3 KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION ‘The objectives of this chapter are to treat the kinematics of somewhat idealized fluid motion along streamlines and in flowfields. As in particle mechanics, kinematics describes motion in terms of displacements, velocities, and accelerations without regard to the forces that cause the motion. The important distinction between steady and unsteady flows is made, and the groundwork is laid for our derivation in later chapters of key dynamic equations. However, no attempt is made here to describe the kinematics of turbulence or of the motion of large-scale eddies which the reader has no doubt observed in real fluid flows. These topics are discussed later. 3.1 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW, STREAMLINES, AND. STREAMTUBES ‘There are two basic means of describing the motion of a fluid. In the Eulerian view, attention is focused on particular points in the space filled by the fluid, A description is then given of the state of fluid motion at each point as a function of time. The values and variations with time of the fluid velocity, density, pressure, acceleration and other fluid variables are determined (and perhaps recorded by instruments of an experiment) at various spatial points. We write then the velocity, acceleration, and pressure for example as v= vay. ea = ay yo Os and p= pr Ys 20, where the velocity ¥ = ue, + ve, + wes 9192 / KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION here u, v, and w are the components of the velocity in the directions of the Carte- sian coordinates (x, y, 2) and (,, €,, €,) are the unit vectors along those directions [see Appendix 6}. In the Lagrangian view, each fluid particle is labeled (usually by its spatial coordinates at some initial time). Then, the path (ie., the record of the coordinates of the particle at later times), density, velocity, and other characteristics of each individual fluid particle are traced as time passes. This view is the one that is used in the dynamic analyses of solid particles. If the position of a fluid particle is plotted as a function of time, the result is the trajectory of the particle, called a path fine. In the Lagrangian view the particle velocity would be defined as the time derivative of its position, viz, ¥ = v(x. 1). where Xo is the itil spatial location (X, Yos 2) of the particle. The path line is clearly tangent to the jstantaneous velocity at each point along the path and so the changes in the particle location over an infinitesimally small time are given by dv = x dt, dy = v dt and w dt. This means then that dx woe = ie 3 ae ae ae Ga) and also that, along a path line, 9.8.4 1b) ‘The Eulerian view is practical for most engineering problems (indeed, it is used in a great majority of fluid analyses) and is adopted for this introductory text, In the Eulerian easy to determine whether the fluid flow is steady or unsteady. In unsteady flow, the fluid variables will change with time at the spatial points in the flow. In a steady flow, none of the variables at any point in a flow changes with time, although the variables generally are functions of position in the space filled by the fluid. Thus, in the Eulerian view, a steady flow still may have accelerations. For example, in the pipe of Fig. 3.1, leading from an infinite reservoir with a fixed surface elevation, unsteady flow exists while the valve A is being opened or closed. [Of course, we cannot really have an infinite reservoir, a large reservoir will do, but then to keep the surface elevation fixed, the same flowrate must be supplied to the reservoir as fiows out of the pipe. This is not hard to do; you just supply too much and let the excess overflow somewhere! This is a key to operation of many so-called constant head tanks] With the valve opening fixed, steady flow occurs and the pressure, velocities, and the vary only with location, Under the former conditions as the valve opens and closes, they may vary with location and time. Problems of steady flow are more elementary than those of unsteady flow and actually have wide engineering applications. In this elementary text book, we focus primarily on steady flows, but some useful and important unsteady flows will be considered. sl a Fig. 3113.1 STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW, STREAMLINES, AND STREAMTUBES / 93 If curves are drawn in an unsteady flow at an instant of time in such a way that the tangent at any point is in the direction of the velocity vector at that point, such curves are called instantaneous streamlines and they continually evolve in time. As we noted abov individual fluid particles must travel on paths whose tangent is always in the direction of the fluid velocity at any point. Jn an unsteady flow, these path lines are not coincident with the instantaneous sireamtines! The injection of smoke or dye into the ow gives yet another view of the flow. If a picture is taken of all the dye or smoke particles that have passed through a particular point, i, the injection point, the result is a streak line. Such streak lines can be used to trace the travel of pollutant downstream from a smoke stack of other discharge. In an unsteady flow the path lines, the streak lines, and the instantaneous streamlines are not coincident. However, in a steady flow, the Lagrangian path lines are the same as the Eulerian streamlines, and both are the same as the streak lines, because the streamlines then are fixed in space and path lines, streak lines and streamlines are tangent to the steady velocities. Thus, in a steady flow all the particles on a streamline that passes through a point in space also passed through or will pass through that point as well Ina steady flow, it follows that equations (3.1) can be integrated in space to define stream- lines. Likewise at any given instant of time in an unsteady flow, equations (3.1) can be integrated in space to define a set of instantaneous streamlines. The sketching or plotting of streamlines produces a streamline picture or flowfield (Fig. 3.2a). Streamline pictures are of both qualitative and quantitative value to the engineer. They allow visualization of are ereated by introducing small jets of smoke at a number of up- stream pointy in the94 | KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION Fig. 33 fluid flow through mathematical and experimental determination (Fig, 3.26) of the stream- lines and to locate regions of high and low velocity and, from these, zones of low and high pressure, respectively. In what follows, reference to streamlines implies a discussion of a steady flow; for unsteady flows, specific reference will be made to the unsteadiness and we will, if necessary, talk about instantaneous streamlines. When streamlines are drawn through a closed curve (Fig. 3.3) in a steady flow, they form a boundary across which fluid particles cannot pass because the velocity is always tangent to the boundary. Thus, the space between the streamlines becomes a tube or pas- sage called a streamtube, and such a tube may be treated as if isolated from the adjacent fluid. The use of the streamtube concept broadens the application of fluid-flow principles; for example, it allows treating two apparently different problems such as flow in a passage and flow about an immersed object with the same laws. Also, because a streamtube of differential size essentially coincides with its axis (which is a streamline), it is to be expected that many of the equations developed for a small streamtube will apply equally well (0 a streamline. 3.2 ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS—STREAMLINES AND FLOWFIELDS In a one-dimensional flow, the change of fluid variables (velocity, pressure, ete.) perpen- dicular to (across) a streamline is negligible compared to the change along the streamline. In practice for a streamtube of finite cross-sectional area this means all fluid properties are considered uniform over any cross section. Pipe flow is usually taken to be one-dimen- sional and average fluid properties are used at each section. The flow in a streamtube of differential size is precisely one-dimensional because variations across the tube vanish in this limit (as the area approaches zero). Thus, flow along individual streamlines (however curved) is one-dimensional (the dimension being measured along the streamline). The concept of one-dimensional flow is an extremely powerful and practical one that produces simplicity in analysis and accurate engineering results for a wide range of problems. Later it is shown that some two- and three-dimensional flows may be treated very effectively for engineering purposes as one-dimensional in zones where the streamlines of the flow picture are all essentially straight and parallel. \'WO.-, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS—STREAMLINES AND FLOWFIELDS / 95 Fig. 34 ‘Two- and three-dimensional flow pictures describe flowyields, the former when the flow is completely defined by the streamlines in a single plane, the latter in (tree-dimen- sional) space. Examples of two-dimensional flows are shown over the weir and about the wing of Fig, 3.4. Here the velocities, pressures, and the like, vary throughout the flowfield and thus are functions of position in the field. Such two-dimensional flows are approxi- ‘mations to reality in that they are strictly correct only to the extent that end effects on weir and wing are negligible; this may also be visualized by assuming weir and wing to be infinitely Jong perpendicular to the plane of the paper. To the extent that such approxi- ‘mations are valid, the flow is completely described by a streamline picture drawn in a single plane. In practice, it is often possible to introduce simple corrections to the two- dimensional results to account for end effects. ‘Two axisymmetric three-dimensional flows are depicted in Fig. 3.5. Here the stream- lines are really stream surfaces and the streamtubes are of annular cross section. On planes passed through the axis of such flows, streamline pictures may be drawn which superfi- cially resemble two-dimensional flows; such pictures may be used fruitfully for streamline visualization, but they do not represent a reduction of a three-dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one because the mathematical descriptions of two-dimensional and axi- symmetric flows are nor the same. Nonaxisymmetric flows such as that over the fuselage and into the air inlets of a single-jet aircraft are three-dimensional flowfields of the most ‘general character. These flows are more difficult to visualize and most difficult to predict. To generalize the kinematics and dynamics of the flowfield so that derived equations allow all possible flow configurations leads to mathematical complexities far beyond the scope of an elementary treatment of fluid mechanies and would obscure the physical picture so essential to a real understanding of the problem. Accordingly the treatment hereafter is restricted primarily to one-, two-, and axisymmetric three-dimensional problems. Fig. 3596 3.3: VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION / KINEMATICS OF ELUID MOTION Fig. 36 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3.1 ‘Velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, having both magnitude and direction, How- ever, often the direction is known or assumed and only the magnitude is to be determined. Then, the scalar components in particular directions are used, In this text most equations. and analyses are in terms of scalar components, although vectors are used where they ms physical principles more understandable. For one-dimensional flow along a streamline (Fig. 3.6), velocity and acceleration may. be readily defined from past experience in engineering mechanics with the motion of singk particles, Select a fixed point O as a reference point and define the displacement s of : fluid particle along the streamline in the direction of motion. In time df the particle wil cover a differential distance ds along the streamline. The velocity magnitude v of thi Particle over the distance ds is given by v = ds/df; the velocity vector is, of course, | tangent to the streamline at s according to the definition of a streamline. Components acceleration along (tangent to) and across (normal to) the streamline at s may also h written: “(2 oo au G2 @s _d (ds) _ do _ dsdv du dP di\dt} de des" as and, from particle mechanics, in which ris the radius of curvature of the streamline at s. Along the saat seamline show inthe figure, the magnitude ofthe velocity is by v = 3Vx? + y? m/s and the coordinates x and y are given in metres. Calculate t velocity magnitude and acceleration components at the point (8, 6).3.3 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION / 97 SOLUTION Looking at Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 and the given data, we observe that s = Vx? + y? m, and 3s m/s and dv/ds = 3.s~', while the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite. At (8, 6), s = 10 m; therefore, v=3X 10=30m/s According to Eq. 3.2, 3s m/s)3 s"! = 9s = 90 m/s? ® Obviously, a, = 0 since in Eq. 3.3, 7 = © © ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3.2 In the geophysical experiment described in Illustrative Problem 2.17, the fluid at the wall of the tank moves along the circular streamline shown below with a constant tangential velocity component of 1.04 m/s. Calculate the tangential and radial components of ac- celeration at any point on the streamline. SOLUTION Because the velocity is constant, Eq. 3.2 tells us that a, = 0. From the diagram, the radius of curvature of the streamline is 2m and the velocity along it is 1.04 m/s; accordingly, from Eq. 3.398 / KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION _ (1.04 mf)? oom directed toward the center of the tank. = 0.541 m/s? & 3) In flowfields, velocity and acceleration are somewhat more difficult to define because | 4 generalization is required which is applicable to the whole flowfield. In general, the velocities are everywhere different in magnitude and direction at different points in the flowfield and at different times. At each point, however, each velocity has components 1, », and sv, which are parallel to the a-, y+, and z- axes, respectively, as we defined them in Section 3.1, Figure 3.7 gives a sketch of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system and the velocity at a point. If the velocity depends on x, y, and z and on time 4, its ‘components are also functions of these variables. Written mathematically and generally in_ the Eulerian view, W = ue 2.0,¥ = VO, y, 9, and w= whe, y, 2) For steady flow, time # would not appear in these definitions, while for two-dimensional and steady flow, neither f nor < would appear for example. In terms of displacement and time (the Lagrangian view), we have, as we saw in Section 3.1, that & & j = Grand =o G4 where here x, y, and are the actual coordinates of a fluid particle that is being tracked Fortunately, the velocity at a point is the same in both the Eulerian and the Lagrangia view. The acceleration components are TI Cartesian Fig. 373.3 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION / 99 ‘The derivatives here are the total derivatives, also called the substantial or material de- rivatives, which follow a fluid particle, From Appendix 6, we can use the chain rule of differentiation for the total derivative to write au | au ou = at Sat Say + du = dt + a? aw aw aw | aw we ae a tay + de Bie ae ae et Gy Ok ae Substituting these relationships in Eqs. 3.5 and using Eqs. 3.4 yields ue ue ae ae WS Ces eee G6) It is immediately clear that even in steady flow, there will be accelerations of the flow if the velocity field varies in space. As before, for steady flow or for flow in two dimensions ‘or one dimension, the appropriate terms will drop out of Eqs. 3.6. Returning to Fig. 3.7 and looking at the sketch of the two-dimensional flow, we find that a similar analysis for a steady two dimensional flow in polar coordinates, where v- and v, are both functions or r and @ yields G7) G8) ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3.3 For the circular streamline described in the previous Illustrative Problem 3.2 along which the velocity is 1.04 m/s and the radius of curvature is 2 m, calculate the horizontal, vertical, tangential, and normal components of the velocity and acceleration at the point P (2 m, 60°). SOLUTION Noting that r = Vx? + y? = 2 mand using similar triangles, we have100 / KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION ; (3.6) (3.6) Substituting x = 1, y = V3, | a, = -0.27 m/s ¢ a, = -047 m/s? © By inspection, v, = 1.04 m/s ® vu, = Om/s © G.2) Using Eqs. 3.8, a 8 104 x L004 > . : 4, = 05,0) + 104; 0) p= TOS m/e © 38) nh s ! ® a a 0x 1.04 28 ) : 4, = 02 1.04) + 104 0h + O m/s? © (38) { Note that a, and a, might have been obtained more easily (in this problem) by calculating l them as the horizontal and vertical components of a,.. Does a? = a2 + a7?3.4 CIRCULAT SITY,AND ROTATION / 101 DN, VOR’ 3.4 CIRCU LATION, VORTICITY, AND ROTATION ‘We intuitively know that tangential components of the velocity give the fluid in a flow a switl (try to visualize the flow in Illustrative Problem 3.3 just above). A measure of this swirl has been defined and it is called the circulation, The circulation is designated by I (gamma). T is defined as the line integral of the tangential component of velocity around a closed curve fixed in the flow. For simplicity, consider a two-dimensional steady flow whose streamlines are shown in Fig. 3.8, In the two-dimensional flowfield of Fig. 3.84, each streamline intersects the closed curve at an angle o and the tangential component of the velocity at the point of intersection is V cos a An element of circulation dT is defined as the product of the tangential velocity component and the element dl of the closed curve. Thus, aT = (Vc0s @) di ‘The sum of the elements dT along the curve C marking the closed curve defines the circulation: far =Pvcosma= hyd 69) ie © cc in which dl is an elemental vector of magnitude di and direction tangent to the closed curve af each point. Although the calculation of circulation around an arbitrary curve in a flowfield generally a tedious step-by-step integration, the principle can be applied easily and fruit- fully to specific closed curves such as circles and squares. Calculation of the circulation around a basic differentially sized square element as shown in Fig. 3.8b yields a concept having great general significance because it yields the point value of the circulation in a flow. This value is needed, for example, in calculations of pressure-velocity-head relations (expressed through Bemnoulli’s equation) in two-dimensional ideal incompressible flows (Section 5.7). ‘Now, to compute the circulation, proceed from A counterclockwise around the bound- ary of the element, setting down the products of velocity component and distance in order; because the clement is of differential size, the resulting circulation is also a differential quantity, dP. Tr Closed curve in Sy sowtels plane ‘Streamlines Ap « Fig. 38KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION __ J Mean velocity Mean velocity are [ along AB Je ¢ [ along BC | __ [Mean velocity] , _ [Mean velocity] [ along CD. Ja | along Da | ® av de (Note cos a = 1 on AB and BC, but cos a = —1 on CD and DA.) By expanding the products and retaining only the terms of lowest order (largest magnitude), we obtain av = (@ ax in which dx dy is the area inside the control surface. The vorticity, & (xi), is defined as the differential circulation per unit of area enclosed, which becomes aE dx dy For polar coordinates, by the same procedure, a, pe BAD From the definition of circulation, I’, and the methods used to calculate vorticity, the reader will sense that the latter quantity is some measure of the rotational aspects of the fluid elements as they move through the flowfield. This can be shown explicitly. Sup- pose two lines are drawn on the square element in a fluid flow, as shown in Fig. 3.9, so that the lines are parallel to the x and y axes, respectively. If the fluid element tends to rotate, these lines will tend to rotate also and, for the instant at which the lines are drawn their average angular velocity can be calculated, In a small time interval dt ine will rotate about the translating center of mass of the element by an amount at ‘itis physically possible to carry out such an experiment; see, for example, J. L. Lumley, “Deformation of Continuous Media,” NCFMF/EDC Film No. 21608, Encyclopaedia Britannic Educational Corp.34 CIRCULATION, VORTICITY, AND ROTATION / 103 Fig. 39 so the angular velocity ey ie dt ay For the horizontal line _ diy aw On dt ax ‘The average rotation w of the clement is then 3.24) and tae (3.25) ‘The vorticity ata point is twice the rotation there, that is, twice the average angular velocity of the fluid element. Ifa flow possesses vorticity (ie., if € + 0), itis said to be a rotational flow; if a flow possesses no vorticity (¢ = 0), itis termed irrorational. In Section 5.9, it will be shown that irrotational flows are also characterized by a velocity potential and are therefore known as potential flows. Such definitions are adequate for present purposes but may be misleading because they imply that whole flowfields are either rotational or irrotational. Actually flowfields can possess zones of both irrotational and rotational flows. In fact, in real fluid flows (see Chapter 7) the rotational parts of the flow are often concentrated in boundary layers close to solid walls or bodies, while the flow far from the solid boundaries may be essentially irrotational,104 / KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3.4 Calculate the vorticity of the two-dimensional flowfield described by the equations v, = wr and v, = 0, in which w is a constant. A sketch of this flow is given below. SOLUTION Application of Eq. 3.11 yields a, uy ww, a or 8 . -0< Gms to Sat gl 4m yg = ot 0 = Be Evidently this isa rotational flow possessing a constant vorticity (over the whole flowfield) of 2w; this flowfield is well known and is called the forced vortex. It is clearly a rotational flowfield and since the radial component of velocity is everywhere zero, the streamlines of this flow are concentric circles. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3.5 When a viscous, incompressible fluid flows between two plates and the flow is laminar and two-dimensional, the velocity profile is parabolic and given by u = UCL — y*/b?) Calculate the shear stress 7 and rotation «. SOLUTION 4 tLe : A sketch shows the velocity profile and defines the terms; then we use Eqs. 1.12 and 3.12 to calculate shear stress and rotation.7 = piuliy =2nU.y/b? = ~2po = — pe ® pRoBLEMS / 105 2U, 9/67] = Uy/? © 12) (1.12) Itis interesting and significant that the rotation and vorticity are large where the shear stress is large. nn FILMS Lumley, J. L, Deformation of continuous media. NCFME/EDC Film No, 21608, Eneyelopaedia Britannica Educ. Corp. Lumley, J. L, Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions in fluid mechanis. NCFMF/EDC Film No, 21621, Eneyclopaedia Britannica Educ. Corp. Rouse, H. Mechanics of Fluids: Fundamental principles of flow. Film No. U45734, Media Library, Audiovisual Cen- ter, Univ. of Iowa, Shapiro, A. H. Vorticity. NCEME/EDC Film Nos, 21605 and 21606, Encyclopaedia Britannica Educ. Corp. ae PROBLEMS 3. A fluid flow has the following velocity components: w= I m/s or ft/s and v = 2x m/s or ft/s. Find an equation for and sketch the streamlines of this flow. 32. A 4m diameter tank is filled with water and then rotated atarate of » = 2a{] — e~)rad/s. At the tank walls viscosity prevents slip of fluid particles relative to the wall. What are the speed and the tangential and normal accelerations of those ‘uid particles next to the tank walls as a function of time? 33. A fluid particle moves so that in the Lagrangian frame ofreferencex = 31, y = 97, and z = 271°. Find the velocity and acceleration of the particle for times from zero to five seconds. A The path of a fluid particle is given by the hyperbola xy = 25 while at any time r the particle position isx = 577. ‘What are the x- and y+ components of the particle velocity and acceleration? 35, Calculate the accelerations in the flow of problem 3.1 36, Sketch the following flowfields and derive general ex- pressions for their components of acceleration: (a) w ve kOe v= 3(e)u = 4y0 = Ay (fu= v= 4 iu = 40 = O@u (4 = 4x, 0 = 0; w= day, v= 0: vy 2 = 0; (mv, = Ou, = e/r. 37. When an incompressible, nonviscous (see Chapter 5) fluid flows against a plate in a plane (two-dimensional) flow, an exact solution for the equations of motion for this flow is w= Ax, v = Ay, with A> 0 for the sketch shown. The coordinate origin is located at the stagnation point 0, where the flow divides and the local velocity is zero. Find the ve- locities and accelerations in the flow. Pp ° Problem 37 3.8. Fluid passes through this set of thin closely spaced blades, If the velocity V is 10 f1/s (or equivalently, 3 m/s), calculate the circulation for the flow. Problem 38106 / KINEMATICS OF FLUID MOTION 3.9, Derive the equation for vorticity in polar coordinates, 3.10 Calculate the vorticity for the flow in problem 3.1 3.11. For the lowtields of problem 3.6 derive expressions for vorticity, and state whether the flowfeld is rotational or irro- tational. 3.12. For the velocity profiles shown below derive expres- sions forthe vorticity Perabo, “BB 3:14. Calculate the vorticity for the flow of problem 3.7. 315. For the free vortex flow the velocities are v, = 5/r and vv, = 0. Assume that lengths are in feet or metres ancl times are in seconds. Plot the streamlines ofthis flow and calculate the accelerations and vorticity. Are there any interesting points in the flow? 3.16. For the forced vortex flow the velocities are 0, circle, ‘a ins ne 3.13. If the velocity profile in a passage of width 22 is given by the equation v/v, = (y/R)!" derive an expression for the vorticity. and v, = 0, Plot the streamlines of this flow and caleulate the accelerations and vorticity. Are there any interesting points in the flow?