24
2.4 Inequalities............................................................................................. 25
2.5 Absolute Values of Real Numbers............................................................ 30
Exercise 2..................................................................................................... 33

CHAPTER 3 Functions
3.1 Functions ............................................................................................... 35
3.2 Properties of Functions ........................................................................... 38
3.3 Composition .......................................................................................... 41
3.4 Inverse Functions ................................................................................... 41
Exercise 3(A) ................................................................................................ 43
3.5 Types of Functions .................................................................................. 45
Exercise 3(B) ................................................................................................ 56

CHAPTER 4 Curve Sketching

4.1 Even and Odd Functions......................................................................... 57
4.2 Symmetry............................................................................................... 58
4.3 Monotoncity............................................................................................ 60
 4.4 Linear and Quadratic Functions............................................................... 61
4.5 Further Polynomial Functions................................................................... 68
4.6 Rational Functions................................................................................... 70
4.7 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions..................................................... 74
4.8 Trigonometric Functions........................................................................... 76
4.9 Absolute Value Functions......................................................................... 81
Exercise 4..................................................................................................... 81

CHAPTER 5 Sequence and Series

5.1 Review of Sequences and Series............................................................... 86
5.2 Types of Sequences................................................................................. 87
5.3 Means.................................................................................................... 93
5.4 Properties of Sequences........................................................................... 98
Exercise 5(A)................................................................................................. 102
5.5 Infinite Geometric Series.......................................................................... 103
Exercise 5(B)................................................................................................. 106

CHAPTER 6 Matrices and Determinants

6.1 Matrix.................................................................................................... 107
6.2 Transpose of a Matrix.............................................................................. 112
Exercise 6(A)................................................................................................. 113
6.3 Determinants.......................................................................................... 114
6.4 Properties of Determinants...................................................................... 119
Exercise 6(B)................................................................................................. 124
6.5 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix................................................................ 126
Exercise 6(C)................................................................................................ 130

CHAPTER 7 Complex Numbers

7.1 Complex Numbers.................................................................................. 132
7.2 Algebraic Properties of Complex Numbers............................................... 133
7.3 The Imaginary Unit................................................................................. 137
Exercise 7(A)................................................................................................. 138
7.4 Conjugates............................................................................................. 140
7.5 Absolute Value of a Complex Number..................................................... 143
Exercise 7(B)................................................................................................. 146
7.6 Square Root of a Complex Number......................................................... 147
Exercise 7(C)................................................................................................ 149
7.7 Polar and Trigonometric form of a Complex Number................................ 149
7.8 Products and Quotients of Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form........ 151
Exercise 7(D)................................................................................................ 154
 PART II: TRIGONOMETRY

CHAPTER 8 Properties of Triangles

8.1 Sine Law ................................................................................................ 155
8.2 Cosine Laws .......................................................................................... 158
8.3 Projection Laws ...................................................................................... 159
8.4 Tangent laws ......................................................................................... 160
8.5 Half-angle Formulae .............................................................................. 161
Exercise 8 .................................................................................................... 163

CHAPTER 9 Solution of Triangles

9.1 Oblique Triangles .................................................................................. 165
Exercise 9 .................................................................................................... 171

PART III: ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER 10 Straight Lines
10.1 Review of Straight Lines ........................................................................ 173
10.2 Length of the perpendicular from a point to a line ................................. 174
10.3 Equations of the Bisectors of the Angle between Two Lines ...................... 176
Exercise 10 .................................................................................................. 178

CHAPTER 11 Pair of Lines

11.1 General Equation of Second Degree .................................................. 180
11.2 Homogeneous Equation of Second Degree ......................................... 182
11.3 Angle between the Pair of Lines Represented by a Homogeneous
Equation of Second Degree ............................................................... 184
11.4 Equation of the Bisectors of the angles between the Pair of
Lines Represented by a Homogeneous Equation of Second Degree....... 187
11.5 Condition that the General Equation of Second Degree may
represent a Pair of Lines .................................................................... 189
11.6 A General Equation and its Homogeneous Part ................................... 191
11.7 A Pair of Lines Joining the Origin to the Point of Intersection of a
Line and a Curve .............................................................................. 193
Exercise 11 .................................................................................................. 195
CHAPTER 12 Circle
12.1 Equations of Circle ............................................................................ 198
12.2 A Line and a Circle ........................................................................... 199
12.3 Condition of Tangency ....................................................................... 199
12.4 Equation of a Tangent to a Circle ....................................................... 200
12.5 Equation of a Normal to a Circle ....................................................... 202
Exercise 12 .................................................................................................. 206

CHAPTER 13 Conic Sections

13.1 Conic Section or Conic ......................................................................... 209
13.2 Parabolas ............................................................................................ 209
Exercise 13(A) .............................................................................................. 217
13.3 Tangents and Normals ......................................................................... 218
13.4 Condition of Tangency ......................................................................... 219
13.5 Equation of a Normal to a Parabola ..................................................... 223
Exercise 13(B) .............................................................................................. 226

PART IV: VECTORS

CHAPTER 14 Vectors
14.1 Plane Vectors .................................................................................... 228
14.2 Space Vectors ................................................................................... 231
14.3 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors ............................... 232
Exercise 14 .................................................................................................. 235

CHAPTER 15 Product of Vectors

15.1 Scalar Products ................................................................................. 236
15.2 Application of Scalar Product ............................................................ 242
Exercise 15 .................................................................................................. 246
 PART V: STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
CHAPTER 16 Dispersion and Skewness
16.1 Standard Deviation .............................................................................. 248
16.2 Interpretation and Application of Standard Deviation ............................. 253
Exercise 16(A)............................................................................................... 257
16.3 Skewness ............................................................................................. 260
Exercise 16(B) .............................................................................................. 265

CHAPTER 17 Theory of Probability

17.1 Basic Concepts .................................................................................... 267
17.2 Definition of Probability ........................................................................ 269
17.3 Relationship between Events ................................................................. 273
17.4 Properties of Probability ........................................................................ 274
17.5 Independent Events .............................................................................. 277
17.6 Multiplication Rule of Probability ........................................................... 278
Exercise 17 .................................................................................................. 280

PART VI: CALCULUS

CHAPTER 18 Limits and Continuity
18.1 Limits ............................................................................................... 282
18.2 Indeterminate Forms ......................................................................... 284
18.3 Fundamental Theorems on Limits ....................................................... 286
18.4 Limits at Infinity ................................................................................. 288
Exercise 18 (A) ............................................................................................. 292
18.5 Limits of Trigonometric Functions ........................................................ 293
18.6 Limit of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions ................................... 297
Exercise 18(B) .............................................................................................. 299
18.7 One-sided Limits ............................................................................... 300
18.8 Continuity ......................................................................................... 302
18.9 One-sided Continuity ........................................................................ 303
18.10 Classification of Discontinuities .......................................................... 304
Exercise 18(C) ............................................................................................. 306
CHAPTER 19 Differentiation
19.1 Derivatives ........................................................................................ 308
19.2 Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative ............................................. 311
19.3 Rules (Techniques) of Differentiation ................................................... 312
19.4 Implicit Differentiation ....................................................................... 320
19.5 Particular values of Derivatives ........................................................... 322
19.6 Higher Derivatives ............................................................................. 322
Exercise 19(A) .............................................................................................. 323
19.7 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions ................................................ 326
Exercise 19(B) .............................................................................................. 329
19.8 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .......................... 331
Exercise 19(C) ............................................................................................. 335

CHAPTER 20 Application of Derivatives

20.1 Monotonic Functions ......................................................................... 337
20.2 Extreme values in closed intervals ....................................................... 341
20.3 Concavity ......................................................................................... 350
Exercise 20(A) .............................................................................................. 355
20.4 Derivative as a Rate of Change .......................................................... 357
Exercise 20(B) .............................................................................................. 361

CHAPTER 21 Integration
21.1 Antiderivatives..............................................................................363
21.2 Table of Standard Integrals...........................................................364
21.3 Rules of Integration......................................................................366
Exercise 21(A).........................................................................................369
21.4 Methods of Integration....................................................................371
21.5 Substitution Method........................................................................371
Exercise 21(B).........................................................................................374
21.6 Trigonometric Substitutions...........................................................376
Exercise 21(C)........................................................................................378
21.7 Integration by Parts.......................................................................380
Exercise 21(D)........................................................................................383
21.8 Definite Integrals..........................................................................384
Exercise 21(E).........................................................................................391
21.9 Definite Integral as an Area under a Curve....................................393
Exercise 21(F).........................................................................................396
 PART VII: COMPUTATION METHODS
CHAPTER 22 Linear Programming
22.1 Linear Programming Problem ............................................................ 398
22.2 Maximization Problem ....................................................................... 399
22.3 Geometric Interpretation of the Simplex Method .................................. 401
22.4 Minimization Problem ........................................................................ 405
Exercise 22 .................................................................................................. 408

CHAPTER 23 Numerical Computation

23.1 Root Finding ..................................................................................... 411
23.2 Root finding Methods ........................................................................ 412
23.3 Errors ............................................................................................... 415
23.4 Characteristics of Numerical Computing ............................................ 419
23.5 Initial Approximation for an Iterative Procedure ................................... 420
23.6 Bisection Method ............................................................................... 422
Exercise 23 .................................................................................................. 429

PART VIII: MECHANICS

CHAPTER 24 Statics
24.1 Fundamental Quantities in Mechanics................................................. 431
24.2 Composition of Forces........................................................................ 434
24.3 Resolution of a Force.......................................................................... 442
24.4 Resultant by Rectangular Resolution..................................................... 444
24.5 First Condition of Equilibrium.............................................................. 446
Exercise 24(A)............................................................................................... 449
24.6 Triangle of Forces............................................................................... 451
24.7 Polygon of Forces............................................................................... 452
24.8 Lami’s Theorem................................................................................. 453
Exercise 24(B)............................................................................................... 461
CHAPTER 25 Dynamics
25.1 Velocity ............................................................................................. 463
25.2 Acceleration ...................................................................................... 466
Exercise 25(A) .............................................................................................. 477
25.3 Motion under Gravity ........................................................................ 479
Exercise 25(B) .............................................................................................. 487
25.4 Motion on a Smooth Inclined Plane .................................................... 489
Exercise 25(C) ............................................................................................. 495

PART IX: MATHEMATICS FOR ECONOMICS AND

FINANCE
CHAPTER 26 Mathematics for Economics and Finance
26.1 Mathematical Models and Functions ................................................... 497
Exercise 26(A) ................................................................................... 503
26.2 Demand and Supply Function ............................................................ 504
Exercise 26(B) ................................................................................... 510
26.3 Market Equilibrium ............................................................................ 511
Exercise 26(C) ................................................................................... 518
26.4 Cost, Revenue and Profit Functions ..................................................... 520
Exercise 26(D) ................................................................................... 524
26.5 Elasticity of demand, supply and income ............................................ 525
Exercise 26(E) ................................................................................... 536
26.6 Budget and Cost Constraints .............................................................. 538
Exercise 26(F) .................................................................................... 546

Project Work ................................................................................................ 549

References ................................................................................................... 554