Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153

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Computational Materials Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/commatsci

Seeing auxetic materials from the mechanics point of view: A structural review
on the negative Poisson’s ratio
Yunan Prawoto ⇑
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper summarizes research work related to materials with zero, or negative Poisson’s ratio, materi-
Received 28 December 2011 als which are also referred to as auxetic materials. This review puts an emphasis on computations and
Received in revised form 7 February 2012 aspects of their mechanics. It also considers diverse examples: from large structural, to biomedical appli-
Accepted 7 February 2012
cations. It is concluded that auxetic materials are technologically and theoretically important. While the
Available online 8 March 2012
development of the research has been dominated by periodic/ordered microstructures, the author pre-
dicts that future research will be in the direction of disordered microstructures utilizing the homogeni-
Keywords:
zation method.
Poisson’s ratio
Auxetic materials
Ó 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Periodic microstructure
Disordered microstructure
Homogenization

1. Introduction In his publication in 1999, Alderson claimed to have introduced

Although normal materials contract when they are stretched,
auxetic materials are opposite: they expand laterally when stretched
longitudinally. In a book published in 1944, Love described a mate-
rial with negative Poisson’s ratio [1]. According to the knowledge of
the author, that is the first engineering mechanics fact finding
recorded, although materials with either negative or zero Poisson’s
ratio may have been known to exist more than a 100 years ago.
The next documented evidence of an auxetic material was found
38 years after that, in 1982 by Gibson [2,3]. He realized the auxetic
effect in the form of the two-dimensional silicone rubber or alumi-
num honeycombs deforming by flexure of the ribs.
The intentional development of the concept was first pub-
lished in Science magazine in 1987 by Lakes 5 years after Gibson’s
finding [4,5]. In his publication, Lakes did not use the term ‘‘aux-
etic’’ to refer to these materials. This terminology came 4 years
later, in 1991. The word is derived from the word atvgsijo1
(read: auxetikos), which means ‘‘that which tends to increase’’
and which has its roots in the word atvg1i1 (read: auxesis),
which is the noun form of ‘‘increase’’. This terminology was
coined by Evans et al., when they first fabricated the microphor-
ous polyethylene with negative Poisson’s ratio [6–8]. The concept
development and subsequently the fabrication of this prototype
provided the momentum for the modern day auxetic material,
which is the object of this review.
⇑ Tel.: +60 167 279048; fax: +60 755 66159.
E-mail address: yunan.prawoto@gmail.com
the novel elastic property with a negative Poisson’s ratio that char-
acterizes an auxetic material. Such a material becomes thicker
widthwise when stretched lengthwise, and thinner when com-
pressed. This is apparently contradictory to the response of many
common materials, which become thinner when stretched.
In 2004, Yang et al. [9] focused their review on molecular auxet-
ics, paying attention more to molecular designs with a view towards
nanotechnology. As a complement to their reviews and also some
other available reviews, e.g. [10], which reviews the subject with
the intention of the incorporation into the undergraduate curricu-
lum, the present paper covers more a general understanding from
the mechanics point of view and especially incorporating develop-
ments since their publications [9,10]. Alderson also reviewed
developments in the modeling, design, manufacturing, testing,
and potential applications of auxetic cellular solids, polymers, com-
posites, and sensor/actuator devices in aerospace engineering [11].
Although not directly discussing auxetic materials, the most re-
cent review on this subject was published in Nature Materials, enti-
tled ‘‘Poisson’s ratio and modern materials’’. It was published at a
time when the present manuscript was being submitted for publi-
cation [12]. It mainly discusses the Poisson’s ratio. The auxetic
material is only part of the example of the larger topics of Poisson’s
ratio. That review accentuates the importance of auxetic materials
in modern engineering applications.
Reviews on this subject are available from long ago, e.g.
[12,13,9–11]. However, none of them focuses on its mechanics.
In contrast with the available reviews, the present review focuses
on the mechanics of auxetic materials.

0927-0256/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2012.02.012
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153 141

The aim of this short review is to give some bases for the under-
standing of the mechanics of auxetic materials, and report on the
research works over the past two decades, especially their
mechanical and computational aspects. It hopes to stimulate more
research works on this subject matter.

2. Poisson’s ratio in the mechanics of materials

Poisson’s Ratio is so named because it was invented by Simeon

Dennis Poisson (21 June 1787–25 April 1840) [14], a mathematical
genius who was born in Pithiviers, France. It is defined as the ratio
of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain
with respect to the direction of stretching force applied. Tensile
deformation is considered positive and compressive deformation
is considered negative. The definition of Poisson’s ratio contains a
minus sign, so that normal materials have a positive ratio. It is usu-
Fig. 1. Graphical
h i description of the relation between the Poisson’s ratio and the
ally represented by the lower case Greek nu, m. ð1þmÞ
value of ð12 mÞ for conventional structural materials.
Almost all common engineering materials have positive Pois-
son’s ratio, having a figure of close to 0.3 for most materials and
slightly less than 0.5 for rubbery materials [12,15]. It is logical to This restricts a conventional structural material to have its Pois-
think that Poisson’s ratio is typically positive. This agrees with son’s ratio to be m P 1/8. For a Poisson’s ratio to be m 6 0, the value
the microstructural point of view, whereby the reason for the usual of the bulk modulus must be much less than the shear modulus,
positive Poisson’s ratio is that inter-atomic bonds realign with K  G. Meanwhile, Eq. (3) can also be expressed as:
deformation. In order to do that, the system tends to maintain its
2G ð1 þ mÞ ¼ K ð1  2mÞ ð5Þ
density, resulting in contraction in the lateral direction. The corre-
lation between the Poisson’s ratio and the atomic packing density or
is known: for materials that are atomically dense, such as gold,
typically their Poisson’s ratio ? isotropic upper limit, which is ð3K  2GÞ
m¼ ð6Þ
0.5, while crystalline metals that are atomically less densely ð2G þ 6KÞ
packed, such as steels, have their Poisson’s ratio 0.3. Naturally, Eq. (6) is graphically depicted in Fig. 2. The figure also shows the
to compare common crystal structures, face centered cubic, hexag- contour line of m = 0. While classical mechanics treats Poisson’s ra-
onal closed packed, body centered cubic, and cubic diamond, their tio as a static component, a dynamic approach is also available. An-
Poisson’s ratios would be in sequence: mfcc,hcp P mbcc P mcd [16]. The other point of view for expressing Poisson’s ratio is by the speeds of
same reason and mechanism make the typical value of Poisson’s sound [19]:
ratio for ceramics, glass, and semi-conductors become 0.25–0.42
 2
[17–20]. 1 Vt
1
2 V
Most engineering materials have a higher shear modulus G md ¼  l 2 ð7Þ
than their bulk modulus K. By changing the microstructure of a Vt
1
Vl
material in such a way that the Poisson’s ratio m is lower, the val-
ues of K and G can be altered if E is kept constant. Naturally, where Vt is the transversal speed or shear wave velocity, Vl is the
decreasing the value of m to zero or below would result in a high longitudinal speed traveling in the particular material, and md is
shear modulus G relative to the bulk modulus K that can be the dynamic Poisson’s ratio. As an example, a liquid with a transver-
obtained. sal speed of Vt = 0 would have a Poisson’s ratio of 0.5, according to
From the continuum mechanics point of view, most materials Eq. (7). Another restriction using the concept of Rayleigh wave
resist a change in volume as determined by the bulk modulus K length is also available. The ratio of the Rayleigh wave velocity to
more than they resist a change in shape, as determined by the
shear modulus G. Meanwhile, the relation between E, G, and K is
as follows [21,19]:

E
G¼ ð1Þ
2 ð1 þ mÞ
and

E
K¼ ð2Þ
3 ð1  2mÞ
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), the following is obtained:
 
ð1 þ mÞ 3K
¼ ð3Þ
ð1  2mÞ 2G
A graphical depiction of this relationship is shown in Fig. 1. For
conventional structural engineering materials, the values of K are
typically larger than the values of G, which leads to
 
ð1 þ mÞ 3
P ð4Þ Fig. 2. Graphical description of the relation between the Poisson’s ratio and the
ð1  2mÞ 2 value of K and G.
142 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153
the shear wave velocity, a ¼ VVRt , depends only on the value of Pois-
son’s ratio of the medium, and it can be found as the admissible, real
and positive root of the following equation [22]:
 
2  md 2 8
a6  8a4 þ 8 a  ¼0
1  md ð1  md Þ
Again, this concept prevents Poisson’s ratio from being negative.
In general, Poisson’s ratio does not have an effect on the distri-
bution of stresses in plane elasticity problems that do not involve
body forces. For anisotropic materials, multiple Poisson’s ratios
need to be expressed. Furthermore, for orthotropic elastic materi-
als, six Poisson’s ratios are defined, see Fig. 3 [23–25]. Although
elasticity theory does not impose limits on Poisson’s ratios for such
materials, there is a specific inequality derived from energy consid-
erations. For Poisson’s ratios defined in other directions, some unu-
sual values may be obtained. In fact, Ting and Chen have
theoretically shown that Poisson’s ratio for anisotropic materials
can have either a positive or a negative value as long as the strain
energy density is positive [26,27].
While skeptics may say that thermodynamics restricts the com-
pressibility of an elastic material to be positive for stability and as a
result Poisson’s ratio can never be negative, the fact is that many
researchers have proven experimentally and computationally that
it is possible to have a material with negative or zero Poisson’s ra-
tio, e.g. [6,7,26,27,8,12,28–31]. Despite its controversial values and
concepts of Poisson’s ratio, one thing is sure: Poisson’s ratio is a
very interesting property for researchers and engineers alike who
work with applied mechanics. Furthermore, Poisson’s ratio has also
inspired material scientists and engineers to create new materials,
including auxetic ones.
3. Natural and man-made auxetic materials
3.1. Are there any natural auxetic materials?
This has been the common question over the past decades start-
ing in 1944, when Love reported a natural auxetic material, which
was quite controversial [1]. Although he suggested that this special
paradoxical value might be due to twinning of particular crystals,
some researchers say there are, while others say there are not.
The first group includes researchers who believe that auxetic mate-
rials are: cancellous bones, living cat skin, cow teat skin, some nat-
ural minerals such as a-Cristobalite (SiO2), pyrolytic graphites,
Fig. 3. Definition of the elastic moduli and Poisson’s ratio in isotropic and orthotropic materials [23].
single crystals such as pyrite (FeS2), and some types of zeolites
such as siliceous zeolite MFI-Silicalites [32,33,28,34–39]. However,
the majority of the experts in classical mechanics still belong to the
latter group because of the reason discussed previously, e.g., see
ð8Þ Eqs. (7) and (8).
While the existence of natural auxetic materials remains con-
troversial from the perspective of traditional mechanics, man-
made auxetic materials have been produced for some time. Cellu-
lar solids such as polymer or metallic foams with inverted or re-en-
trant cell structures, and anisotropic fibrous composites, are
among the examples of man-made auxetic materials. They are
microstructurally engineered [30,8,12,4,13,10,6,7], and are also
proven to be highly resistant to shear deformations but easy to de-
form volumetrically, i.e., the shear modulus, G, is much greater
than the bulk modulus, K, see Eqs. (1) and (2). Fig. 4 shows a basic
depiction of examples of the auxetic materials extracted from sev-
eral publications [40–45].
4. Classification of auxetic materials based on mechanics and
microstructural morphology
4.1. Mechanism and structure
The typical mechanism of man-made auxetic materials is
shown in Fig. 5. When a load is applied to the structure in one
direction (e.g., vertically), the structure expands in the perpendic-
ular direction. Therefore, the structure gets fatter, resulting in a
negative Poisson’s ratio.
Various auxetic materials have been discovered and fabricated
over the past decades, ranging from the macroscopic to micro-
scopic and to the molecular levels. The following classification is
mainly a classification via mechanical considerations. The author
classifies also for computational purposes; almost all of them are
based on this simple mechanism that is treated as a unit cell lead-
ing to a global stiffening effect. Readers interested in a classifica-
tion based on the materials are advised to refer elsewhere
[46,10,47].
4.2. Re-entrant structure
The adjective re-entrant here means (of an angle in a polygon)
greater than 180o (negative angle) and thus pointing inwards, sim-
ilar to that used in mathematics [48]. Gibson, Ashby, Evans, and
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153
Fig. 4. Examples of several auxetic structures extracted from several publications
[40–45].
Fig. 5. The basic mechanism of man-made auxetic materials.
Fig. 6. The basic hexagonal unit cell used to describe some re-entrant geometry
[2,116].
Alderson are among the pioneers working on this geometry [49,2].
Fig. 6 shows the basic principle of the structure. Theoretically, the
alignment of the diagonal ribs along the horizontal direction, when
stretched longitudinally, causes them to move apart along the ver-
tical direction, resulting in the expansion of the lateral movement.
Referring to Fig. 6, Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus in the load-
ing direction are given by
 
sin h hl þ sin h
m12 ¼
cos2 h
143
Fig. 7. The basic unit cell for re-entrant geometry analyzed by Lira et al. [50].
and
h 
l
þ sin h
E1 ¼ j ð10Þ
b cos3 h
where h, l, b, and h are as defined in Fig. 6, j = Esb(t/l)3 and E is the
intrinsic Young’s modulus.
While the early development of this type was dominated by
analytical approaches, several researchers also added some com-
putational approaches to their analytical ones, especially in more
recent publications. Lira et al. are among those that incorporated
their analytical technique with finite element analysis [50]. They
evaluated the transverse shear properties of a centersymmetric
honeycomb structure using analytical and finite element models.
The cellular structure features a unit cell geometry that allows
in-plane auxetic deformations, and multiple topologies to design
the honeycomb for multifunctional applications. The out-of-plane
properties are calculated using a theoretical approach based on
Voigt and Reuss theories. Their honeycomb topology provides five
sets of geometric parameters, enabling the material designer to
engineer optimum and multifunctional cellular cores. Fig. 7 shows
the unit cell of the re-entrant structure evaluated. Their analytical
formulas can be used to perform a parametric analysis for the de-
sign of the cores in classical and multifunctional sandwich con-
structions [51,50]:
sin hða þ sin h þ 2c sin uÞ
m12 ¼ ð11Þ
cos hðcos h þ 2c cos uÞ
By setting the angle h to be a re-entrant (negative) angle, Bezazi
and Lira carried out their analytical approaches, which were sup-
ported by computation.
4.3. Polymeric structure
The characteristics of this type of structure can be interpreted
by a simple 2D model, as shown in Fig. 8 [6,7,52]. They consist of
interconnected networks of nodules and fibrils. If a tensile load is
applied, the fibrils cause lateral nodule translation, leading to a
negative Poisson’s ratio. A series of auxetic polymeric materials
have been produced in the form of foams, fibers, and composites.
Many molecular-level auxetic polymers have also been synthe-
sized. Fig. 9 shows one of the examples of polyurethane foam, both
regular and auxetic [43]. Referring to Fig. 9, Grima explains that the
ð9Þ
auxetic foam consists of chains of rigid rod molecules connected by
144 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153

Fig. 8. The basic mechanism of polymer auxetic materials [6,7,52].

Fig. 9. Example of polyurethane foams (left: conventional and right: auxetic) [43].

flexible spacer groups along the chain lengths. The flexible spacer
groups are attached to the ends of some of the rigid rods connected
terminally or laterally. In the relaxed state, all the rigid rods are
oriented along the chain directions. Auxetic behavior occurs when
there is a rotation of the laterally attached rods upon stretching of
the foam. This agrees with the basic concept highlighted by He
et al. [53]. Interestingly, this type of foam can be produced easily
in any laboratory from commercially available conventional foams
through a process involving volumetric compression, heating it be-
Fig. 10. Basic model of the unit cell for chiral structure analysis used by Prall and
yond its softening temperature, and then cooling it while under Lakes [54].
compression [43], also see the Appendix for the technique formu-
lated by Lakes back in 1984 [4]. Analytical and computational ap-
proaches to this type of structure are difficult to find if available at
TL
all. /¼ ð13Þ
6Es I
4.4. Chiral structure or

The adjective chiral here originally meant a molecule that is not Es t 3 d

T¼ / ð14Þ
superimposable on its mirror image, or a particle surrounded by 2L
unique groups attached to it [48]. The original etymology is jiq 1 3
where I ¼ 12 t d. The strains, therefore, become:
(kheir) meaning ‘‘hand’’. However, researchers in this area use
r
the terminology to mean a physical property of spinning. Based e1 ¼ /
R ð15Þ
on the author’s observations, this type of structure is the most r
actively researched, especially from the mechanical and computa- e2 ¼/
R
tional point of views. According to the theoretical and
experimental investigations performed by Prall and Lakes [54], Poisson’s ratios can then be calculated as:
the Poisson’s ratio of a chiral structure for in-plane deformations e2
can be tailored to be around 1, see Fig. 4 bottom left. Their ana-
m12 ¼ 
e1 ð16Þ
lytical basis is summarized in Fig. 10 [54]. With simple mechanics, e
they analyzed the deformation, e, to be:
m21 ¼  1
e2
e ¼ r  sin / Another pioneer in this structure is Wojciechowski, who pub-
lished his first research on this subject back in 1987 [55]. He and
e1 ¼ r/  cos h ð12Þ his group have been very actively researching this material even
e2 ¼ r/  sin h until today [56–67]. They have been followed by other researchers
such as Ishibashi and Iwata [68], Bornengo et al. [69], Spadoni et al.
in which, for small deflection, r sin/ ’ r/ and h = 30o. By using the [70], Vasiliev [71], Grima [72], and Milton [73].
elementary beam theory, if the thickness is t, the deflection eventu- The chiral based structure has developed into various shapes
ally becomes: from around 2005. Grima et al. published their research on auxetic
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153 145

the Young’s modulus E are independent of the direction of the load-

ing. Furthermore, they developed star-shaped structures from gen-
eral isosceles triangles, see Fig. 13. For their systems, Poisson’s
ratios for loading in the Ox1 or Ox2 are:
 
b cos a þ 2h þ acos 2h
m21 ¼ m1
12 ¼
    ð18Þ
tan 2a þ 2h bsin a þ 2h þ a sin h
2

This equation shows that one can adjust the Poisson’s ratio by
adjusting the values of both a and h. Eq. (18) can be easily derived
from the trigonometric relation of:

b
a ¼ cos1 ð19Þ
2a

h h
X 1 ¼ 2b  sin a þ þ 2a  sin ð20Þ
2 2

and

h
X 2 ¼ 2a  cos a þ ð21Þ
2

and

dej
mij ¼  ð22Þ
dei
where a, X1, X2 are as shown in Fig. 12.

Fig. 11. (a) The structures of NAT, EDI and THO in the (0 0 1) plane (shown here are
the conformation with the rigid tetrahedral) and the off-axis plots for (b) Poissons
ratios, (c) Youngs moduli and (d) shear moduli in the (0 0 1) plane for NAT
frameworks of different rigidity [75].
behaviour from rotating rigid units [41,43], Attard and Grima
published from a rotating rhombi [74], and rotating tetrahedra
[75]. They made an analysis of the role of the tetrahedra found in
the frameworks of the predicted auxetic zeolites natrolite (NAT),
thomsonite (THO), and edingtonite (EDI) for generating auxeticity.
This related the theoretical human-made chiral with the natural
zeolites. Fig. 11 shows their major findings, where the three-
dimensional tetrahedra in the zeolite framework are perfectly rigid
and simply rotate relative to each other. Then their 2D projected
behavior in the (0 0 1) plane becomes equivalent to the idealized
two-dimensional rotating squares model with a Poisson’s ratio of
1. Their works are significant because they were the first to be
able to provide a link between the modeling approach, which con-
siders only the 2D projected framework of NAT in the auxetic
(0 0 1) plane, with a more realistic approach involving the tetrahe-
dra, thus showing that modeling approaches are complementary
and not conflicting with each other.
Although more research works on this chiral structure are avail-
able, the above publications are representative of those from the
mechanical point of view.
4.5. Star-shape structure
Theocaris was among the first to propose the star-shaped
microstructure. He used the numerical homogenization approach
in his research [76]. Other researchers working on this structures
are Grima, Gatt, Ellul, and Chetcuti [77,78]. Fig. 12 shows the
mechanism of the auxetic characteristics of this type of structure
[77]. Referring to the figure, the Poisson’s ratio is 1, while their
analytical Young’s modulus is:
pffiffiffi
4 3K h
E¼    ð17Þ
a2 1 þ cos p3 þ h
where a is the length of the sides, h is the hinging angle, and Kh is
the force constant due to hinging. Both the Poisson’s ratio m and
4.6. Other (ordered and disordered) structures
The ones belonging to this group are: square, triangular and
rectangular or their combination. Grima, Manicaro, and Attard
are among the ones working on the ordered structures involving
different-sized squares and rectangles [44]. The same group also
works on rectangles with different connectivities [44]. Recently,
there has also been work on disordered structures. Blumenfeld
and Edwards are among the very few researchers working on dis-
ordered structures [79]. In the author’s opinion, the disordered
structure approach will be the main topic of interest for research
in the near future, e.g. [80].
Of more than a hundred papers read by the author, most of the
modeling of auxetic materials have been mainly based on ordered
structures, despite the existence of auxetic behavior in disordered
structures. Therefore, in this subsection, more emphasis is put on
disordered structures: the former structures (periodic/ordered tri-
angle, rectangle, square and their combination) are here omitted.
The work of Blumenfeld is based on three auxetons shown in
Fig. 14. Their global auxetic behaviour is the result of local folding
and unfolding of auxetons when stressed. Fig. 15 depicts the math-
ematical model of the disordered combination of the auxetons
[79]. In doing so, they use the fabric tensor Qij, which plays an
important role in modeling auxetic strains, and also vectors for
each auxeton’s edge, rcg, and Rcg, a vector that extends from the
centroid of each auxeton. They further show that the tensor
appearing in the isostaticity stress equations are the symmetrical
part of Ccg, summed over the cells:
1 1 X 
Qg ¼   C cg þ ðC cg ÞT   ð23Þ
2
where C cg cg cg  p
ij ¼ r i Rj and  is the 2 rotation matrix in the plane (the
Levi- Civita matrix) and CT is the transpose of C. Eventually, the total
strain can be written as:
g
ecg g g g
ij ¼ Eijkl rkl þ Q ijkl hkl ðr Þ ð24Þ
where the first term Egijkl rgkl is the expansion strain and the second
term Q gijkl hkl ðrg Þ is the strain due to rotation [79]. Subsequently,
Poisson’s ratio can be calculated conveniently.
146 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153

Fig. 12. Example of star-shaped auxetic structure. Stretching of these systems result in an increase in the angle h between the triangles which results in a more open
structure. Note that if these systems are viewed from the perspective of the empty spaces (unshaded) between the triangles (shaded), then these systems can be described
either in terms of their star shaped perforations, or triangular shaped perforations in the special case when the angles between the triangles is 60° (the middle structure) [77].

Fig. 13. A more general connected triangles system constructed out of isosceles
triangles rather than equilateral triangles [77]. Fig. 15. A section of a disordered auxetic structure, made of joining auxetons at
their contacts. The contacts are joined by straight lines (blue dashed) into a triangle
[79].

lead to intelligent textiles having anti-inflammatory and anti-odor

Fig. 14. auxetons made of three-contact building blocks used by Blumenfeld. Each
auxeton can expand and rotate when forces are applied to its ends [79].
5. The use of auxetic materials
Taking advantage of the characteristics of auxetic materials,
suitable applications of the auxetic materials are enormous. Stud-
ies and experiments have demonstrated that auxetic materials can
improve mechanical properties, including shear resistance, hard-
ness value (indentation resistance), fracture toughness, fatigue
crack propagation, etc., as compared to the conventional materials
from which they are made. In general, applications of auxetic
materials are good mainly in the field, where either one of the fol-
lowings are needed:
 Poisson’s ratio being negative or zero.
 Large shear resistance.
 Hardness improvement.
 Lower fatigue crack propagation.
 Large toughness and modulus resilience.
 Vibration absorption.
Table 1 summarizes the applications summarized from various
research works [81,11,82,83,13,84,29]. In the textile industry,
Alderson proposed and tested the use of an auxetic fabric formed
by auxetic filaments or yarns to deliver active agents that could
effects [81]. Avellanada has used it for piezoelectric sensors [82].
Friis et al. see its potential in surgical implants [83]. It also has
more structural potential, such as in vanes for aircraft gas turbine
engines [29,84], or other military devices from helmets to sonar
receivers [85,86]. He reported in his patent that auxetic polymer
is preferred to a non-auxetic for piezoelectric composites
consisting of piezoelectric ceramic rods, due to the auxetic matrix’s
converting the compressive planar stress into a compressive
longitudinal stress and therefore strengthens the incident vertical
compressive stress. Skeptics may say that there are not many other
applications related to mechanics, but most applications are less
used for stress carrying materials so far. However, in the author’s
opinion its potential is quite promising.
5.1. Limitations
Generally, auxetic materials need substantial porosity. There-
fore, this type of material is less stiff than the solids from which
they are made. Eventually, this causes limitations on the structural
applications of the materials with negative Poisson’s ratio [87].
Consequently, for applications that require substantial load-bear-
ing, they are not the best choice.
6. Analytical and computational aspects
6.1. Constants influencing computational approach
6.1.1. Elastic moduli
The consequences of the Poisson’s ratio’s being negative include
significant changes in Young’s modulus E and the Shear modulus G.
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153 147

Table 1
Summary of the applications of the auxetic materials (in alphabetical order) [81,11,82,83,13,84,29].

Field (Existing and potential) Application and the rationale

Aerospace Vanes for gas turbine engine, thermal protection, aircraft nose-cones, wing panel, sounds and vibration absorber, rivet
Automotive Bumper, cushion, thermal protection, sounds and vibration absorber parts that need shear resistant, fastener
Biomedical Bandage, wound pressure pad, dental floss, artificial blood vessel (the wall thickness increases when a pulse of blood flows through
it), artificial skin, drug release unit, ligament anchors. Surgical implants (similar to that of bone characteristics)
Composite Fiber reinforcement (because it reduce the cracking between fiber and matrix)
Military Helmet, bullet proof vest, knee pad, gloce, protective gear (better impact property)
(defence)
Sensors/ Hydrophone, piezoelectric devices, various sensors (the low bulk modulus makes them more sensitive to hydrostatic pressure)
actuators
Textile Fibers, functional fabric, color-change straps or fabrics, threads
Industry

Referring to Eq. (1), one can immediately obtain the higher resis-
tance to shear strain, G, caused by twisting or tearing forces
[88,21,19]. Practically, the material would become highly com-
pressible but difficult to shear; low E, high G.
Choi was among the first to explicitly calculate the elastic mod-
ulus of an auxetic material. He used the model of the re-entrant
foam as shown in Fig. 16 [89]. Starting from the simple principle
of Egli [90], he used the relationship
  n between the density ratio
and Young’s modulus ratio, EEs / qq , where the subcript (s) is


s
the solid, and the superscript (⁄) means the cellular. With some
mathematical manipulations, he was able to use it via the volume
change ratio.
Meanwhile, the Castigliano principle was also used:
Z
@U X n
M i @M i
dp ¼ ¼ dz ð25Þ
@P i z EI @P

where U is the strain energy, Mi is the bending moment exerted at

each beam, E is Young’s modulus, I is the area moment of inertia,
and n is the number of beams in the structure. Based on the free
body diagram shown in Fig. 16, the bending moment of each com-
ponent was then calculated. Using Eq. (25), Young’s modulus of the
conventional foam becomes:

2
Ec q
¼ 0:88 c ð26Þ
Es qs
For the re-entrant foam in the same figure, the value becomes
[89]:

2
Er HðuÞ 1 qc
¼ 0:05 p  ð27Þ
Ec JðuÞ 1 þ sin 2  u qs

where H(u), J(u) are geometrical functions of the particular re-en-

trant form.
6.1.2. Material hardness
The traditional hardness test is based on the resistance to
indentation. The following equation describes their relation:
 c
E strength rY and less stiffness E than conventional foams with the
H
ð1  m2 Þ
where c is a constant to which the load is applied. For uniform pres-
sure, c is 1. When a non-auxetic material is subjected to hardness
testing, the force compresses the material, and the material com-
pensates by spreading in the directions perpendicular to and away
from the direction of the impact. However, when the hardness
indentor is applied to an auxetic material, the auxetic material will
contract laterally. The material flows into (compresses towards) the
vicinity of the impact, as shown in Figure 17. This creates an area of
denser material, which is more resistant to indentation. Therefore,
the hardness of an auxetic material is higher. Fig. 17 shows the
graphical depiction of this mechanism [10,47]. Experimental
Fig. 16. The basic free body diagram (FBD) assumption for regular tetrakaideca-
hedron (left) and re-entrant unit cell (right) proposed by Choi [89].
investigation showed that re-entrant foams had higher yield
ð28Þ same original relative density. It has also been further proven that
re-entrant foams’ density increases under indentation due to the in-
crease in shear stiffness [91].
6.1.3. Fracture mechanics characteristics
Fig. 18 shows the crack growth observation done by Maiti [92].
Liu discussed in detail the fracture mechanics side of auxetic mate-
rials by citing Maiti’s works [52]. The non-singular stress field at
the distance r for a middle crack of 2a with crack tip radius rtip
and stress intensity factor KI is [52,93,94]:
r 
K
I KI
ffi þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tip
r ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð29Þ
2p r 2pr 2r
148 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
K rIc 1 þ sin p2  u
¼ 0:53 ð37Þ
K Ic 1 þ cos 2u

where K rIc is fracture toughness of the re-entrant foam.

6.2. Numerical analysis with hierarchical structure

Fig. 17. The basic mechanism deformation behaviors near the hardness indentor
There is a moderately high number of papers discussing compu-
tips [10,47].
tational approaches to the study of auxetic materials, e.g. [50,95–
97]. Here, the author limits the review to multi-level ones, because
it is believed that this type of approach will become the major
trend in the near future.

6.2.1. Unit cell

Almost all computational approaches reviewed use the unit cell
concept, directly or indirectly, for calculation. Many of them are in
the form of testing the analytical approaches they developed. Take
Scarpa’s work for example [97]. Fig. 19 shows the unit cell Scarpa
used. In his research, he combined analytical, numerical, and
experimental analysis on the compressive strength of hexagonal
chiral honeycombs due to elastic buckling of the unit cells under
Fig. 18. Crack propagation observed by Maiti. (a) Is through the bending failure on
flatwise compressive loading. His analytical elastic collapse for
the non-vertical cell elements and (b) is through the tensile fracture of the vertical the hexagonal chiral cell was:
cell elements [92].
b p 4b2
’ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ðK b b0:8 þ K a aÞ ð38Þ
Ec 3ð1  m2c Þ 8p þ 3 3a2
Subsequently, the force acting on the cell rib is:
where Kb is 7.2 and Ka is 0.08. The equation was then compared
Z r tip  
ð 2
Þþt
KI K I r  with the computational results as shown in Fig. 20. The result of
F¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tip r tip dr ð30Þ
ð
rtip
Þ 2pr 2pr 2r the unit cell can then be used as data to perform a larger scale com-
2
putation, provided they have the correct boundary condition. This is
Furthermore, with the thickness of the rib being t, and the first the basic idea of homogenization.
order of the Taylor expansion, Eq. (30) is simplified to:
pffi
6.2.2. Homogenization
l t
F ¼ 2:38 K I pffiffiffiffi ð31Þ Several introductory variations of the homogenization theory
p l are available, but they are beyond the scope of this review. How-
K I is the stress intensity of the conventional foams and l is the rib ever, for the sake of the reader’s convenience, part of the author’s
length. The stress due to the bending moment is given by: previously published introduction is simplified and used [98], see
the Appendix. Theocaris, Lee, and Choi were among the first to
Fl
F ¼ 2:12 : ð32Þ use homogenization theory in auxetic materials research. Lee and
t3 Choi applied homogenization using commercial code in their re-
Substituting Eq. (31) the stress becomes: search using regular and re-entrant structures, while Theocaris

2 used it for star-shaped structures [99,76]. Similar to Eqs. (A-3)
1 l and (A-11), Choi formulated his equation into:
F ¼ 5:05 K I pffiffiffiffi ð33Þ
p t
Z Z Z 
1
The crack propagation takes place when r P rf, where rf is the lim Uðx; yÞdX ¼ Xðx; yÞdY dX ð39Þ
fracture strength of the cell rib. The critical stress intensity factor
e!0 X X jYj Y

or the fracture toughness can therefore be calculated as:

They concluded that the microscale integration could be re-
pffiffiffiffiffi t
2 placed by an average value integration for a general Y periodic
K I ¼ 0:20rf pl ð34Þ function U. Recalling the weak form of linear elasticity problem fi-
l
  n nite element:
Using the relation of qq / tl , the stress intensity factor is pro-
s Z Z Z
portional to the normalized density: @uk @ v i

Eijkl dX ¼ bi v i dX þ t i v i dC ð40Þ
K I q  X @xi @xj X C
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:19 ð35Þ
rf pl qs
They then obtained the homogenized elasticity tensor EH (see
For the re-entrant structure, a similar value becomes: also Appendix for the basic Homogenization method for auxetic
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi materials):
K Ic 1 þ sin p2  u q
Z !
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:10 ð36Þ 1 @ vkl
p
rf pl 1 þ cos 2u qs Eijkl ¼ Eijkl  Eijkl dY ð41Þ
jYj Y @yq
where K Ic
is the fracture toughness of re-entrant foams and u is the
rib angle (see Fig. 18). where vklp is the microscale parameter. Conveniently, the effective
Experimentally, Choi showed that for his re-entrant foam, the elastic modulus, Ee, and Poisson’s ratio, me, can be obtained from
following was observed: the plane stress assumption as follows:
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153 149

Fig. 19. Unit cell used by Scarpa. left: based for analytical approach, right: brick element to model the computation [97].

and
Z
1
E  e dV ð43Þ
jVj V

Periodic boundary condition over the unit-cell leads displace-

ment field u such as:

u ¼ Ex þ v 8x 2 V ð44Þ

with v a periodic fluctuation. It takes the same value at two homol-

ogous points on opposite faces of V, whereas the traction vector
t = r  n takes opposite values, n being the normal vector. By apply-
ing either macroscopic strain or stress, one can compute the effec-
tive elastic moduli fourth-rank tensor C and compliance tensor S of
materials:

R¼C:EE¼S:R ð45Þ
Dirrrenberger evaluated the elastic moduli of three periodic
Fig. 20. Comparison between FE and analytical non-dimensional collapse stress auxetic lattices: hexachiral, rotachiral, and tetra-antichiral. The
used by Scarpa [97]. hexachiral was found to possess high in-plane elastic moduli and
a Poisson’s ratio close to 1. With its circular (or elliptic) liga-
ments, the auxetic rotachiral lattice provides a parameter for tun-
2 3 2 3 ing the microstructure for specific absorption properties. This
EH1111 EH1122 0 1 me 0 lattice can exhibit a highly negative Poisson’s ratio when loaded
6 H 7 E 6
4 E2211 EH2222 0 5¼ 4 me 1 0 7
5 out-of-plane. The orthotropy of the tetra-antichiral lattice was
1  m2e 1me
0 0 EH1212 0 0 2
found to have a higher stiffness E in the principal directions of
the cell. For this microstructure, the auxetic effects in the plane
Based on their studies on using a homogenization technique, are restricted to short angle intervals around the principal
they concluded that matrix material properties do not significantly directions.
affect Poisson’s ratio of the regular and re-entrant honeycomb Pasternak and Dyskin also used the homogenization concept in
structure. Young’s modulus of the regular honeycomb structure in- their research [100]. They showed that a multiscale distribution of
creases with volume fraction. The regular honeycomb structure spherical inclusions with a Poisson’s ratio having a different sign
has a decreasing Poisson’s ratio, with an increasing volume frac- from that of the elastic isotropic matrix can increase (up to two
tion. The re-entrant structure has its m value dependent on the in- orders of magnitude) the effective Youngs modulus considerably,
verted angle of the cell edge. Young’s modulus of the re-entrant even when the Youngs moduli of the matrix and the inclusions
honeycomb structure decreases with an increase in the inverted are the same.
angle. The author believes that the homogenization concept is very
Another work worth presenting here is that of Dirrenberger useful when pursuing a computational approach in this area,
[95]. He analyzed three auxetic periodic lattices. The elastic moduli regardless of the fact that many researchers did not use it
were computed and its anisotropy was investigated by using the intentionally.
finite element method combined with the numerical homogeniza-
tion technique. Similar to the work of Choi, Dirrenberger used
homogenization in the form of macroscopic stress and strain 7. Experimental approach
tensors R and E defined by the spatial averages:
Z The main experimental approaches in auxetic material research
1
R  r dV ð42Þ remain the challenge of prototype making and its mechanical char-
jVj V acterization. The first experimental approach used was that of
150 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153
Lakes [4]. For the reader’s convenience, his technique is appended
to this article as the Appendix.
In 1991, Alderson and Evans also published their method of fab-
rication of microporous polyethylene having a negative Poisson’s
ratio [101]. Their method involved a thermo-forming processing
route consisting of three separate stages: compaction, sintering,
and extrusion. It can produce an expanded UHMWPE (ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene) microstructure that possesses
negative Poisson’s ratios. They proved that their material produced
was homogeneous and continuous, and most importantly, has
Poisson’s ratio values varying from 0 to 1.24, depending on the
applied strain, in the radial direction, and approximately 0 in the
axial direction. Fig. 21 shows their representative works.
Ten years after Lakes first published his fabrication method,
Chan and Evans published another method for auxetic foam
[102]. Bianchi et al. produced auxetic open cell foams for curved
and arbitrary shapes [103]. These researchers based their fabrica-
tion on polyethylene/polymeric foam. Their typical results are
anisotropic structures. Other researchers in this category are
Donoghue, Kettle, Neale, Pickles, Bezazi, Scarpa, Larson, Remillat,
Sigmund, Bouwstra, Simkins, Ravirala, Davies, etc. [104–
106,51,107]. In terms of the manufacturing process, besides the
heat treatment, thermo-forming, and compaction methods, there
are also rapid prototyping techniques such as micro machining
and fusion mold deposition (FDM) and HP-PA powder stereo-
lythography.
Other groups of materials fabricated are in textile, e.g. [107,108]
and carbon fibers, e.g. [109]. Details of the manufacturing methods
are beyond the scope of this review.
Experimental methods that are related to mechanics involve
characterization and functional experiments. Starting with experi-
ments that are as simple as what Gaspar et al. often used, simple
experimental tools to support their mathematical modeling
[110–112], to Clarke, who uses mechanical/conventional charac-
terization [113], to Lethbridge et al., who use direct, static mea-
surement of the single-crystal Young’s moduli of the zeolite
natrolite, and to using mechanical to Brillouin scattering and ultra-
sound [114].
Tee, Spadoni, Scarpa, and Ruzzene researched wave propagation
in auxetic tetrachiral [115]. They performed numerical and
experimental investigations on flexural wave propagation. A wave
approach is applied to the representative unit cell of the honey-
comb to calculate its dispersion characteristics and phase constant
surfaces varying the geometric parameters of the unit cell. The
modal density of the tetrachiral lattice and of a sandwich panel hav-
ing the tetrachiral as core is extracted from the integration of the
Fig. 21. Micrograph of the auxetic ultra high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE) developed by Alderson and Evans [101].
phase constant surfaces, and compared with the experimental ones
obtained from measurements using scanning laser vibrometers.
Other experimental works are available. However, the ones re-
lated to our scope have been sufficiently reviewed here.
8. Final remarks
Auxetic materials have a lot of potential applications from bio-
medical to automotive and defense industries. Also, these materi-
als could potentially be used for completely new structures with
special functions. However, more research work needs to be done
for further understanding of these materials and their applications
to real components. From the mechanical and computational point
of view, it is predicted that research on this subject will be domi-
nated by the unit cell concept, hierarchical, homogenization of
both periodic/ordered and disordered cells. Until recently, almost
all relevant papers have been based on ordered structures, which
is convenient for the purpose of analysis. However, in the near fu-
ture, the work presumably will be dominated by study of disor-
dered structures since that analysis is closer to real material
structures. The author believes that such materials, with little
existing understanding of deformations in the presence of disorder,
will require a newer theory and computational approach that
could go beyond the currently available homogenization concept.
Acknowledgments
Funding by Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) through FRGS
program titled: Fundamental study of auxetic materials: Analyti-
cal, Computational, and Experimental Approaches is gratefully
acknowledged.
Appendix A
A.1. Technique for producing auxetic polymeric foams
Note: The following procedure is adapted from Lakes published
paper [4].
The mould: Aluminum square tube, 100 square, for a mould. If
too large a mould is used, heat transfer will be poor, and only
the outer portion of the foam will be transformed.
 Preheat furnace to about 160°–170°C.
 Either measure or mark foam for later determination of strains.
Mark foam in all 3 orthogonal directions, i.e., two adjacent
corners and down one side.
 (optional: this is not necessary if sufficient care is taken in
removing wrinkles) Lubricate sides of square aluminum tube
with vegetable oil. Spray cooking oil (PAM) can also be used,
but does not seem to work better. DO NOT use a petroleum dis-
tillate base lubricant; it will smell terrible when heated.
 Stuff the foam in the tube. It works well to start the foam
slightly by hand and then work it up gently with a tongue
depressor to remove wrinkles.
 Pull the foam a little on both ends to get rid of creases created
by stuffing the material. This procedure will result in a pre
stretched sample in the tube. The actual original length of the
sample must be used when determining the amount of pre
compression to apply.
 Place the compression device and end plates on the stuffed tube.
 If the desired specimen length is less than the square tube size,
select the correct length of cut tubing [pipe] within the mould
to compress the foam longitudinally by the same amount as
transversely. Alternatively, cut the foam proportionally longer
than the square tube length and do not use pipe.
 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153 151

 Push the pipe down on the loose end plate such that the foam is and, using the homogenization principle, we use x and y in micro-
compressed evenly at the end. Try not to push too fast; this may scale coordinate (see Fig. A-1),
contribute to the uneven distribution of compression along the
1 2 2
length of the specimen. uðx; yÞ ¼ u0 ðxÞ þ  u1 ðx; yÞ þ  u ðx; yÞ þ . . . . . . for y
2
 Gently tighten down the side screws to hold the cut pipe in
 x= ðA-6Þ
place.
 Place assembly in centre of furnace or oven. A kitchen oven is and
sufficient.
1
 Leave the foam in the oven for a predetermined amount of time. v ðx; yÞ ¼ v 0 ðxÞ þ  v 1 ðx; yÞ þ 2 v 2 ðx; yÞ þ . . . . . . for y
The gray polyester foams transform better at a slightly lower 2
temperature for a longer amount of time, about 20 min maxi-  x= ðA-7Þ
mum. The white/cream colored polyether foam seems to be
or
more sensitive with respect to melting together; 17–18 min. is
appropriate. uðx; yÞ ’ u0 ðxÞ þ  u1 ðx; yÞ ðA-8Þ
 Remove and cool the specimen completely. Taking the speci-
and
men out of the mould before complete cooling may result in
premature release of the pre compression. It may be helpful v ðx; yÞ ’ v 0 ðxÞ þ  v 1 ðx; yÞ ðA-9Þ
to release foam ribs which have stuck together: stretch the
specimen gently in each of three directions. Congratulations!
Meanwhile, the gradient of u and v are:
You have made negative Poisson’s ratio foam (also called anti- 5 uðx; yÞ ¼ 5x u ðxÞ þ 5x u ðx; yÞ þ 5y u1 ðx; yÞ
0 1

rubber, dilational material, or auxetic material). ðA-10Þ

5 v ðx; yÞ ¼ 5x v 0 ðxÞ þ 5x v 1 ðx; yÞ þ 5y v 1 ðx; yÞ
 Measure the amount of permanent compression retained by the
specimen by either measuring the new distance between the Combine Eq. (A-5) with the above equations gives:
marks or by measuring the size of the transformed sample. Z 0
!
 Other kinds of moulds are possible and have been used success- @uk @u1k @ v 0i @ v 1i
Eijkl þ þ dX
fully by others. X @xl @yl @xj @yj
Z " !
#
@u1k @ v 0i @ v 1i @u0k @u1k @ v 1i
A.2. Homogenization theory applied for auxetic computation þ  Eijkl þ þ þ dX
X @xi @xj @yj @xl @yl @xj
Z
This subsection is extracted from author’s previously pub- @u1 @ v 1i
lished works and some other publications, e.g. [98,99]. In this þ 2 Eijkl k dX
C @xl @xj
theory, the local constitutive structure is thought to have a locally Z Z
   
specified periodic unit cell as shown in Fig. A-1. Hence, every ¼ bi v 0i þ v 1i dX þ t i v 0i þ v 1i dC ðA-11Þ
X C
physical variable field on this material support can be expressed
by the combination of the averaged part with the local distur- when  ? 0, it becomes:
bance as depicted in part (b) of the figure. Assuming that the Z 0
!
periodicity, , should be sufficiently small, every physical field @uk @u1k @ v 0i @ v 1i
Eijkl þ þ dXþ
u(x, y) in total can be represented by the following asymptotic X @xl @yl @xj @yj
expansion in : Z Z
¼ bi v 0i dX þ t i v 0i dC ðA-12Þ
1 2 2 X C
uðx; yÞ ¼ u0 ðxÞ þ  u1 ðx; yÞ þ  u ðx; yÞ þ . . . . . . for y
2 can be separated to:
 x= ðA-1Þ Z 0
0

@uk @u1k @v i
or, lim Eijkl þ dX
x!0 X @xl @yl @xj
Z Z 
uðx; yÞ ’ u0 ðxÞ þ  u1 ðx; yÞ ðA-2Þ
¼ lim bi v 0i dX þ t i v 0i dC ðA-13Þ
0 1 x!0 X C
where {u , u } are functions for the averaged part and disturbance in
the coordinates {x, y}, respectively. Owing the periodicity of func- and
tion u in the y-coordinates, the following two equations are power Z 0

@uk @u1k @ v 1i
tool for formulation: lim Eijkl þ dX ¼ 0 ðA-14Þ
x!0 X @xi @yi @yj
@ @u 1 @u
uðx; yÞ ¼ þ ðA-3Þ Using our Eq. (A-11), we can rewrite into
@xi @xi  @yi Z Z Z 
1
and lim Uðx; yÞ dX ¼ Uðx; yÞdY dX ðA-15Þ
x!0 X X jYj Y
Z Z Z 
1 Eqs. (A-13) and (A-14) eventually become:
lim uðx; yÞdV ¼ uðx; yÞdY dV ðA-4Þ
x!0 V V jYj Y Z Z 0
0

1 @uk @u1k @v i
where Y denotes for a volume of unit cell. These two equations or Eijkl þ dY dX
X jYj Y @xl @yl @xj
similar forms of those two were mainly used for computational ap- Z Z
proach in auxetic materials too. To use the principle in FEA to com- ¼ bi v 0i dX þ t i v 0i dC ðA-16Þ
X C
pute the elastic modulus, recall the weak form of linear elasticity
problem finite element: and
Z Z Z Z Z 0

@uk @ v i 1 @uk @u1k @ v 1i

Eijkl dX ¼ bi v i dX þ t i v i dC ðA-5Þ Eijkl þ dY dX ¼ 0 ðA-17Þ
X @xl @xj X C X jYj Y @xi @yi @yj
152 Y. Prawoto / Computational Materials Science 58 (2012) 140–153

Fig. A-1. (a) A frame of multi-scaling in materials using the homogenization theory. (b) Local deviation in the field variable to be embedded into the rationally smoothed
distribution [98].

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