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The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts Pathways To Advanced Skills Series Volume 8 9780874153491 0874153492 Compress
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The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts Pathways To Advanced Skills Series Volume 8 9780874153491 0874153492 Compress
The Historical Evolution of Chinese Languages and Scripts Pathways To Advanced Skills Series Volume 8 9780874153491 0874153492 Compress
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) SEEM PMA. SCE WR HELP T—-*+REBZWREM. ERP 7R (1980) WB, RATE ee Bid. RSERWA: HRM WT, PRATAP RBRNAA. A WUT AN AFAR SL, LAR SC BEE BRAN PO CEA, BRERA EMR RE TE Google Ting $ Foreword styles of writing; he examines not only Chinese, but also the languages and scripts of the minorities in China, The book has the following notable features: (a) It is well organized. With a focus on the Chinese languages and scripts, the book systematically deals with Mandarin (the standard Chinese language) and the Chinese dialects, the literary and the spoken languages, the shapes and pronunciations of the Chinese characters, the history of the romanization of the Chinese sound system, and the languages and scripts of the minority peoples of China. (b) It is clearly presented. In simple and clear language, the author explains the facts about the Chinese languages and scripts. The book is accessible to beginners without sacrificing accuracy (c) It is historically oriented, On many complex issues such as the common Chinese language, simplified characters, and the vernacular movement, the author provides the historical background along with the current state of each topic under discussion Translating such an easily-understood book into English, however, is not an easily-undertaken task. 1 had the experience of translating Y. R. Chao’s monumental work, A Grammar of Spoken Chinese, from English into Chinese. Professor Chao laid down an important principle in the practice of translation, which is described in my afterword to the Chinese version (1980): you must first thoroughly comprehend what is said in the English, and then find the most appropriate way to say the same thing in Chinese. Now, Li-ching has had to work in the other direction, that is, first thoroughly comprehend what is said in Chinese, and then find the most appropriate way to say the same thing in English. She certainly did it just Google cagin one WTI Ro ABA BR HE 96 ETE TAD, FF Ahk IRE. PRE ARES BBL BH MEER SCHOET IR, BRP AE RE a oP RX 5 (ERE IL Ue Be ARH BRAS 2 OAT MENBDRARACAHRS. MRRLE AAEM, iH AMES A Nii RK MHS ARTA. Len F Te HE ea: FRM Lee, ea A Le MH, MRM, TRANKER-REL—IR. The work of promoting this common language has slowly advanced by fits and starts over the vast land of China. However, all in all, the movements have been gaining more and more momentum. “Gaining more and more momentum” fE4E# 2F Wie, ope “Rm iR” KS WU SESUE T RAT NP” YD, BEAT EAT RR tt A XC LC EY. att A RBA RM “IE ure ‘Once we are acquainted with the true face of the rigid eight-legged essays, we understand why Chinese civilization was stagnant for such a long time. How can we help but oppose the eight-legged essays, whether pre- modern or modem, as a true measure of intelligence. SCAN AN Sa Ze 1X BAB BH pn — , MERARTWM. But, RREKM Fe P SCA F PRIA A BE IS St HE the Ting’s Foreword the way as Professor Chao advocated, and she has done it well. When I first read the Chinese original, I attempted to translate some parts into English myself. However, more often than not I had difficulty in finding the right words to articulate the ideas. And, when I tumed to Li-ching’s translation, I realized how successfull Li-ching was in her efforts to express what is found in the original. For example, consider the following passages: SEIS GAMO EISG TN: AIMEE LB TERRIER The work of promoting this common language has slowly advanced by fits and stars over the vast land of China, However al inal, the movement ha been gaining more and more ‘omentum, The use of “gaining more and more momentum” is an excellent choice to capture that metaphorical flavor of the Chinese expression "“—iftiaj— SRT) ICH AIL TEA WHEE FEC ad) SISA EA HIRES Sa WES, Once we are acquainted with the true face of the rigid eight-legged essays, we understand why Chinese civilization was stagnant for such a longtime. How can we help but ‘oppose the cight-legged essays (whether pre-modern or modem, as a true measure of imelligence)? Li-ching throws in a few words here and there into this otherwise literal translation of the original, thereby making the complex Chinese sentence readily accessible to English readers. ‘ Google ™ : WAT RF LORE —TOAF Bali “I BX”, VRRTRANGSH, HEA-H BI Fe RO A eM FA ST RK. AMAL GMERA “N\RL” CBR PIE LE, BPE RRR RR MG DT o OFFA) RAE ie A Wh A FH RRB He TTL AN fy. WaT MMM ACA RB, ARI BENET RPE. PREM DR RK URPRBLMKRNMEA, SHES AMHH. UBPBERAATETER iB. RA CZREXACRAEAA A RMB, HABE ACHMED HM. EA CPR ARRD) FIRE Re RA BAH, KRM —-ARES THE xvii Google Ting’s Foreword Regarding the so-called “‘cight-legged essay” mentioned in the last example, Li-ching has made every effort to translate such a composition in its entirety in the same chapter. Rendering a Classical Chinese “cight-legged essay” into modem Chinese is a formidable task. Translating it into elegant English is doubly demanding. Li-ching’s translation is a further testimony to her talent as a bilingual scholar. As noted in the beginning of the foreword, this English translation will be of great help to beginners who wish to learn about the Chinese languages and scripts, their historical development, and their current situation. Li-ching has devoted more than thirty years to teaching Chinese as a foreign language in the United States. I imagine that she must be very happy to fulfill Professor Zhou’s expectations and to see her translation in print. It will certainly become a popular and indispensable textbook in the English-speaking world. Google ERSITY OF ¢ Ree AF PHE—-+SRR. SHA. SUF MCHA, MAPA Wie SA 3300 ELL LAG. eRH M1911 4) OR, PHA ERMLEMRE TM REM R. TRS APR, AERTS AP RIB CHR. BRAMERA—-MARY, WEA WASIN. A, FRA, BEA RGBERBA TAR. BRASS RRs HAR, BEMKLERSRECR A EHS the RHAR, R-KE, KAPHA FRAN KRH. MRK TURAL E At ENB, BRT ARLE. HR HAR, SRR, MER, KATH AXGARAAE, H-PRTABER AY REE. 1912 “FHM, BITRE, Reh DEA RNA Ge) o MR, ICR ATRAMB Hh. WA k=) PRR MBRARSE IMB, KTPBAS, AK xviii Google Author's Preface Author’s Preface China is an ancient civilized country with numerous ethnic groups, multiple languages, and a plethora of scripts. Counting from the time when the oracle bone script (jidgdweén) began, Chinese characters (Hanzi) have a history of more than three thousand and three hundred years. Chinese languages and scripts have undergone tremendous changes after the Revolution of 1911 (Xinhai Géming). In order to understand present-day China, one must understand the current conditions of Chinese languages and scripts. Languages and scripts are not fixed but change constantly. Usually, the change is extremely slow and hard to notice. When society encounters rapid fluctuation, languages and scripts will vary more conspicuously. It was a major historical change in ancient times when the Qin dynasty annexed six other States and unified China in 221 BC. The Qin government put into practice a policy of unifying the wi téngwén) by standardizing the Qin script while abolishing the scripts of other states. Transportation in ancient times was extremely difficult, and each place had its own language and writing system. Unifying the writing system was hard enough; unifying the various pronunciations (y1i-téngyin) was impossible, ‘The Qing dynasty (1644-1911), based on an imperial system more than two thousand years old, was overthrown in 1911, and the Republic of China was established in 1912.' This was a major historical change, as a result of which Chinese languages and scripts underwent a more rapid transformation than ever before. The Han people who lived in a language environment of numerous, separate topolects began to demand a national language (gudyi#) in order to speak to each other intelligibly.’ They also sought to write in the vernacular (béihud) instead of in Classical Chinese ing system (shit- Google cagin one Bare BINA, RANKER, K-WNFEA ROKAEBEH =>. KEPRMBKA TRC ATER — 3. POKER AR AN 50 FRER—+ “DUA A BERNAL HA. TRYARR BE Oe E MLAS ARS, MTS 2— hie ALF, WRT -TETRAS. RTH Wi, HHT ARTRBHASS, HE DUBS FA BE GED 6 “EM” Bie Cie PAH BSD KR, CURT BTS OAS Be. ALKA aw APRHLER No Ji PATE Be BR MURA, {EE BH A MMC. “HM” emERKA SAHARA. MAR. MARK. HS ACAMNKMNBUX=SHA AEM. AT EN, FORA APIO TIT T RE, AREMEMNR. BAA RFR EE ANBAR. ea FUSS i BE EAS GE HOKE, JE HRM TER, 21 He RTE. RADE, AF AOESB, Hh RAP HBSS HMR, HAE A-BNTED. FAH Google Author's Preface (vénydn), hailing vernacular literature as an authentic literature. They also sought to unify the varied pronunciations of the Chinese characters, changing the ancient fangié phonetic annotation method to an alphabetical system based on the Sound-Notating Alphabet (Zhiiyin Zimii)2 This was the first step toward modernization in the historical evolution of Chinese languages and scripts. After World War II the 1950°s was another period of great historical change in China. Continuing the language and script reform policy from the first Republic, China has simplified one-third of all commonly used characters and abolished more than one thousand variants (yitizi). Besides popularizing the Common Chinese Language (Pitdnghud), China designed and promoted an alphabet of Romanized spelling of the Han Language (Hényti Pinyia), which has become the standard Chinese romanization internationally.* The advocacy of vernacular Chinese in the May 4* Movement of 1919 is the line of demarcation between ancient and modern Chinese cultures. It prompted an ideological trend toward cultural reform in the entire nation. Historians call this movement the Chinese Renaissance. Although the historical road of modemization has been rugged for China, the main direction is forward. The May 4" Movement (Wi-si Yindéng) demanded that Chinese culture and education face the masses, the world, and the future. These three aspects are the standard against which to mark whether China is making progress. Once there is a standard, all the unnecessary disputes over Chinese languages and scripts can be solved without fanfare. Now, human history has entered the era of the Information Age (Xinxihud Shidai). Languages and scripts are the basic media for communication. China has to continue raising the level of standardization of language and script in order to adjust to the Information Age and to enter the twenty-first century. This little book, written in concise language, offers an overview of the situation regarding the development and problems conceming Chinese languages and scripts. Zhou Youguang sei Sik alF PHE—-AKAAR, FREER HEAT RACE. PANERA EE Tb HAI MCP T AY AC. TEU ARTA BY HE, BAMXRFRAMMORR. SHAR ERHEARE, AROS. LH BSARAME, SHKARHAM. RF BREE ABN HL, > ee I DA EA G. EFRAFERERH, K-WTPE Be 2 LEC REAR HA PRT OL HER Hi F. ERM EBA AHERART, PK HA AIRS. i — Hm tah CN BNE HAN ARAM BEE IRR M. RHA, BORE, HiT “BAL” BR: “HRRSR, DARH, UB By WA eH) HBR” ( ICD ) Ge A) « ALA ARMIES TP HR. Google iN General Discussion General Discussion Introduction China is a country with an ancient civilization, now vigorously modernizing, To China, modernization means catching up with the Industrial Age and the Information Age. In order to adjust to the needs of the country’s modernization, Chinese language and script should undergo related development, The entire population should be enabled to avoid the divisiveness caused by different topolects, and all should be able to communicate orally with each other. Writing should be as clear as speaking, so that it is understandable when recited. Chinese characters should be examined and standardized to alleviate difficulties in learning and application. The pronunciation of characters should be unified and roman letters should be used instead of the faingié method for annotating the pronunciation of the characters. A policy of either improving the old scripts. or creating new scripts for minority ethnic groups should be adopted in accordance with the actual situation of each group. Hanyu Pinyin (Romanized Spelling of the Han Language) should be used to input characters into computers, so that Chinese language can enter the Intemet era, All of these steps constitute the modemization of Chinese languages and scripts. Social and language changes are closely related. The State of Qin (221-206 BC) adopted the policy of “writing with the same script” afier it annexed the other six Warring States and unified China. “The official and penal tasks were numerous; thus the simpler Clerkly style (lishi) was initiated and thus the ancient writing (guweén)’ ended” (Explanation of Script [Shuéwen}*). This is a casc of an ancient social change inducing a Google cagin on cnuiee ER ARS (1840 FE) TAAAA FAO All, PHRARAR RMR, FT PR ALMA Me, FY, MT PBR BM. RALANLSRR eT BR x. eK Mea (1911 4) Ws, —E SCHL RAGES ARERR EA ERR. IRIE ATE AIA PRRATANERALH: METZ. Hib. ABLE. WAT HE, B BPIPZH. WICK PEM, FALE EA, DRRKMBLENS. BRK EMELET, AR. ARAM, AR Aika, AMIE, ARBRE, AE “SRSHR” TRAURAARAM. M-RACHAMER, PAA ANAH i WaNWKAK, =. xeHOw RENE O. ERS —. BANK FLFRAF ED, FARS HURT ii, MASNORA “RS” . BRAK MARA, Be HB”. “RI”. Google General Discussion change in language and script. The Opium War (Yapian Zhanzhéng, 1840) opened the door of the self-confined Qing Empire during the mid- nineteenth century. The Chinese people woke up in shock and began creating 2 new era of Chinese history. At the same time, a new concept of Chinese language and script also arose. This is a case of a modem social change inducing a change in language and script After the 1911 Revolution, the movement for language and script modemization advanced from a preparatory stage to one of implementation This movement had a different emphasis and name in each of its different periods: Movement for Using (certain) Characters as Phonetic Elements (Qiéyinzi Yindéng), National Language Movement (Gudjti Yiindéng), Written Vernacular Movement (Bdihudwén Yindéng), Movement for a Sound-Notating Alphabet (Zhiiyin Zimi Yiundéng), National Romanization Movement (Guéyii Luémdzi Yindong), New Latinization Movement (Ladinghua Xin Wénzi Yindéng), Handy Characters Movement (Shéutéuzi Yindéng), Movement for New Languages and Scripts for (Chinese) Minorities (Shdoshic Minzti Xin Yitwén Yundéng), and so forth. During the process of language and script modernization, there were successes, failures, high tides, low tides, disputes between new and old ideas, as well as periods of vacillation. The language and script modernization advanced to a higher ground of conceptual understanding, and it opened up new spheres of activity. In a comprehensive view, we can sum up the goals of these series of movements under four rubrics: 1. commonality of the (Chinese) spoken language, 11. writing in a style close to the (Chinese) spoken language, III simplification of Chinese characters, and IV. the Romanization of the (Chinese) phonetic system. 1. Commonality of the (Chinese) Spoken Language (Yiiydn d Gongtonghua) Confucius did not use his native Shandong colloquial form of speech (iihud) but the contemporary common language, Elegant Language (¥dydn), to teach. Later, in each dynasty, there was a common (jc., shared) language that was called General (spoken) Language (Tangyii), or Mandarin 2 Google snversrn oF SE ROKER ER AM RE, (CH RADHA, ERRA KATH. WARAIE ABAATAK, GRTATHR. CER APM EME, HAIRS RATED FTE RLA RANA. AE BAMBMTLE. REM, MEU SHS FRAEARSHE (EHR). AMMRTA wR, KAMBRE RS HAAR” RAT I, BREED —. RA, Ht RI BTUR, MiimEYAA—, EDT FRE, HARE TARA AAAI. BY HRARMREM BR, FAW pee PEACE A HUE Hn MA). 1955 EA AX FARA WME MRIS “DUCE EE”. RT IR SRE, HEMT Bn ABBR. HMBMSKMAN AR. HARM He “TERE” (ACEIE) , 50 FEAREG “MSE 1K” QQRPSELB). 1982 EA CHAEARR Google General Discussion (Gudnhud). The ancient common spoken language did not require a strictly standardized pronunciation. It was used only by an extremely small number of people -- mainly officials and traveling merchants. The modem common Chinese (Han) language was derived from the ancient ones, but is different from them. Besides requiring strictly standardized pronunciation, popularizing the (modem) common Chinese (Han) language is considered a prerequisite for fulfilling the promise of voluntary education for the whole population. Having a common language is a fundamental criterion for building a modemized country. In the first few years of the Republic of China (established in 1912 after the 1911 Revolution), the standardized pronunciation of the characters by the majority of provinces was designated the standard pronunciation of the National (Chinese) Language (the Old National Pronunciation [Lao Guéyin)). However, the then-prevailing point of view was that this would be acceptable as long as people could express themselves and could understand cach other; that is, there was no need for having a unified strict standard. Very soon, through implementation, the standard reached a higher level and people recognized that a unified strict standard was indispensable. The Chinese people also recognized that learning the national language could be gradual; the strict standard of pronunciation should not be based on an artificially stipulated pronunciation instead of on actually existing phonemes. The phonemes of the Beijing dialect spoken by people with an average education were chosen to be the new standard (Xin Guéyin). In 1955, The National Conference for the Reform of Chinese Script defined the Common Chinese Language (Piitnghua) and once again stipulated that “Beijing phonemes are the standard pronunciation.” Furthermore, demands for a better standardization of the modem Chinese language continued. The term for the common (Chinese) language (piidnghua) went through various changes. During the last years of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China (established in 1912), it was called the National Language (Gudyit), a common language for the whole nation. In the 1950’s, it was called the Common Chinese Language (Piitonghua), a common language for the Han ethnic group. The 1982 constitution of the Google ERSITY OF ¢ RR PARE) Get Me: “BRR SH JAM HHia” (SARA). HMA SEAR “i” (AROSE) © BRA Fl, SRA RBM Lt, Er AAPAK SLAM AT, ARTE, AMORA RAR. 20 FETE, 50 EK RETR. BHESERRKTA. 8 EHR MER T Bi GE» RETA WFRURBARRIBS, PMSA VARA SEB ME SY. AHEM ER ALR, AA RABM, EMRE ES Ke TRSMKIBETT, ADDED HF GHB, + SKM TRE Ife. RRMA “BA” REG, FR WRBET “BAL” REBT. BRP REE “BAK”, RHE “Ae”. =, SCR SCs BAA BE 7 IA. OBAMA, MEME TAT, BRR Google General Discussion People’s Republic of China states’: The country will promote the Common Chinese Language, that is, the common language generally used throughout the nation. Overseas Chinese in Singapore call this language Language of China (Hudyi, a common language used by Chinese people). Although the names are different, the substance of the language is the same. ‘The work of promoting this common language has slowly advanced by fits and starts over the vast land of China. However, all in all, the movement has been gaining more and more momentum. The 1920’s was one high tide and the 1950's was another one. The high tide was different in different provinces. After Taiwan's retrocession,’ the Nationalist government (after it retreated to Taiwan in 1949) made great efforts 10 popularize National Language (Gudyi) and indeed succeeded in making the National Language the language in all schools, as well as the language used in the communication media on all public occasions. The People’s Republic of China has, on the one hand, relied mainly on schools to popularize the ‘Common Chinese Language (Piitnghud), and on the other hand, used radio broadcasting and TV to speed up the implementation of this language. Nevertheless, there are great discrepancies in the achievements of different places, and there are many weak regions. China has a long way to go to carry out the hard work of promoting the Common Chinese Language (Pitonghud). To acl progressive measure. Today, however, to be satisfied with just “writing with the same scri achieve “writing with the same (simplified) script” but also to achieve “speaking in a language of the same pronunciation.” -ve “writing with the same script” in ancient times was a * would be a step backward. Modem China needs not only to IL. Writing in a Style Close to the Spoken Language (Went! d Kéuyithua) Old countries with ancient civilizations all had a contradiction between the written languages (shiimianyil) and the spoken languages (kéuyti). The spoken languages continuously evolved and advanced while the written languages remained stagnant. This caused the differentiation between 4 Google ERSITY OF ¢ se FRNOE, ARTRSHRRARA Re BRAT, BABE “3B” MER” FAX, ANOBRBRAR Ke HREM BAR “RFSRA” . “SAWMRLA” . “AGAR A”. 1919 ARM AIH iz he “EO” 2h, RKAPHM “XAH DO” FASC MAR SC SCRA SCF AE R BBM EALH. RMU Bm “PEKEZE” NAG. AAKE HALA SCA, BA. 2, BIKHAAML HW, Bisse EORMAAMS ZAR. MALE IAA “Ae” , WS 50 ER AR IT “A a” . MR, WARMER EA “HA th” AWARE MAO. ket, TAR. REMSHERKKCY, MATAHMT, LER TBARS BE Ah. 90 ERE “LPB” MAME, WMT EK MAH “GESRAR” , RRA Ea BASE. Google snive General Discussion written and spoken languages to grow, which hindered the development of common languages and the popularization of education. In China, during the Tang and Song dynastics, Buddhists used transformation texts (bidnwén) and “recorded dialogues (yitl)” that were (grammatically) very close to the common spoken topolects to teach the Buddhist sutras, because the spoken topolects could reach the masses effectively. During the (One Hundred Day) Reform Movement period (around 1898) toward the end of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), reformers proclaimed “my hand writes what my mouth (says), as well as Movement (1919), of which the movement for writing in plain (spoken language) style was the vanguard, is called the Chinese Renaissance. Ever since that time, vernacular Chinese has replaced Classical Chinese and has become the authentic written style of Chinese literature and the formal “respect the vernacular style and abolish Classical Chinese,” ernacular writing is the foundation of reform.” The May 4" written style for textbooks. Novels and essays are all written in the vernacular style that used to be “unable to enter the hall of elegance (bit deng dayazhiting).” The movement for vernacular writing is not only the liberation of written style but also the liberation of thinking, However, before World War II, the movement for vernacular writing had left numerous empty spots that needed to be filled. For example, official letters or reports still used the fixed formality of “in view of the above, we therefore humbly present this (déngyin féngcl)...." These formulae were not changed until the Movement for Official Public Writing Reform occurred in the 1950's. At that time, the semi-vernacular and semi- Classical “newspaper style (xinwénti)” was also changed into an explicit and smooth spoken language style. Additionally, newspapers, magazines, and all other formal publications were published horizontally in rows instead of vertically in columns for the purpose of accommodating technical terms, mathematical formulas, and so forth. In the 1990's, in order to complement the prevailing idea of “promoting traditional Chinese culture,” numerous large-scale “collections of ancient books translated into the modern language (gilshi-jinyi cdngshi)" were published. This was an extension of the vernacular movement. Google ERSITY OF ¢ Si NMS “AR” HRA wt. SRD” BALERA, BE —t “XARA” Bah. ANH “SIE ERAS”. “UMBEAZLS, HLH 224": RERALH, RAMA RRE XS. FR, HLMEREAMH., RAR Ret, RPMMZRKT. SRN “ERM” NR, “RX BO SCR oT IES.“ * SOR” FAG Hab 1 AY HLS RCH). ea Ba Me AR (Hid). HRBRA BAH PRA (BL) AA. AER WT RMR. HS BRM. UHRA RUG (LA): KEE ROM, eb RAKE AE (BAN). BAALF ERS RUA Ha eR. MERA. BE RZ ANCA, Be ARB AEE Al, DAR “ABH” RA, TR “AR WW” RAT. ATH “AK” HAX RAE RO SE SC, BE OCR AN ERM LH. Google INIVERSITY OF General Discussion Reform of written style resulted in strong opposition from the “waditionalists (hdogijid).” Soon after the May 4 Movement, traditionalists promoted a movement for “writing in Classical Chinese and studying the Chinese classical canon.” They attacked vernacular Cl and considered it “a language of low-class peddlers (vinché{/ja)- maijiangzhé yén).” They claimed that vernacular style “steals literary and se artistic fame with vulgar and absurd writing (yf bist: wangwéi zhi bi, gid gdowen méiyi zhi ming).” They even went to so far as to abuse political power by causing textbooks to be printed in Classical Chinese again. However, the wheels of history continued to tum; the result of this attempt to return to ancient times finally disappeared without a trace, like wind and smoke. In this present Information Age, reforms that demand the written style to be in accordance with the spoken style (ydn-wén yizhi) have a new mission. Various media have combined and unified the technology of delivering letters through electronics (telex, e-mail, and so forth), the technology of voice transmission (telephone), and the technology of video and audio communication (television). These developments have led to new demands on languages and scripts. A language has to be standardized, so that all of the people who use it can understand each other orally (jiding chillai dajid tingdeging). Written style should be in accordance with the spoken style, so that people can understand writing when someone reads it aloud. Spoken language and written language should be able to be automatically and instantly transcribed into each other. Terminology should also be unified. The confusion caused by different vocabularies in different regions, and by the different translations of proper nouns and technical words, should no longer be considered an amusing phenomenon, but rather a harmful factor. Chinese people still have much to do to standardize their spoken language and written style in order to make the vernacular, supposedly in accord with spoken Chinese, become a suitable written style for the Information Age. Google in ay =. SFR FEHR. FMS. KAA. WK ME, @ PR “DORE”. et AY “ORE” RFRBIEAI “OE” HR: IH. eR. ER. EF. (-) 2% AAFEAR—, DAME SE ABE i, BUM. BU. BSOMLS AM i, RAARREKHER. WERE HN) FE. ABFA, URMMRIRAT AB , TBAB BH. 1935 oF, bee “ELF” iBB), WE 300 SP FARHAN MAF, £1 HAELAARA. AE, B REAR A th “BM AER”. BR 324 PS HS LRT RE” HE SURLBARAA. WR, RAAB RX, BoE RW lA T. 1956 FRR FAAS COREA RY » LEM SI TESHAT. XDA RAE 515 MALE A 54 Google General Discussion III. Simplification of Chinese Characters (Wénzi d Jidnbianhua) The strokes of Chinese characters are complicated, the number of characters is huge, their pronunciation is chaotic, and information retrieval derived from them is difficult; these four problems are called the “four difficulties (si ndn).” The movement for script reform has used the “four stabilizing factors (si ding)" to cope with the four difficulties. The four stabilizing factors are: 1. stabilizing the shapes of the characters (dingring), 2. stabilizing the number of characters (dinglidng), 3. stabilizing the Pronunciation of the characters (dingyin), and 4. stabilizing the serial order of the characters (dingrit). () Stabilicing the Shapes of Characters Stabilizing the shapes of characters means, on the one hand, unifying the different ways of writing a character and, on the other hand, making the different styles of handwriting and printing more nearly approximate one another. [t aims to make the simplified characters, which are clear and easy to recognize and write, serve as the standard script. This requirement was brought up even in the last years of the Qing dynasty. At the time, elementary school pupils who were beginning learners of characters, illiterates, and the masses who had received a very low level of formal education, all needed to have the strokes of the characters simplified. In 1935, there was a “Handy Characters (shéutduzi) Movement” in Shanghai Three hundred simplified characters (jidntizi), used frequently every day, were chosen and openly used in fifteen different kinds of magazines. In the same year, the Bureau of Education of the Republic of China promulgated “The List of the First Batch of Simplified Characters (Di-yi Pi Bid)” that included 324 simplified characters frequently used in society. The bureau was planning to continue promulgating more. However, the first inti list encountered strong opposition and was abolished the next year. In 1956, the government of the People’s Republic of China promulgated the Scheme for Simplifying Characters (Hanzi Jinhua Fang'én), and for the first time, the simplified characters were officially promoted. This scheme designated 515 simplified characters and $4 simplified radicals that together were used Google in ad AM Hilla, GRRE CTE ED (FE 2235 F) 0 EMRE RAMDE “HE AZ” , IAA RIE “HK” RIT “CE 6”, MO “AiR” RAT “RA”. fe FORE KM ANAT AB. MAS Ge PMBRAGKEZ a, BRM. BS! AR ht aR. PERC AR. TR BI RESMAL, FRC (HSH) PAS B2- RGF, KRM Cuma AT ROL BMG. AA ADU AD PELERAA IE. BAO SBR ES es ARBAB RIE” AAT RF: ADMTHABMTBAAMK TR Fo MET BR SEL. ETE FTO RATS, 5-2, SUE ECL? 28 FRAKS. FRE, AUER AES R A. EEF RSENS, TT CUA “SPR BUR” AUTH, ba A NDE. ME MECBDA “HARE” (3500 F) Al “HARE” (7000), TA FAFER, GRAF RUD, Beeb Google General Discussion by extension to form the General List of Simplified Characters (Jiénhu Zéngbido), with a total of 2,235 characters. Most of these simplified characters are derived from ancient times. The only difference between modem and old times is that these “popular forms (siifi)” are now elevated to be “the standard forms (zhéngti),” just as “vernacular Chinese” had replaced “Classical Chinese.” The simplified characters are widely used in textbooks, newspapers, and magazines in the People’s Republic of China. After Singapore adopted the simplified characters, Chinese schools in Malaysia, Thailand, and other places also chose to adopt them, Simplified characters do not hinder Chinese calligraphy (shiff). As a matter of fact, the ancient calligraphers often wrote simplified characters. In Wang Xizhi’s (ca. 321-379) “Preface of the Orchard Pavilion (Ldnting Xi,” one third of the characters are simplified, and one-sixth in Ouyang Xun's (557-641) copybook (for calligraphy) entitled “Palace of Nine Achievements (Jitichéng Géng).” It is obvious that ancient Chinese did not think that simplified characters and calligraphy were contradictory. There are people who worry that simplified characters will harm traditional Chinese culture. However, at the time of the “transformation to Clerkly writing (libian),” that is, from the Seal style (zhuanshia) to the Clerkly style (lishii), characters were greatly simplified; the Cursive style (cdoshi) and Running Hand style (cingsha), used for a long time, also included simplified characters. If these simplified characters did not harm traditional ‘Chinese culture, how would the modern simplified characters, derived from these old ones, do so? , (I) Stabilizing the Number of Characters The main reason that characters are difficult to leam and to use is that their number is too large and uncertain, However, in this complicated modern age, it is not easy to reduce their number. We can adopt the method of “stabilizing the number of characters that are needed at different levels” to tackle the problems of learning and using characters. Now the characters are divided into “frequently used characters (changydng Hanzi (3,500])" and “generally used characters (‘dngydng Hanzi (7,000)).” The former are used in elementary schools while the latter are used in general publications. g Google ERSITY OF ¢ i “SARE” » AT Aa MS 11 te A My. BULA “WeAE” (1000 F), HAF IRF NES, RRR FER” ON eH. BRE, SHES TER, Ab THEA WL A EF SALE AE 1, DPR, SRPPA, RARE “SABRE” . HAMS, AAS WK, ESRD AT (xe RAMEN S “GA” T TE, FS — EASE BRE ARR AE (RAE i. 50 FAR “MMR” THe, He “FRM” HEF. CRIP CAR AML BR. AE, RAMR GRETA “ema”. (a) EERE RMB, RE MF” AAEM MME RE. «ap HA” Al “BRIE” MRT IGM Aa AMNNBR. 1918 EAM ERE Z Ja, FAT ARS RN “BRK” Google General Discussion Besides these two kinds of characters, there are the “rare characters (hdnyéng Hanzi)” used in ancient books and special publications. We can select from the “frequently used characters,” the “characters for beginning leamers (chitxué yéngzi) (1,000])” as the introductory characters. This is derived precisely from the traditional Text of a Thousand Characters (Qidn Zi Wén), Practical experience reveals that it would be better to leam a few and use them well than to learn a lot without being able to use them. Even now, the frequency of character usage is uneven. Only a small number of characters is used frequently while the majority is not. This is the so-called “law of diminishing retums (xidoyong dijidnlii) of characters.” If we can control this rate and improve our method of using characters, we can gradually reduce the number of less-used characters. (II) Stabilizing the Pronunciation of Characters In the beginning of the Republic of China, the work of “unifying the reading pronunciation of characters (dhiyin téngyi)” started. All the dictionaries had their characters annotated with the standardized pronunciation of the Sound-Notating Alphabet (Zhiyin Zimi) instead of applying the fangié method that used two characters to annotate the pronunciation of a third character. In the 1950's, the work of examining the phonemes of the Common Chinese Language (PitGnghud) was initiated, and words with different reading pronunciation (vidticf) were unified. The work of stabilizing the pronunciation of words has thus obtained some preliminary success. However, only when the Common Chinese Language is popularized will the goal of “unification of reading pronunciation (dtiyiny” be completely fulfilled. (IV) Stabilizing the Serial Order of Characters In an Information Age that requires fast information retrieval, the stabilizing of the serial order of characters has a pronounced importance. Methods based on using the radicals (biishdufa) and the stroke numbers (bihudsai) cannot meet the requirements of quick, automatic information retrieval. Afler the Sound-Notating Alphabet (Zhilyin Zim) was promulgated in 1918, China, for the first time, had a method of phonetic ordering (yinxisfa) based Google ERSITY OF ¢
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