ON THE FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OF VITRUVIUS'S ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

Author(s): PAVLOS LEFAS

Source: Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies , 2000, Vol. 44 (2000), pp. 179-197
Published by: Oxford University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43646630

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 ON THE FUNDAMENTAL TERMS OF
VITRUVIUS'S ARCHITECTURAL THEORY

PAVLOS LEFAS

Vitruvius unfolds his theory of architecture in I, 2, 1-9. In these passages he m

architecture is distinguished from random building practice through a set o
ordinatio, in Greek taxis, dispositio, in Greek diathesis , eurythmia, symme
distributio, in Greek oikomomia.1
There is, however considerable confusion surrounding these terms, an
ordinatio, eurythmia and symmetria. 'Vitruvius assembles terms of aestheti
without clearly distinguishing [them]' comments F. Granger.2 J. J. Pollitt adds: '[
distinction between taxis and symmetria for example is hazy and redundant'.3
'Malgré un discours qui se veut intégralement cohérent, il apparaît très vite que
constitutifs de l'art de bâtir, tel que cet auteur les définit dans son livre I, man
de précision et de pertinence'.4 On the other hand, a number of scholars, just as d
as the aforementioned, have sought to overcome the apparent incoherence in
theory. They, however, propose extremely complex interpretations of the terms
I, 2 and their interrelations.5 But this is not Vitruvius's style: his language
confusing, but, usually, what he says is quite simple.
I fully agree with H. Geertmann who notes that 'fenomeni propri del testo devo
luogo essere spiegati con l'aiuto del testo stesso',6 and this is the way I am goin

1 Vitruvius, De Architecture I, 2, 1: ' Architectura autem constat ex ordinatione, quae graece taxi
dispositione, hanc autem Graeci diathesin vocitant, et eurythmia et symmetria et decore et distribu
oeconomia dicitur = 'Now architecture consists of order, which in Greek is called taxis, and of arr
the Greeks name diathesis, and of eurythmia and symmetry and decor and distribution which in
oeconomia'. All quotations of Latin text and translations are taken from the Loeb edition, ed. and t
(London 1931), unless otherwise indicated.
2 Vitruvius, De Architectura, Loeb edn, vol. 1, 24, n. 1.

3 J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient view of Greek Art (New Haven and London 1974) 67.

4 P. Gros, 'Les fondements philosophiques de 1' harmonie architecturale selon Vitruve', JTLA 14 (
5 E.g., J. A. Jolies, Vitruvs Aesthetik, Ph. D. Thesis (Freiburg 1905), C. Watzinger, 'Vitruvstudien
202 ff., F. Schlikker, Hellenistische Vorstellungen von der Schönheit des Bauwerk nach Vitruv, Ph
1940) 70 ff., R. L. Scranton, 'Vitruvius' Arts of Architecture', Hesperia 43 (1974) 494 ff., E. Frézoul
dessin d'architecture', Le dessin ď architecture dans les sociétés antiques, Actes du colloque de Stra
1. 1984 (Strasbourg 1985) 213 ff., H. Knell, Vitruvs Architekturtheorie. Versuch einer Interpretat
1985).
6 H. Geertmann, 'Teoria e attualità della progettistica architettonica di Vitruvio', Le projet de Vitruve (Roma 1994)
7ff.

BICS-44 - 2000
179

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 180 BICS-44 - 2000

The confusion surrounding the

results, in my opinion, from the
Vitruvius attaches to it three rela
one in accordance with the defin
however, are compatible with each
reference to it in De Architectur
in the definition of ordinatio lea
his theory of architecture.
'Le principe,' writes P. Gros, 'q
de la symmetria. Placé en exerg
toutes les notions abstraites man
invariant spécifique applicable à
steht symmetria , die auf ordina
not subscribe to this view. I do n
implies that the author of De Arc
governing architecture. He neve
assume it.

I find it hard to believe that Vitruvius referred to the concepts of which ' architectura
constat y = Architecture consists' without any logical order or assessment of their relative
importance. I am not convinced that he assigned what is regarded almost unanimously by
modern scholars as the most important 'component' of architecture (or even its goal) - that
is symmetria - to fourth place. 'And first, as order demands,' he says at the end of Book II,
T will describe the temples of the immortal gods'.9 Matters are dealt with in order of priority:
this is what anyone would do who wished to address Caesar himself. Let us consider the
definitions of the terms ordinatio and symmetria as translated by F. Granger (Loeb, 1931),
M. H. Morgan (Harvard U. P., 1914) and Ph. Fleury (Les Belles Lettres, 1990).

Ordinatio est modica membrorum operis commoditas separatim universeque

proportionis ad symmetriam comparado. Haec conponitur ex quantitate, quae graece
posotes dicitur. Quantitas autem est modulorum ex ipsius operis sumptio e singulisque
membrorum partibus universi operis conveniens effectus.

Order is the balanced adjustment of the details of the work separately, and, as to the
whole, the arrangement of the proportion with a view to a symmetrical result. This is
made up of Dimension, which in Greek is called posotes. Now Dimension is the taking
of modules from the parts of the work; and the suitable effect of the whole work arising
from the several subdivisions of the parts. (Granger)

Order gives due measure to the members of a work considered separately, and
symmetrical agreement to the proportions of the whole. It is an adjustment according to
quantity (in Greek posotes). By this I mean the selection of modules from the members

7 Gros, loc. cit. (n. 4 above)

8 H. Knell, Vitruvs Architekturtheorie (n. 5 above) 34.

Vitruvius, De Architectura. , II, 10, 3: 'Et primům de deorum immortalium aedibus sacris et de earum symmetriis
et proportionibus, uti ordo postulat, inseguenti perscribam .'

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 8 1

of the work itself and, starting from these individual parts of members, c
whole work to correspond. (Morgan)

L'ordonnance est l'adaptation convenable des mesures des membres de

séparément et, pour l'ensemble, l'établissement de rapports aboutissant à
est constituée de la quantitas , qui se dit en grec posotes. La quantitas
modules à partir de cmembres de> l'ouvrage lui-même et une réalisation
l'ensemble de l'ouvrage à partir des différents parties de ses membres. (

Item symmetria est ex ipsius operis membris conveniens consensus ex

separatis ad universae figurae speciem ratae partis responsus.

Symmetry also is the appropriate harmony arising out of the details of the
correspondence of each given detail among the separate details to the for
as a whole. (Granger)

Symmetry is a proper agreement between the members of the work its

between the different parts and the whole general scheme, in accordanc
part selected as standard. (Morgan)

De même la symétrie est l'accord harmonieux des membres de l'ouvrag

corrélation reposant sur une partie calculée entre les parties prises sép
configuration de l'ensemble. (Fleury)

In the definition of OrdinatioVitruvius uses two words with similar mea

and modica)10 both deriving from modus , the Latin word for Greek metr
implies that Vitruvius does not speak of a state of balance11 between the me
for this the word commoditas alone would be sufficient.12 Vitruvius is sp
a design, an action by which the members of the work are adjusted to
adjustment is described as modica, which I understand to mean that it is c
sense of metron ' or 'due measure'. The rectus accommodatusque status is
architect's work. So I suggest that the first part of the definition of ordina
as follows: 'Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of the mem
considered separately
According to the Oxford Latin Dictionary the noun ordinatio has the fol
'1) the action of laying out in the correct relative positions, arrangement13
putting in order (something confused), organization', and 'the ordering o

10 According to the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, commoditas has the significance of ' ... rect
status alicuius rei. ' TLL quotes Vitruvius's definition of Order. Again, modica has the signific
mediocrus, temperatus, conveniens are its synonyms. C. Fensterbusch, Zehn Bücher über Archite
n. 42, identifies commoditas with the Greek symmetria. P. Gros, Introduction to book III, Les Be
concludes that commoditas/commodulatio and proportio are the equivalents or approximation
1 1 I agree with F. Granger in understanding commoditas as implying the notion of balanc
'balanced adjustment.'
12 Most scholars agree on the 'active' character of commoditas in the definition of ordinatio.
'balanced adjustment', and Morgan 'gives due measure'.
13 OLD lists the reference to Vitruvius' definition of ordinatio in I, 2, 1 under this meaning.

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 182 BICS-44 - 2000

the verb ordino means: '1) to set

organize'. It should be noted that
of things in the correct relative p
'arrangement' seem to be the m
ordinatio.

We may note that the Roman cultural environment of the late first century BC favoured the
understanding of the world as a well-structured and ordered whole. Cicero concluded that
'...thus all considerations from every viewpoint demonstrate that everything in our world is
wonderfully ordered by divine intelligence and design for the welfare and preservation of
all'14 - a view not far from that of Plato who asserted that 4 ... God ... took over all that was
visible ... He brought it into order (taxis) out of disorder (ataxia), deeming the former state
is in all ways better than the latter'.15 An architectural theory which favoured well-structured
and ordered entities would have been welcomed in this environment.16
A well-structured and ordered whole presumes a rank order,17 and the establishment of this
is implied in everyday language by the term 'setting out in order': the noun ordo has,
according to the OLD , the significance of ' ... 5) civil or social standing, rank, position.18 1
will try to demonstrate that this is also the case with taxis , Greek for ordinatio , in Vitruvius's
architectural theory.
Although the word taxis in everyday language had mainly the meaning of arrangement,19
in many cases it implied a rank of order, a hierarchy. Anaximander spoke of the 'order of
time', which means 'in due time', 'in the course of time'.20 The 'order' that led Pythagoras
to name the universe cosmos21 was by no means devoid of connotations of rank. The
Atomists used the concept of taxis as a means of specifying a class of differences between
the atoms. Aristotle summarized their views:22 'These differences (ie. between the atoms),
they say, are ... shape (schema), order (taxis), and position (thesis)-, because they hold that

14 Cicero N. D. II, 132: ' ... sic undique omni ratione concluditur mente consilioque divino omnia in hoc mundo ad
salutem omnium conservationemque admirabiliter administran (ed. H. Rackham, Loeb 1933). Vitruvius was a great
admirer of Cicero, see De Architectura IX, praef., 17.
15 Plato, Timaeus , 30A (trans. R. G. Bury, Loeb 1929).

16 Aristotle introduced the concept of art imitating nature, a concept which has retained its validity ever since.
Vitruvius urges us to respect nature and to learn from nature, and sees in good architecture an imitation - in a broad
sense ~ of nature, eg. in H, 1, 6; HI, 1, 9; V, 2, 2. If nature is ordered, so should edifices be. This attitude is obviously
influenced by Stoic philosophy, too. By 'according to nature' (Greek kata physin) the Stoics connoted a well-structured
order of values, see SVF III, 140-146. Also Cicero De Fin. Ill, 20: '.. selectio ... tum ad extremum constans
consentaneaque naturae, in qua primum inesse incipit et intellegi quid sit quod vere bonum possit dici = ... finally,
choice fully rationalized and in harmony with nature; it is at this final stage that the Good properly so called first
emerges and comes to be understood in its true nature' (ed. & trans. H. Rackham, Loeb 1914).
17 The image of the world as a whole structured according to a strict rank order is vividly expressed in Cicero's N. D. '
cf. also the pyramis bonorum in Cic. De Fin. Ill, 20-23.
18 OLD lists among others the reference to Cic. De Off., I, 151 under this meaning .
19 See LS J, sv. taxis.

20 Diels, Vors. 2, 1, 15.

21 Diels, Vors. 4, 21, 15 quotes Aetius in writing: 'Pythagoras named the universe cosmon because of the order
prevailing'. The word cosmos meant initially a well ordered entity, eg. troops, hair, etc., see LS J, sv. kosmos.
22 Arist. Metaph., 985 b. I quote this passage as translated by H. Trendennick (Loeb 1933), except for taxis which I
translate as 'order' instead of Trendennick' s 'arrangement'.

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 83

what is differs only in contour, intercontact, and inclination - of these cont

intercontact order, and inclination position. Thus eg. A differs from N in
from NA in order, and Z from N in position'. In AN, A comes first and N
in NA, N comes first and A follows. Even if the Atomists did not wish to
of value between AN and NA this arrangement is prone to become loaded w
in common experience what comes first is of greater importance than tha
Plato's God who brought order to the world of 'visible' things established a r
If 'order' implied the presence or the establishment of a rank order in eve
well as in philosophical views, why should it not be possible that Order sig
in architectural theory?
Vitruvius uses the words comparo and comparatio for an array of meanin
'preparation' to 'provision' or 'putting together' and 'arrange'.25 Ac
comparatio has the significance both of ... praeparatio, and the Greek synk
and antithesis (contradiction).26 A very accurate translation of comparatio in
by the OLD : '1) preparation, making ready, ... 4) combination, conjunction
settlement, but also 1) comparison or weighing of the relative merits or
relationship (of position).27
In my opinion comparatio in the definition of ordinatio should be under
both meanings, that is 'arrangement containing an element of comparison
according to relative importance', 'arrangement according to an evaluation
'creation of a hierarchy', 'establishment of rank order', or, if Vitruvius attr
character to it, simply 'hierarchy', 'rank order'. Is it legitimate to assume
using comparatio here in this very specific meaning? Although compara
passage of De Architectura has a meaning related to comparison, I conside
to be legitimate: when a word is used as term of an architectural theory, i
specific meaning, as long as this meaning does not contradict the meaning
everyday language.
On the other hand proportio can safely be understood as the relation of ma
case of the members of the work. The definition of proportio given in De
1, 1 does not contradict this basic meaning: it rather focuses on the deman
measure - just as quantitas does. More on proportio , later. For the moment i
that proportionis occurs in the definition of ordinatio in the genitive sin
Vitruvius not speak of 'proportions' in the plural? Although our author is no
in his use of grammatical number, I believe that in the present case we a

23
For the rank order associated with the concept of Greek protos and Latin primus see LSJ and OLD , respectively.
24 Cf. the aforementioned passage, Timaeus 30A (above, n. 15). Plato's cosmos is an ordered whole; rank order is
present everywhere in Plato's world, in nature as well as in society; eg. 'first (in rank) and as elder among the gods,
the earth was created ... ' ( Timaeus 40C).

25 In 1, 5, 8 it means the putting together of various materials: ex his comparationibus ... perfectus habeatur ... murus.
In II, 7, 1, provision: ex imuntur copiae (of stones) et comparantur. In II, 7, 3 composition of a material: ita spissis
comparationibus solidata. In V, 6, 1 spatial arrangement: comparationes basilicarum.
26 TLL lists the reference to De Architectura I, 2, 1 under 'comparison' and 'contradiction.'

27 OLD lists the reference to Cic. N. D. H, 51 under 'relationship of position': ' cum solis et lunae et quinqué errantium
ad eandem inter se comparationem confectis ... = when the sun, the moon and five planets ... have returned to the same
positions relative to one another ... .'

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 184 BICS-44 - 2000

conscious choice on his part. He sp

members) characteristic of the ov
entire work is structured.28
So comparatio proportionis could
members of the work). But even
it is the force of the genitive si
comparatio proportionis signifie
magnitudes, or the attribution of
work), whose purpose is to achie
But what is meant by ad symme
major misunderstanding29 - and i
Vitruvius is here using here the
related but not identical to the m
Symmetry, symmetria , implies
common measure by which they
definition of 'symmetrical' magn
those that can be measured by a
for which no common measure can be found.' In a broad, but still literal, sense two
asymmetrical magnitudes cannot be compared to each other, insofar as no common measure
exists, by which the comparison can be carried out. In a narrow sense, they can be compared,
because a mathematical order of magnitudes can be established.31 But, even in this case, if
there is a common measure, then the comparison becomes more apparent, more 'tangible',
more obvious - it becomes an object of aesthetics. Furthermore, I have the feeling that
symmetria in this context has the meaning it has in Philebos 25E and 64Eff: the
incorporation of the metron in order to make two opposite things, two opposite concepts
symphona , that is congruous, to fit to each other.32 Ad symmetriam then means: (articulation
of the work according to a rank order, a hierarchy) striving to keep the members of the work
comparable to each other, to keep the metron in the overall work.
De Architectura was written at a time, when hierarchy in social life resulted in huge
differences in social status and in everyday life. By what means was the life and social status
of imperator Caesar 33 comparable to that of a slave? Any rank order tends to be
'asymmetrical' in this sense. In architecture, one element may overshadow all the others, and
render them unimportant, or irrelevant. This is what Vitruvius fears, and this is the danger

28 Cf. M. H. Morgan's translation: 'Order gives the due measure ... '
29 Scholars unanimously agree that the purpose of ordinatio is to achieve symmetria in the sense symmetria is meant
by Vitruvius in the definition given in I, 2, 4. Even H. Geertmann, who denies symmetry's central role asks himself:
'perché questa operazione della ordinatioT , and he replies: 'per ottenere in un edificio, dice Vitruvio, la situazione
o proprietà della symmetria' 'Teoria e attualita ... ' (see n. 6 above).
30 Euclid, Elements 10, definition 1.

31 y/2 is of lesser magnitude than 2, although 2 is not x (x being a natural number) times '/2.

32 'The class of the equal and double and everything which puts an end to the differences between opposites and makes
them commensurable ( symmetra ) and harmonious {symphona) by the introduction of number' (Plato, Philebos 25E),
'met riot es and symmetria are everywhere identified with beauty and virtue' (Plato, Philebos 64E, trans. H. N. Fowler,
Loeb 1925).
33 Vitruvius, De Architectura I, 1, 1, for the dedication of the treatise to imperator Caesar.

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 85

about which he is trying to warn us. I therefore suggest that ordinatio

understood as an Rangement of the proportion with a view to a symmetri
places Order at the service of Symmetria - but rather as:

Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of the members of the w

separately, and the creation of an hierarchy of magnitudes, to keep sym
overall work', or, if we do not make use of the word 'hierarchy': 'Order
and measured adjustment of the members of the work considered separ
establishment of such a relation of magnitudes, that symmetry is kept in th

In this context it makes perfect sense that 4 haec (ie. ordinatici* 4) componit
= 'Order is composed of Quantity', which I understand as: Order is shaped
The hierarchy is created when the appropriate relative magnitude is attri
every single member of the work.
Let me also suggest that Aristotle's concept of taxis in Rhetoric 1414a
attribution of right position and right length (that is the right magnitude
speech.35 It is not inconceivable that this understanding of taxis evolve
theory into two separate notions: ordinatio , concerning the 'quantitativ
dimensions of the members - and disposition concerning the 'spatial' aspec
of the members - of a work; more on disposition later.36
Quantitas is the 'selection of modules from the work itself. I understan
'Quantity is the establishment of a common measure; this common mea
selected from the members of the work.' This obviously is intended to hel
coherence of a well-structured whole. Quantity is also the le singulis mem
universi operis conveniens effectus'. In my opinion, effectus has the mean
or 'construction'.37 Conveniens 38 which mainly means compatible, and co
monious and suitable, probably has here the meaning of harmonious. Conv
the 'harmonious' construction of the work, the construction of the whole
it 'harmonious'.

34 From a grammatical point of view it is not clear whether haec refers to ordinatio or symmetria , but the structure
of this passage suggests to me that haec is substituted for the word at the beginning of the preceding sentence, that is
ordinatio , not the word at the end of the preceding sentence, that is symmetria. In the latter case Vitruvius would
probably have added a word, eg. item, as he does a couple of sentences later, in I, 2, 4: ' item symmetria esť.
35 Quite a few scholars have pointed to the relationship between architecture (and especially Order) and rhetoric,
among them P. Gros in his comments of Vitruvius' s book III, where he gives extensive bibliography on this subject.
Geertmann, Teoria e attualita ... ' (n. 6 above), noted: 'Egli comincia con la ordinatio , la taxis, base di tutto anche
nella retorica.' See also L. Callebat, 'Rhétorique et architecture dans le 'de Architecture' de Vitruve', Le projet de
Vitruve (Roma 1994) 31ff.
36 In this context Cicero's use, in N.D. II, 51, of the word comparatio to signify the relationship of position reveals
similarities to Vitruvius's use of comparatio in the definition of ordinatio.

37 According to OLD effectus has the meaning of '1) the making, creation (of something organic), 2) the carrying out
(of a purpose, task etc.), 3) that which is achieved.' In this case meaning 1) or 2) probably fits best. In any case, the
'effect' is the result of the architect's work. Granger understands effectus as 'effect', Fleury and Ferri ( Vitruvio (dai
libri I-VII), recensione del testo, traduzione e note , Roma 1960) as 'execution', or 'realization', Morgan as 'effect'
(in the definition of dispositio ) and 'construction' (in the definition of Quantity).

38 The Greek equivalent of con-venio is probably syn-baino, which among others means 'to be compatible', 'to agree',
see LS J, cv. symbainein.

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 186 BICS-44 - 2000

The 'harmonious' character of the

the basic relative magnitudes of t
to their ťrank' The analogy with
Vitruvius, in selecting the basic r
way as to create a hierarchically
symmetria as defined in I, 2, 4. T
be based on the dozens of arithme
and which are related to symmetri
agreement between the member
consensus , in my opinion, describ
on common measure. This is, in
symmetria. Both result in harmony
confusing two concepts outlined i
I, therefore, subscribe to the fir
Vitruve est la détermination du "c
de définir la symmetria pour un
the meaning of the notions quant
meant in I, 2, 2, in the sentence f
quantitate ... .' Order, not Symme

Order is made up of Quantity wh

of modules from the work itself a
construction of a harmonious whole.

The concept of proportio seems to complicate matters, and requires further consideration.
Let us compare the way the term is used in De Architectura III, 1,1:

Aedium compositio constat ex symmetria, cuius rationem diligentissime architecti tenere

debent. Ea autem paritur a proportione, quae graece analogia dicitur. Proportio est
ratae partis membrorum in omni opere totiusque commodulatio, ex qua ratio efficitur
symmetriarum. Namque non potest aedis ulla sine symmetria atque proportione rationem
habere compositionis.

The design of a temple depends on symmetry, the principles of which must be most
carefully observed by the architect. They are due to Proportion, in Greek analogia.
Proportion is a correspondence among the measures of the members of an entire work,
and of the whole to a certain part selected as standard. From this symmetry results.
Without Symmetry and Proportion there can be no Reason in the design of any temple.40

I would suggest that Vitruvius' s proportio corresponds closely to the definition of symmetria
given by Euclid. Proportion is simply the arithmetical relations existing in a work, the
relations between magnitudes, which are formed on the basis of a module. When these are
such that we have consensus , then we have symmetria , and only then do we have Reason in

39 Note 2. 2. 4 of book I.

Translation up to 'standard' by M. H. Morgan. Granger translates the last sentence: 'for without symmetry and
proportion no temple can have a regular plan.'

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 87

temple building, or if ratio is intended in a less specific sense, only then do

plan in temple building. Proportion is the simple commensurability ( commo
symmetria possesses a qualitative aspect. This Symmetry possesses someth
and the 'blending' of things opposed to each other described by Plato in th
I take issue with Pierre Gros, who writes: 'Vi tru ve fournit une traductio
symmetria ) avec le terme commodulatio , désigne effectivement la commens
les composantes d'une œuvre complexe fondée sur le recours à une unité m
is only partly true, for Vitruvius clearly states in the above-mentioned passag
not symmetria , is ' ... rat a e partis membrorum in omni opere totiusque c
Symmetria , that is consensus , is found primarily in the arithmetical relat
in the human body - a topic discussed by Vitruvius in III, 1,2-3. This who
understood as an answer to the question: when can we say that a set of arit
is congruous, so that it results in a consensus ? The answer given is: when
relations are 'similar' to those found in the human body, for Vitruvius say
limbs (of the human body) also have their proportionate measurements ... I
members of the temples ought to have dimensions of their several parts c
common measure to the general sum of their whole magnitude'.42 It goes wit
not only symmetria , but also taxis , is inherent in the human body, for
structured whole.

Vitruvius refers often to the 'symmetry' of a building. I suggest that th

general way of speaking of the proportions and of the relation of magnitu
- P. Gros probably has those cases in mind when he identifies commodulatio w
Vitruvius speaks of the symmetries of Doric doors in IV, 6, 1 and of th
columns in IV, 8, 2; symmetry appears along with proportion in IV, 8,
buildings 'laid out with other symmetries' in IV, 8, 4, all passages in wh
meaning of symmetria fits best. On the other hand in passages in which sy
understood as having the meaning Vitruvius attaches to it in the definitio
I can only see here the author telling us how to achieve consensus , or how Sy
be achieved in certain building types. He does not necessarily imply that Sy
our major objective when designing a building. We should remembe
concludes his reference to the symmetry of the human body in III, 1,9:

Ergo si convenit ex articulis hominis numerum inventum esse ... r

suscipiamus eos , qui etiam aedes deorum inmortalium constituentes ita m
ordinaverunt, ut proportionibus et symmetriis separatae atque universae
que efficerentur eorum distributiones.

Therefore, if it is agreed that number is found from the articulation of the

it remains that we take up those who in planning the temples of the imm
so fixed the rank order of the members of the work ( they have attributed

41 P. Gros, lex:. Cit. (Above, n.4).

42 Vitruvius, De Architectura HI, 1,2-3: '... reliqua quoque membra suas habent commensus p
vero sacrarum aedium membra ad universam totius magnitudinis summam ex partibus singul
debent habere commensus responsum. '

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188 BICS-44 - 2000

relative magnitudes to the membe

symmetry their several and gener

This reading understands ordino as

establishment of a rank order, w
magnitude to the members of the
vice- versa. Its function is to rende
I would suggest that Order in this
although its author explicitly ref
buildings and their structural par
achieved'. Such is the case with dis
by prescribing the proportions of t
and by that their rank order, eve
example, he describes the peripter
Order: the relation of magnitudes
set.44 And in his accounts of the th
attribution of the proper relative m
itself. Here the passage in IV, prae

Ex tribus generibus quae subtilíss

ionici generis moribus docui.

Of the three orders which, throu

Quantities, I have set forth the Ion

Vitruvius summarizes his treatment

is a component of ordinatio , not t
Order to be inherent not only to t
The column shafts have an appropr
to the column capitals, the pedime

Turning now to consider the defin

attribution of the appropriate mag
assigns the members of the work t

43 F. Granger translates: "Therefore, if it is a

that we take up those who in planning the te
symmetry, their several and general distrib
44 Vitruvius, De Architectura , III, 2, 5: 'Th
at the back, and on either side eleven, coun

45 This is my translation of this passage. It

arum , or modularum quantitates. The word m
sions of a building, so De Architectura , IV,
septem crassitudinis diametros ... con-stitue
finding pleasure in more slender pro-porti
5, 9: * oculi species ... incertam modul-orum
confused estimate of the dimensions.' (trans
= (members) whose magnitudes have pro
(members) given the appropriate relative m

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 89

Dispositio autem est rerum apta conlocatio elegansque compositionibus

cum qualitate.46

This has been variously translated as follows:

Arrangement, however, is the fit assemblage of details, and, arising from t

the elegant effect of the work and its dimensions, along with a certain quali
(Granger)

Arrangement includes the putting of things in their proper places and

effect that is due to adjustments appropriate to the character of the wor

La disposition est la mise en place correcte des éléments et, grâce à ces a
réalisation élégante d'un ouvrage où apparaît la qualité. (Fleury)

Quality, is intended, in my view, in a Stoic sense.47 Poiotes , the Greek for

second 'category' of Stoic ontological definition, which made the substratu
and unidentifiable matter, a specific object.48 Understood thus, qualitas
becomes equivalent to what we mean today by 'identity'.
Such a reading of qualitas is matched by an interpretation of elegans a
'outstanding' (praestans, e gre gius). A9 As already noted effectus therefore
'realization'. Elegans effectus is the process of choosing the appropri
appointing them to the appropriate place. It is the action by which a build
the chaos of 'raw material' in disorder. It is the shaping of a building o
juxtaposition of architectural elements. It is the articulation of a spatially
The articulation is carried out through the composition of the members.
appears in the plural. Although, as already noted, Vitruvius is not very con
of grammatical number, I believe that in this case he is referring to a sing
compositionibus I understand 'composite assemblage', 'assemblage of the
a way as to make them belong to many entities at the same time': A
considered as a member of a colonnade, but as a member of the column/ arch
entity as well.
Elegans and effectus encompass compositionibus and become inherently linked. The in-
terpretations proposed for elegans and qualitas may explain why these two words appear in

46 Vitruvius, De Architectura, I, 2, 2.

47 Vitruvius is quite eclectic in his views, but in a great many cases he is influenced by Stoic philosophy, e.g. in his
views on the creation of civilization in II, 1, 1-7, and in his ethical considerations in VI, praef 5; VII, praef 1-8.

48 The four categories of Stoic ontological definition are substratum, quality, state and relative state, each of them
comprising the preceding ones.
49 According to TLL some of the latiore sensu meanings of elegans are praestans, egregius, perfectus, and when
referring to man-made objects bene compositus etc. According to OLD elegans has the significance of ' 1) carefiill in
choosing, fastidious, peculiar' etc.
50 Vitruvius uses the word elegans in 16 cases and elegantia in a further 6. In quite a few instances it has the meaning
of 'well formed', 'well composed' eg. 1, 6, 1: * oppidum Mytilenae magnificente r est aedificatum et eleganter ... = the
town of Mytilene is magnificently built and well formed ... '; V, pr., 1: ' verborum elegans dispositio = the nice
arrangement of words'.

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190 BICS-44 - 2000

what would otherwise be the least

that of eurythmia, or symmetria.
In sum, I suggest the following t

Arrangement is the proper plac

composite assemblage, the shapin

It makes perfect sense that the se

... sunt hae: ichnographia, orth
'Arrangement is apparent throug
becomes manifest through these t
placement of the elements of a w
various rooms round the peristyl
ichnographia ); the elegant distrib
in the elevation (Greek orthogra
room55 is to be seen in the 'pers
orthographia must be carried out m
'due measure' (Granger: 'compe

Let me now offer some remark

sequence of the terms mentioned

Eurythmia est venusta species co

Haec efficitur, cum membra o
latitudinis ad longitudinemy et a

Proportion implies a graceful sem

This is attained when the details
a breadth suitable to their len
correspondence. (Granger).

Eurythmy is beauty and fitness in

members of a work are of a heig
length and in a word, when they

51 Granger translates: 'The kinds of the A

aspects de la disposition ... sont ...'
52 Species has the meaning of 'aspect' or
in which it is used in book I: I, 1, 4; I, 2,
something presented to view, a spectacle,
a subdivision of class or kind, a sort, spec
meanings: '1) form ... 2) material shape ...
53 A topic discussed in V, 11, 1-11.
54 Discussed in V, 6, 6.
* Discussed in V, 1, 9-10.
I do not understand 'perspective' as a sing
the diminution of magnitudes depending o
Vitruvius's concept of scaenographia', Qu

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 9 1

L' eurythmie est l'apparence gracieuse et l'aspect bien proportionné qui

composition des membres. Elle se realise quand les membres de 1' ouvrage
en rapport avec la largeur, une largeur en rapport avec la longeur, et au tota
les parties correspondent à la symétrie qui leur a été fixée. (Fleury)

The meaning of the word eurythmia in the Classical tradition has

exhaustively. H. Brunn claimed there was in eurythmia a ' Milderung ' of s
C. Watzinger it represented the visual effect of disposition and for F. Schl
fulness' of a work.59 The major issue remains the real meaning of rhythmo
'form', or 'rhythm' in the modern sense of the word - that is, does euryt
quality of being well shaped, well formed', as J. J. Pollitt60 puts it, or 'ha
rhythm, or rhythmical movement'. Ancient sources indicate the former interp
probable, without excluding, however, the latter: E. Petersen made a major
this issue showing that rhythmoi were the 'positions' of the body during a
Eurythmia is in the first instance, for Vitruvius, venusta species', as me
species has the meaning of 'visual appearance', 'form' and 'shape'. Ven
probably be identified with the attribution of the 'quality of being well
members of a work. If I have it right, Vitruvius assigns appearance to th
magnitude and position: the members should have the right magnitude, the r
a pleasing appearance.
Vitruvius does not speak of each single member; eurythmia resides 'in
membrorum' that is in what we have called the 'composite assemblage' of t
This is underlined by the second term needed to be fulfilled in order for
achieved: commodus aspectus , the balanced appearance, the 'fitting aspect'
So I translate the essential definition as:

Eurythmy is a beautiful aspect and a balanced appearance of the members in their

composite assemblage.

In order for a work to be distinguished by Eurythmy its members should have a pleasing
appearance when perceived as parts of a group; they should possess the quality of being well-
shaped as constituents of a set. Vitruvius asks: Has a column the appropriate entasis in order
to look strong enough to hold the entablature and the pediment? Are the columns thick
enough for the colonnade to have a balanced appearance? He does not ask: Is the column
beautiful per sei In this context both notions of eurythmia apply: for a set of related objects
to have a 'beautiful aspect' and a 'balanced appearance' almost means that they are to be
'distinguished by a pleasant rhythm'.

57 H. Brunn, Geschichte der Griechischen Künstler (2nd edn. Stuttgart 1889) 98 ff.

58 C. Watzinger, 'Vitruvstudien', RhM 64 (1909) 202ff.

59 F. Schlikker, Hellenistische Vorstellungen von der Schönheit des Bauwerks nach Vitruv (n. 5 above), 70 ff.
60 J. J. Pollitt, The ancient view ..., 153 ff. Pollitt gives a very accurate translation of Vitruvius' eurythmia : ' Eurythmia
is a beautiful appearance and a fitting aspect of the parts in compositions', The ancient view ..., 145.
61 E. Petersen, 'Rythmus', AbhGotu N. F. 16 (1916-17)1 ff.
62 See above, in my interpretation of the term dispositio.

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192 BICS-44 - 2000

'Eurythmia efficitur cum ... = E

requisite of eurythmia is ... ', or:

This is achieved, when the membe

of a breadth suitable to their lengt

' Symmetros est eurythmiae qual

follows: 'In order for eurythmia
pleasing appearance when perce
should be symmetrical' . In other
members of the work based on
Eurythmia, just as it serves Order
We are faced with the task of e
'taste', i.e. subjectivism. It is obvio
familiar enough with a so-called
rationally how a pleasing appeara
members, for which the laws re
described; this is not the case wit
Vitruvius's eurythmia seems to d
Let us consider Vitruvius's argume
in III, 3,11 and IV, 4, 3. He writes
by the fiftieth part of their diam
slender to the spectator'.63 Here w
on 'emanations' (aporroai) of the
corner columns, being more expo
of 'emanations', and therefore ap
Vitruvius does not have recourse t
He bases the need for refinemen
It is in the sphere of optical corr
eurythmia as a concept relating t
notes that '(members) of equal th
unequal thickness and not perpen
of trial and error, adding to mass
and trying out every possible mean
vision and appear eurythma' 65 A
of well-shaped forms), Philo seem
'subjective' element - since he doe
- to the detriment of the 'objecti

63 Translated by F. Granger.

64 An other passage, attributed to Gemin

paintings, probably stage paintings, and not
the columns thicker in the middle, so as to c
it.' Since the possible dates of this passage
temps (Paris 1933) 74 ff.), it can really be
65 Translated from 'So ... ' up to 'appear' b
the process of refinement of architectural f

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 1 93

A modicum of subjectivity may be felt in Vitruvius's reference to euryt

and only there - where he urges the architect to adjust the symmetries of
The adjustments, however, aim at fitting the buildings into the given sites;
in proportionis ad decorem apparatio, that is they must be made with '
riateness of proportion'. In other words, they must be justified and obey
aesthetic and social conventions. So, I cannot fully subscribe to J. J. Po
Vitruvius's eurythmia was a 'pleasing quality which arose from the alterati
of concrete forms and it was something which had to be understood su
demonstrated objectively'.66 On the contrary, I feel, that Vitruvius, against
time, wanted architecture to serve the Beautiful only when this necessarily i
served Reason.

The important role of Eurythmy in Vitruvius's architectural theory is, in my view, well
established. We should bear in mind the definition of eurythmia , if we want to understand
the definition of symmetria without loading it with meanings the Roman architect never
intended. Morgan's translation is excellent; nevertheless I would substitute 'harmonious' for
'proper' in order to emphasize the concept of conveniens consensus.61

Symmetry is a harmonious agreement between the members of the work itself and relation
between the different parts and the whole general sheme, in accordance with a certain part
selected as standard.

On the concept and definition of decor there is little that needs to be said. As J. J. Pollitt
puts it: 'As applied to architecture by Vitruvius, decor is the principle by which one judges
whether the form of a building is appropriate to its function and location and whether the
details of the building are appropriate to its total form'.68

Decor autem est emendatus operis aspectus probatis rebus conpositi cum auctoritate. Is
perficitur statione , quod graece thematismo dicitur, seu consuetudine aut natura.

Decor demands the faultless ensemble of a work composed, in accordance with prece-
dent, of approved details. It obeys convention, which in Greek is called thematismos , or
custom or nature. (Granger)

Propriety is that perfection of style which comes when a work is authoritatively

constructed on approved principles. It arises from prescription (Greek thematismo ), from
usage, or from nature. (Morgan)

La convenance est 1' aspect soigné d'un ouvrage réalisé avec qualité au moyen d'éléments
éprouvés. On l'obtient en suivant une règle, qui se dit en grec thematismo , l'habitude ou
la nature. (Fleury)

66 J. J. Pollitt, loc. cit., 148.

67 See above on proportio and symmetria. Vitruvius's definition of Symmetry in Latin, along with translations by
F. Granger, M. H. Morgan and Ph. Fleury, is quoted above in this paper just after the definition and respective
translations of Order. The French translation of symmetria in the Belles Lettres edition is, in my view, also excellent.

68 J. J. Pollitt, The Ancient View of Greek Art (1974), 69.

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194 BICS-44 - 2000

Elaborating on decor which perfic

correspondence between the gods
decor realized by statione. I inte
person, or of a God.69 1 do not un
but the aknowledgement of some
as a translation:

Propriety is the faultless appear

established principles. It arises w
custom, and nature.

The concept of distributio, the s

contentious, dealing as it does w
reasonable cost management.

Distributio autem est copiarum

sumptus ratione temperatio.

Distribution or Economy, howev

the thrifty and wise control of e

Economy denotes the proper ma

balancing of cost and common se

La distribution est la répartition

ouvrages, un sage équilibre des d

To sum up: Architectura constat

not, as C.Faventinus claims, arch
What transforms simple building p
symmetria, decor , and distributi
Ordinario , Order, is the first pr
it is regarded as the most impor
establishment of a rank order am
proper magnitude to each one
Dispositio , Arrangement, is the se
of the elements, their right grou
apparent in the ground-plan, in ele
third principle; it is the attribut
members, in such a way that the
by balanced appearance. Symmetri
the work, achieved when there i
module, and between members an
Decor, the fifth principle, deals

69 Vitruvius, De Architectura , I, 2, 5.
construction of temples of the Ionic order
keeping with the middle position ( habita

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 195

construction of the work on principles respecting religion, nature, and

Distributio, finally, aims at achieving the best result with the means one ha
So, according to my argument, although the 'components of architectur
from one point of view, the order in which they are mentioned is not
designing of technical works, Vitruvius places greatest emphasis on Reas
secondarily on proportions, or arithmetical relations. I believe that it is i
Reason, free of all material constraints, is primarily manifested: rank order
of well-structured wholes, governed by Reason. Disposino , the arrangeme
of the work, depends to a great extent on Reason, too, since it is close
constitution of well-structured entities. Eurythmia, since it involves sets of
enough to pure Reason, since well-structured entities are by definition beau
is distinct from pure Reason, since it depends on the notion of con
mathematical relations of purely technical character. Decor is much m
practical constraints, than on pure Reason, since it is the 'proper' articu
which takes into account natural, social and historical factors. At the bot
Distributio , which is no more than a 'reasonable' economic response to N
Let us conclude with the proposed translation for all six definitions giv

Order is the balanced and measured adjustment of the members of the w

separately, and the creation of a hierarchy of magnitudes, to keep symme
work. Order is made up of Quantity, which in Greek is called Posotes. Q
selection of modules from the members of the work itself and, starting fr
parts of members, the construction of a harmonious whole.
Arrangement is the proper placement of architectural elements and
composite assemblage, the shaping of the work's identity. Arrangeme
through ground plan, elevation, and perspective.
Eurythmy is a beautiful aspect and a balanced appearance of the mem
composite assemblage.This is achieved, when the members of the work
suitable to their breadth, of a breadth suitable to their length; and in a wor
correspond symmetrically.
Symmetry is a harmonious agreement between the members of the w
relation between the different parts and the whole general scheme, in a
certain part selected as standard.
Propriety is the faultless appearance of a building composed of approv
established principles. It arises when account is taken of status - in Gre
- custom, and nature.
Economy is the suitable disposal of supplies and the site, and the thr
control of expense in the works.

Vitruvius created a properly constituted, clearly articulated system of va

be present in a technical work for it to cross the borders from handicraft,
ancient sense of the word, to become Architecture.

Athens

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 196 BICS-44 - 2000

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J. von Arnim, Stoicorum Vete rum Fragmenta (Leipzig 1903).

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C. Diels and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (10th edn Berlin 1960)

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 PAVLOS LEFAS: FUNDAMENTAL TERMS IN VITRUVIUS 197

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