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Effects of Loss of Agricultural Land Due To Largescale Gold Mining On Agriculture in Ghana The Case of The Western Region
Effects of Loss of Agricultural Land Due To Largescale Gold Mining On Agriculture in Ghana The Case of The Western Region
Effects of Loss of Agricultural Land Due To Largescale Gold Mining On Agriculture in Ghana The Case of The Western Region
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Original Article
ABSTRACT
Objective: This study investigates and describes the effects of loss of agricultural land due to
large-scale gold mining on agriculture in Ghana.
Method: The study was a desk review of secondary data including peer-reviewed journals, e-
books, conference proceedings, multinational company reports, and ministry and NGO reports.
The data was analysed using qualitative content analysis.
Results: Analysis of the agro-based alternative livelihood programmes (ALPs) provided by
large-scale gold mining companies to their stakeholder communities showed high start-up cost,
insufficient earnings and lack of proper consultation hindered their success. The agro-based
ALPs were also found to be focused on cash crop development to the neglect of traditional food
crops. A case study of the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality of the Western Region revealed a trend
of decreasing agricultural land on mining companies' concessions as mining related activities
increased. This contributed to joblessness and the loss of labour from agriculture to other
livelihoods in the mining communities.
Conclusion: The study concludes that the effects of loss of agricultural land due to large-scale
gold mining on food crop production in the mining communities can be substantial. This can
affect food crop production in Ghana in the longer term, as the mining communities are also
important food production centres.
INTRODUCTION
In mineral-rich countries, This study reviews and compiles
particularly developing countries, the data on the effects of loss of agricultural
mineral sector plays an important role1. In land due to large-scale gold mining on
Ghana, mining contributes about 41% of the agriculture in Ghana through the following
total export earnings and 12% of objectives:
government revenue2. However, large-scale 1. Identify and explore the approaches and
mining can negatively impact on other challenges of agro-based alternative
sectors such as agriculture3-6. Mining in livelihood programmes provided by
Ghana usually takes place in rural mining companies to affected
communities where the people are poor and communities in the Western Region of
depend on the utilisation of natural resources Ghana.
and subsistence farming7. These areas are 2. Determine the proportion of agricultural
also important agricultural production land lost due to large-scale gold mining
centres for the country. For example, in the in the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality of
Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality (formerly the Western Region and the impacts on
Wassa West District), where agriculture is agriculture.
the main economic activity, engaging some 3. Determine the effects of loss of
40% of the population8, about 70% of the agricultural land due to large-scale gold
total land area has been leased as mining on farmers' livelihoods in the
concessions to mining companies9. Western Region.
Smallholder farming is the main The study focuses on the large-scale
form of agriculture in Ghana, with 90% of gold mining sector because of the
the farms being less than two hectares in importance of gold to the economy and the
size10. Agriculture is very important to the contribution of the gold mining
economy of Ghana and rural livelihoods. multinationals to Ghana's mineral output.
The agricultural sector accounted for 35% of Details of this can be found in the next
Ghana's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in section. The Western Region presents the
200911 and employs about 60% of the ideal case for the study as it has the highest
country's labour force (12). concentration of large-scale gold mines in
Few studies have considered the Ghana21 and also makes significant
effects of leasing such large amounts of land contributions to agriculture in the country.
in a major agricultural production area. The focus is on a case study in the Tarkwa
Studies on the effects of mining in Ghana Nsuaem Municipality of the Western
have focused on small-scale mining and on Region, but looks at the broader effects of
the environment2,13-15. The few studies on mining on agriculture in the whole region.
the effects of large-scale mining on
agriculture have centred on pollution16, loss SPECIFIC ISSUES ON AGRICULTURE
of agricultural land17-18 and labour migration AND MINING IN GHANA
from agriculture to mining companies19-20.
Studies focusing extensively on the Overview of agriculture in Ghana
combination of these factors (i.e. loss of Agriculture in Ghana is mainly rain-
agricultural landdue to large-scale mining fed and on a smallholder basis, with about
and labour migration to mining companies) 90% of farms less than two hectares in size;
on agricultural production in Ghana are large plantations are mainly for the
lacking. cultivation of rubber, oil palm and coconut.
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people displaced by the operations of two including 70% of the female population. The
large-scale gold mining companies in average farm size is 1.5 hectares. The main
Ghana, as reported by various stakeholders. food crops cultivated include maize,
Traditional sectors of the economy of cassava, rice, plantain, cocoyam and yam
Ghana, mainly agriculture, have also been whiles the cash crops include oil palm,
affected due to the expansion of large-scale rubber, citrus and cocoa8. These are similar
gold mining operations. to the main crops cultivated in other districts
of the Western Region.
METHODOLOGY
Data collection and analysis
Description of study area This study was a review based
Ghana is endowed with mineral extensively on secondary data including
resources including gold, diamond, bauxite peer-reviewed journals, e-books, conference
and manganese40. Gold in particular, is proceedings, multinational company reports,
mainly mined on a large-scale in parts of the ministry reports, NGO reports,
Western, Ashanti, Central, Eastern and presentations, dissertations and newspaper
Brong Ahafo regions of Ghana. These fall accounts. The conventional approach to
within the Rainforest, Semi-deciduous forest qualitative content analysis which is used
and Transitional zones of the country, which when a study aims at describing a
are also very important agricultural phenomenon was used in analysing data for
production areas. The Western Region has this study44-45.
the highest concentration of large-scale gold The process of analysis was done in
mines in Ghana. Table 3 shows all the large- three phases: preparation, organisation and
scale gold mining companies in commercial reporting phases. The preparation phase
operation in Ghana, and their concessions involved deciding on the unit of analysis and
and operating regions. About one-third of obtaining a thorough knowledge and
the region has been leased to mining and understanding of the data. Each article
mineral exploration companies21. It has a obtained formed the unit of analysis. Each
total land area of 23,921 km2, about 10% of was carefully read to get a thorough
Ghana's total land area41. understanding of the issues being described.
Agriculture is the main form of Obtaining a thorough understanding of the
employment in the Western Region41; other issues being described in the articles helps in
important sectors include mining. Out of the identifying themes from the data46.
13 districts in the region, the Tarkwa The organisation phase involved
Nsuaem Municipality is the most important open coding to identify themes and
in terms of mining. Figure 1 shows the categories from the data. The coding process
location of Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality in involved thoroughly reading each article at
the Western Region. In 2005, the least once again and taking summary notes.
municipality contributed 1,371,679 of the The summary notes for each article and
2,024,766 ounces of gold (about 68%) sections of particular relevance to the study
produced by all the large-scale gold mining topic in each article were given identities.
companies in Ghana42. Despite the These were sentences, paragraphs or
significance of mining in the Tarkwa sections which expressed thoughts, ideas
Nsuaem Municipality, subsistence and themes of particular relevance to the
agriculture remains the most important objectives of the study. In some cases, a
source of employment. About 40% of the whole article expressed a theme. The
population are engaged in agriculture,
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affected communities without considering the snail rearing programme did not provide
the diverse preferences of the people may enough income to sustain a family's
affect the success of the programme. survival66. This sometimes forces displaced
High start-up costs for some ALPs farmers into activities that provide greater
deters some displaced farmers from getting short-term benefits, such as ASM66.
involved, despite the long-term benefits66. The ALPs are usually aimed at
Even in the case where start-up capital is preventing illegal small-scale mining,
provided by the mining companies, especially on mining companies'
displaced farmers may be deterred if the concessions, by providing alternatives to
capital is insufficient, as some programmes small-scale mining66, 68. Agro-based ALPs
can take up to a year to start yielding profit. tend to be one of the many options provided
For example, under the oil palm cultivation by the companies. They are implemented
scheme of the SEED programme, with the main aim of providing income for
beneficiary farmers were provided with oil the beneficiaries, with the assumption that
palm seedlings, but no start-up capital to the incomes will persuade communities to
maintain the farms until the crops mature adopt the ALPs rather than engaging in
and start yielding income. The farmers were ASM. This may be reasons why many of the
rather trained to intercrop the oil palm agro-based ALPs are geared towards
seedlings with staple crops, and use the providing economic benefits through cash
proceeds from those crops to maintain the crops (notably oil palm). This may explain
oil palm plantations. This prevented some why little attention is given to the main food
farmers from getting involved in the crops cultivated in the Western Region,
scheme. Again some farmers under the which include maize, plantain, yam and
livestock project had abandoned it due to the cocoyam. The agro-based ALPs also do not
high cost of feed and drugs67. Another study seem to be in line with the strategies of
also found that the start-up funding provided Ghana's agricultural development
by Golden Star Bogoso/Prestea Limited for programme, as the crops under the agro-
its sericulture programme was insufficient, based ALPs are not the crops prioritised
which was a setback for the programme. The under FASDEP. This may have
programme was to take up to a year to start repercussions on food crop production in the
yielding profit, which made it inappropriate mining communities as more agricultural
for poor displaced farmers68. land is used for cash crop production.
Coupled with the high start-up cost,
the earnings from some ALPs are not PROPORTION OF AGRICULTURAL
equivalent, especially in the short term, to LAND LOST DUE TO LARGE-SCALE
what farmers earned before they were GOLD MINING IN THE TARKWA
affected by mining operations. An NSUAEM MUNICIPALITY
interviewee in a study on mining conflicts in
Prestea, Ghana, stated that ALPs will only About 31,237 km2 of Ghana's land
be successful if the participants will earn at area, representing 13.1%, is under
least what they earned from their previous concession to mining companies9. About
livelihoods68. The benefits are sometimes one-third of the Western Region has been
not enough to sustain families. This further leased to mining and mineral exploration
deters displaced farmers from adopting companies21. Land use changes in three of
them. Field studies by AngloGold Ashanti Ghana's largest gold mining concessions
of the viability of their ALPs suggested that will be considered. These are Tarkwa,
Bogoso/Prestea and the Damang
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concessions (refer to Table 3). Tarkwa and to agricultural land. This, in addition to
Bogoso/Prestea are exclusively in the forest sites converted to gold mining pits
Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality, whiles (shown as deforestation in Table 7), resulted
Damang extends into a neighbouring in a total deforestation of 6,234.3 hectares,
district. The Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality representing 32.21% (Table 8). This
has a total land area of 2,354 km2 67. Table 6 confirms the findings of a study to
shows the sizes of the three concessions and determine the causal factors of Ghana's
when mining started on these concessions. depleting forest resources. Agriculture and
mining activities were found to be among
Land use changes in the Bogoso/Prestea, the causes of deforestation in Ghana72.
Tarkwa and Damang concessions of the Deforestation, caused by the clearing
Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality of forest lands for farming, can result in soil
The data used for studying the land degradation and consequent loss of crop
use changes of the three concessions were productivity73. The Tarkwa Nsuaem
derived from two studies; by Schueler et Municipality lies in the Rainforest zone of
al.18 and Duncan et al.71. Schueler et al.18 Ghana and experiences high amounts of
studied land cover changes in the Tarkwa rainfall. The clearance of the forest
Nsuaem Municipality between 1986 and vegetation to allow for farming may expose
2002 using remote sensing data and social the soils to the high rainfall, which may
surveys. Duncan et al.71on the other hand accelerate the rate of soil degradation.
studied land use changes of the Farmers may have to clear new forest areas
Bogoso/Prestea concession over a 20 year for more fertile soils, which may also
period, between 1986 and 2006, using become degraded over time. This can result
rectified raster images of aerial photographs. in a vicious cycle of deforestation and
Though various land use types are presented decline in crop productivity. This may be
in the data, the discussions presented here part of the reasons for more forest lands
will focus on agricultural land use changes. being converted into agriculture, particularly
Table 7 shows the classification scheme for in Tarkwa and Bogoso/Prestea concessions.
all ground data captured in the Tarkwa With the exception of Tarkwa, the
Nsuaem Municipality by Schueler et al.18. percentage of agricultural land lost was
Changes in land use were observed higher than agricultural land gained (through
in all the three concessions in the district farmland expansion as shown in Table 7 and
between 1982 and 1986 (Figure 2). Figure 2) in the other concessions. Therefore
Agricultural land loss (shown as farmland though there was some agricultural land
loss in Table 7 and Figure 2) occurred in all gained during the study period, there was a
the three concessions, with Damang net loss of agricultural land by 1,868.6
recording the highest percentage loss of hectares (9.65%) in the three concessions.
54.66% (Table 8). A total of 4,935.3 This was particularly higher in Damang,
hectares of agricultural land, representing with a net loss of agricultural land by
25.5% of the three concessions, were lost 1,060.7 hectares (52.76%). A reduction in
due to large-scale gold mining during the agricultural land may lead to agricultural
study period. It can also be observed that intensification through the reduction of
some forest lands were converted to make fallow periods. This may reduce the
up for the loss of agricultural land by effectiveness of shifting cultivation as a
displaced farmers. A total of 3,066.7 nutrient replenishment measure, as is
hectares (15.84%) of forests were converted commonly practiced on PFa (refer to Table
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7). A decrease in fallow periods can cause a mining activities by 2002. Though 30.63%
decline in soil fertility and consequently a of the three concessions were still under
decline in crop productivity74. agriculture as at 2002, it is threatened by
It can also be observed from Table 8 future mining activities.
that in 1986, only 33 hectares (0.17%) of the The study by Duncan et al.71
three concessions were being mined. confirms the trend of decreasing agricultural
However, by 2002, 8,102 hectares (41.86%) land as mining related activities increase on
more land in the three concessions had been the concessions (Figure 3). Their study
mined. This may show that mining activities evaluated 4,379.93 hectares of the
expands to more areas of the concessions Bogoso/Prestea concession over a 20-year
over time, resulting in the displacement of period (1986-2006). This was the area of the
more farmers. This is similar to the findings concession on which land use changes had
of Reisenberger49 in a study on the effects of taken place. Agricultural land use decreased
mining on Teberebie, a community by 661.54 hectares between 1986 and 2006,
displaced by the operations of Teberebie representing a 15.45% reduction. This was
Gold Fields Limited (TGL) (purchased by due to the conversion of 325.83 hectares for
AngloGold Ashanti in 2000). The Teberebie mining activities (comprising mine pits and
community lost some of their old land and mine waste dumps) and 335.71 hectares into
some became less accessible when the other land uses, including settlements and
community was relocated in 1991. The roads, as a result of the mining activities.
community however farmed on portions of
TGL's concession until 2001, when many EFFECTS OF LOSS OF
farmers were again displaced from the AGRICULTURAL LAND DUE TO
concession by a mine waste rock dump. LARGE-SCALE GOLD MINING ON
Though the relocation agreement plan FARMERS’ LIVELIHOODS
between Teberebie and TGL did not permit
the community to farm on the land, no The displacement of communities for
development had taken place on the large-scale gold mining operations,
concession and the community farmed on it particularly surface mining, impacts on
without any form of resistance until 2001. It farmers' livelihoods18, 49. Some agricultural
is reported that the waste dump rock land is lost to mining companies29, as was
destroyed 84.1 hectares of agricultural land, seen in the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality.
consisting of 248 fields, belonging to 173 Attempts are made by the mining companies
households and an NGO75. As at 2009 when to provide jobs and alternative livelihoods
the study was carried out, more agricultural for the affected farmers17, 35, and
land on the concession was being consumed compensation is paid to them66, 76.Some
by the waste rock dump49. displaced farmers are able to get back into
The total agricultural land lost due to various livelihood activities, either through
large-scale gold mining during the study their own initiatives or through the
period was 4,935 hectares, representing assistance of the mining companies, whilst
25.5% of the Tarkwa, Bogoso/Prestea and some remain without any form of livelihood.
Damang concessions and 5% of the Tarkwa These effects of loss of agricultural landdue
Nsuaem Municipality's total agricultural to large-scale gold mining on farmers'
land18. This figure (4,935 ha) also shows livelihoods have been grouped into four
that 45.42% of all agricultural land within main categories, and shown in Figure 4.
the concessions as at 1986, were lost due to They are further explained in the following
sub-sections.
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production. The focus of agro-based ALPs worsens the situation of landlessness and
on cash crops may also negatively affect results in environmental degradation. With
food crop production in the mining the high rate of unemployment and poverty
communities if it limits access to land to in Ghana, particularly in rural
food crop farming. communities17, and many farmers lacking
the requisite skills to be employed in mining
Non agro-based livelihood activities companies35, ASM provides an alternative
Some displaced farmers are unable source of livelihood for many farmers who
to get back into agriculture by not having lose their land to mining companies.It is
access to alternative land for farming or thought that the vulnerable engaged in
engaging in agro-based ALPs provided by ASM, including women, children and the
the mining companies. They sometimes elderly86 may abandon mining if they have
engage in other livelihood activities opportunities to farm or engage in other
including ASM2, petty trading49 and other trades17.
ALPs provided by the mining companies
which are not agriculture. Employed by mining companies
Petty trading provides an alternative Some of the displaced community
source of income for some women who have members, including farmers, are employed
lost their livelihoods as farmers. For by the mining companies, either
example, some young women in Teberebie, permanently or on contract. The companies
a community displaced by the operations of usually have a policy of employing a
TGL, travel to neighbouring towns such as percentage of their work force from the
Tarkwa to buy items including foot wear, affected local communities. An example is
utensils, jewellery and earrings to sell in the the case of GSR. As at 2012, 42% of GSR's
village49. The other forms of ALPs provided 2,044 employees were from communities
by large-scale gold mining companies in affected by their operations (stakeholder
Ghana include training in the manufacturing communities). The company's
of batik, tie and dye and local handicraft and Bogoso/Prestea subsidiary also revised its
the production of soap, creams and oils for local employment policy which took effect
sale51. For example, in 2011, GSR, through from 2012. The revision aims at recruiting
GSSTEP, trained 60 people from the 80% of its unskilled labour and 40% of
communities affected by its operations in skilled labour from the stakeholder
masonry, carpentry and mobile phone communities. The new recruits are to meet
repairs85. set criteria to be endorsed as ''community
The landlessness caused by citizens'' by their local leaders. This is to
expanding large-scale gold mining has ensure that as many people as possible are
resulted in an increase in ASM2, 33-34. ASM employed from the communities affected by
has become an important source of the company's stakeholder communities52.
employment for 'otherwise-unemployed' There are similar initiatives by the other
farmers50. The number of people engaged in large-scale gold mining companies including
ASM is believed to have increased from Chirano Gold Mines56 and AngloGold
about 30,000 in 199587 to one million in Ashanti53 to provide employment for the
2006 (Bawa, 2006 as cited in 9). Most ASM communities affected by their mining
activities are considered to be illegal, as they operations. In the study on the Chirano Gold
are carried out on concessions leased to Mines, 20 of the respondents (13%), who
large-scale mining companies17. ASM also
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were previously farmers, confirmed to have technical skills, which is usually lacked by
secured employment with the company78. predominantly farming communities35.
Studies have however shown that affected
Joblessness community members will like to be trained
The loss of farmlands due to large- in the required technical skills so they can be
scale mining gold has been cited as the main employed by the mining companies35,
50
reason for the loss of livelihoods in mining .Some mining companies, such as NGGL35
communities79. Displaced farmers who are and GSR85 have made efforts to provide
unable to have access to alternative land to such skills to the displaced communities, but
farm are rendered jobless38. Migrant farmers the beneficiaries are few compared to the
and women tend to be the most affected. number of people displaced by mining
Migrant farmers pay to farm on stool land activities. This leaves many of the displaced
by renting or through crop sharing80. They farmers without the requisite skills to be
have no claims to the land they cultivate, employed into mining companies.
and when the land is leased to mining Surface mining operations, unlike
companies, they sometimes do not receive underground mining, are highly mechanised
any compensation66. This may leave them and require less human input17. Also, the
with no land to farm on and affect their large number of people displaced by a
ability to engage in alternative livelihoods. mining company's surface mining operations
In rural communities, women tend to makes it a challenge to provide jobs for all
depend almost entirely on land for their those affected. The first phase of NGGL's
livelihoods and have fewer alternatives Ahafo South project displaced 9,500
when deprived of their land. Women tend to subsistence farmers from their land for the
have a low status in rural communities29 construction of four pits36. The company's
andare sometimes side-lined during Ahafo and Akyem operations when in full
payments of compensation as they have force, is expected to affect over 35,000
limited access to and control over people66. This is similar to the number of
farmlands81. Men also tend to be the people displaced by mining companies in
beneficiaries of most of the unskilled jobs in the Western Region. It is estimated that,
mining companies29. All these affect between 1990 and 1998, large-scale gold
women's ability to have alternative jobs and mining displaced 14 communities in the
land. This supports findings that women Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality, with a total
tend to be the most affected by the impacts population of over 30,00037. Data available
of mining82-83. indicate that as at 2005, mining companies
Mining companies are usually in the municipality had 6,414 employees67.
accused of making promises of The activities of mining companies do not
development, including providing jobs to the provide enough jobs to match the total
affected communities during their number of people displaced from
exploration activities, which they fail to agriculture84. Many of them may become
fulfil when they start their jobless if they are unable to find alternative
operations21,38,79,84. High expectations for livelihoods or land for farming.
employment, especially by the young men The joblessness created by large-
and women, when the mining companies scale gold mining operations may contribute
start their operations are not met. This may to high unemployment rates in mining
be because a high percentage of mining communities, particularly among young men
companies' work requires substantial and women. A study by the International
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Finance Corporation and the Ghana food crop production in the communities as
Australia Goldfields Limited (GAGL) found cash crop plantations under ALPs increase.
that as at 2004, the unemployment rate for The ALPs seem to be mainly aimed
Ghanaians between 15-24 years in mining at preventing ASM on mining companies'
areas was higher than the national average. concessions by providing alternative sources
The rate was 70-90% in the mining areas of income. This influences the choice of
compared to the national average of 30% 66. ALPs and commodities involved, which
The continuous loss of agricultural land due appears to be skewed towards economic
to large-scale gold mining may contribute to empowerment rather than addressing the
higher joblessness in mining communities. broader effects of the companies' operations
on the mining communities. Collaboration
CONCLUSIONS between Ghana's agriculture ministry and
the private sector does not appear to be
The study revealed that large-scale effective as development projects
gold mining results in the loss of agricultural implemented by the mining companies do
land in Ghana. The loss was found to be not fall in line with the strategies of
about half of the three concessions studied FASDEP at the district level. These have
(Tarkwa, Bogoso/Prestea and Damang contributed to less promotion and
concessions). As compensation in the form development of the traditional food crops
of alternative land does not usually take grown in the Western Region under the
place, the area lost may represent a ALPs.
substantial portion of the affected The effects of loss of agricultural
communities' farmlands. A trend of landdue to large-scale gold mining on the
decreasing agricultural land as mining host communities could therefore be
activities increase on concessions was also substantial as the ALPs face challenges
found, which implies available agricultural which hinder their success. The effects on
land may be lost in future. ALPs initiated by agriculture may include the loss of
the mining companies to offset the effects of agricultural labour, reduced yields and land
their operations on the host communities degradation. This can lead to high food
were also found to be hindered by prices in the communities. Farmers'
challenges. livelihoods are also affected through
The ALPs have made some positive joblessness and reduced income. Women
contributions in the host communities, and migrant farmers were found to be most
including providing alternative sources of affected, as they sometimes do not receive
income for households. The challenges compensation. As farmers who cultivate
which have hindered their full success portions of concessions face what could be a
include high start-up cost, lack of proper second displacement, the effects are likely to
consultation and insufficient earnings which worsen as mining activities expand. The loss
discourages some community members from of agricultural land due to large-scale gold
engaging in them. The agro-based ALPs mining can affect food crop production in
have focused on plantations of cash crops, Ghana in the longer term, as the mining
mainly oil palm, to the neglect of the communities are also important food
traditional food crops grown in the region. production centres in the country.
Though food crops can be interplanted with Further studies needs to be carried
the cash crops during the early stages of the out to determine the extent of the effects of
plantations, as the cash crops mature, this decreasing agricultural land due to large-
can no longer take place. This may threaten
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scale gold mining on agriculture in the of the data and the accuracy of the data
mining communities. This should include analysis.
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Conflict of Interest and Funding Source disease. World Bank-Economic Premise.
Declaration 2010; 16: 1-7.
There is no conflict of interest 7. Boon, E. K. and Ababio, F. Corporate
regarding the contents of this paper and Social Responsibility in Ghana: Lessons
throughout the entire process of conducting from the mining sector. In IAIIA09
this research. There was no involvement by Conference Proceedings, Impact
a funding agency in the process of Assessment and Human Well-Being.
conducting this research which constitutes a 29th Annual Conference of the
conflict of interest. The authors had full International Association for Impact
access to all of the data in this study and Assessment, 16th - 22nd May 2009.
take complete responsibility for the integrity Accra, Ghana: Accra International
Conference Center; 2009.
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77. RIMM. Women from mining affected across Countries (Working Paper No.
communities speak out - Defending 109, RULNR Working Paper No. 14.).
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78. Darko, E. The existence of the Chirano impact of mining sector investment: a
Gold Mine Limited and its effect on the study of the Tarkwa mining region. A
livelihood of the Chirano concession draft report. Accra, Ghana: Structural
area (Unpublished master’s thesis). Adjustment Participatory Review
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science International Network (SAPRIN); 2001.
and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; 2012. 85. Golden Star Resources Limited (GSR).
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mining. Available from: http://www. nualSustainabilityReport2011.pdf(Acces
minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a sed 18 June 2013).
=264. (Accessed 28 June 2013). 86. Yakovleva, N. Perspective on female
80. Cotula, L., Toulmin, C. and Hesse, participation in artisanal and small-scale
C. Land tenure and administration in mining: a case study of Birim North
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Table 2: Number of people displaced by the operations of Newmont Ghana Gold Limited and
Gold Fields Ghana Limited
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Table 3: Large-scale gold mining companies in commercial production in Ghana, showing their
concessions and operating regions
Company Concession(s) Region(s)
Newmont Gold Ghana Limited Ahafo Brong Ahafo
(NGGL) Akyem Eastern
Obuasi Ashanti
AngloGold Ashanti
Iduapriem Western
Bogoso/Prestea Western
Golden Star Resources Limited
Wassa/HBB Western
Gold Fields Ghana Limited Tarkwa Western
Abosso Goldfields Limited* Damang Western
Chirano Gold Mines Chirano Western
Adamus Resources Limited Nzema Western
Computed from Ghana Chamber of Mines26. *Subsidiary of Gold Fields Ghana Limited
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Table 6: Size and date mining started on Bogoso/Prestea, Tarkwa and Damang concessions
Concession Size (ha) Date mining started Reference
18
Bogoso/Prestea 5,938.7 1992
69
Tarkwa 11,408.4 Early 1980s
18
Damang 2,010.5* 1989
* Area under Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality. Total concession is 8,111 ha70
Table 7: Classification scheme for all ground data captured in Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality
between 1986 and 2002
Class Description
Forest sites converted to surface gold mining pits (forest cover in
Deforestation (D)
1986, mining pits in 2002)
Regions dominated by agricultural land use converted to surface gold
Farmland loss (F)
mining pits (farmlands in 1986, mining pits in 2002)
Areas where forests remained unchanged (land covered by forests in
Permanent forest (PFo)
1986, still forests in 2002)
Land cover constantly mined over the observation period (mining pits
Permanent mine (PMi)
established before 1986, still under mining in 2002)
Permanent farmland Constantly used by farmers, mostly in the form of shifting cultivation
(PFa) (farmland by 1986, still farmland in 2002)
Farmland expansion Agricultural expansion into forest (forest in 1986, converted to
(FaE) farmland by 2002)
Source: Modified from Schueler et al.18
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Table 8: Land cover changes between 1986 and 2002 in Damang, Bogoso/Prestea and Tarkwa
mining concessions
Land use class Sum per
Concession D F PFo PMi PFa FaE concession
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Figure 2: Land use change between 1986 and 2002 within the Bogoso/Prestea, Tarkwa and
Damang concessions in the Tarkwa Nsuaem Municipality18
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Figure 3: Land use changes due to mining as against agriculture and others71.
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