1.8 L. HERTANU ‘Concepts of hierarchical control are based on functionality and hardware architecture, Functionality and hardware/sofiware interplay is an iterative process that helps configure a control and management system for a given enterprise. ‘The concept of hierarchical control should be viewed in terms of functionality and hardwarc/software architecture ‘The term functionality applics to a well-defined task structure that meets the challenges of a modern integrated industrial ‘enterprise operation, whereas the term architecture encom- passes a variety of hardware/software building blocks that ‘change more rapidly with the advancement of microclectron- is, optoclectronics, software, and digital technology. FUNCTIONALITY ‘The most commonly used image of the overall task structure that illustrates the functional hierarchy of an industrial enter- prise, ie, process plant, manufacturing plant, power plant, ‘energy distribution network is the pyramid (Figure 1.82). ‘The pyramid functional hierarchy is divided in several sections from the base upward. Fach section operates on a set of input data received from other sections and generates set of output data to other sections. Each section is provided with its own monitoring. Historically, each section was assigned a level number: level 1A, dedicated controllers; level IB, direct digital control (DDC); level 3, supervisory control, ‘tc, Today more generic functional names are in order such as functional sections, leaving their respective structures to depend on the technological progress, \ ‘Sons \ fonvesteinenieos comro\, FIG. 1.88 Functional hierarchy 116 12000 by Bea Lipa Concepts of Hierarchical Control Measurements and Basic Controls. (Functional Section 1) ‘This section includes the fundamentals of the overall instru- ‘mentation and control strategy of any industrial entity. Pri- marily, all the process variables and final control elements that provide the totality of any control system input and ‘output data are part ofthis section and constitute the keystone of the global functionality of a control system in terms of accuracy and timeliness of response. ‘The basic control functions are also an integral part of | the fundamentals. A variety of independent control algo- rithms operate over sels of inputs and/or outputs providing the following: + Continuous/regulatory controls, ie., PID (propor- tional, integral, derivative) algorithms interconnected in various combinations as required by a designed control strategy ‘+ Sequential/nterlock controls designed to perform step by step in real-time process or manufacturing opera- tions called by their nature as normal operations, start- up/shutdown, safety, emergency operations + Alam processing and contyol based on a preestab- lished priority of response + Real-time data collection + Equipment monitoring + Control system integrity monitoring, controlling mal- functions ‘Advanced/Supervisory Controls (Functional Section 2) ‘This section includes complex algorithms that are designed toaddress the overall control strategy of a particular industrial entity. Control by objectives, that is, quantitative and qualitative targets assigned to the production of goods, environmental protection, energy consumption and conservation, productiv- ity, and efficiency, represents a modem and global approach to advanced controls. ‘The advanced control algorithms applied selectively to achieve the objectives outlined above are as follows: + Envelope control, which throttles a set of manipulated, variables based on a matrix of constraints imposed ona set of process variables and process set points to control a process and meet predetermined objectives. + Model base controls, which are of different vintages, i.e, intemal model control (IMC), model predictive control (MPC), process model base control (PMBO), nonlinear control, most often implemented by means of neural networks, and, last but not least important, ‘an artificial intelligence base model or a model devel- ‘oped using an expert system, + Optimization control, which is today included in one of the algorithms mentioned above + Maintenance control, which ensures the correct oper- ation of all equipment and contol system elements by ‘monitoring the real-time parameters needed for sched- uling preventive maintenance. + Advanced controls, which rely on the following two support functions: Material and energy balance monitoring Monitoring and archiving key production and op- rational parameters Management (Functional Section 3) In the past decade it has become necessary to gradually restructure and integrate various functions coexisting within an enterprise, with the controls as defined in Functional Sec- tions | and 2, above, The management function complexity consists of constant interplay among marketing, financing, ‘human resources, production, and inventory tasks to generate and optimize profit while supplying the market with quality goods in a timely fashion. ‘The management function operates on a vatiety of data. The decision-making process—a key management prerogative— ‘evolves from analyzing data and drawing conclusions that are translated and returned to the overall management and control system as target data and set points. ‘The management function relies on the concept of data (information) organization and processing. An entire scien- tific domain is being developed, dedicated to data (informa- tion) organization and processing known as IT (information technology), informatics, or by the French term informatique, ‘The fundamental structure used in data (information) organization and processing isthe database. A database stores and retrieves information. However, a state-of-the-art data- base stores information and also interrelationships among pieces of information stored. Furthermore, the database must ’be capable of retrieving information on the basis of an inter- relationship that was not perceived when the information was stored. ‘The database concept has created a management structure that helps to integrate marketing/sales, financing, production, inventories, human resources, cost control, and administra- tion. This structure is ERP (enterprise resource planning). A predecessor to ERP is MRPI (material requirement plan- ning), which later evolved into MRP2. Initially through MRP1 12000 by Bea Lipa 1.8 Concepts of Hierarchical Control 117 it was possible to plan interrelated requirements, which involves spliting the bill of materials for the end products ‘on the basis of sales forecasts or real orders and determining production targets and set points, MRP1 provided a contin- ‘uous calculation of net material requirements. MRP2, which developed from MRPI, takes into consideration fluctuation in forecast data by including simulation of a master produc tion schedile, thus creating long-term control. A more gen- eral feature of MRP2 is its extension to integrate all the management tasks mentioned above and illustrated in Figure 1.8b, ERP is the most modern model for integration of all ‘management tasks by creating an enterprise unified relational database on which various algorithms and models (planning, marketing/sales, financing, cost control. quality control, and profitability) would operate. ERP would provide information to generate a research and development plan, and an invest- ‘ment plan for the enterprise. ERP will generate information for planning and moni- toring the enterprise preparedness and prevention of major crisis such as explosions, environmental disasters, floods, and fire. ‘The application of artificial intelligence to enterprise management and advanced controls also will be supported by ERP. ‘Using ERP to create an overall enterprise management Function is a monumental undertaking, ERP is not an off:the- shelf application package. Itis a concept plus arecommended set of tools, which to fit {0 the operation of a particular industrial enterprise requires operational changes within the enterprise and customization of various ERP tools Input/Output Systems Distributed inpuvoutput (VO) is the most important develop- ‘ment in control system hardware in the past 10 years. A specialized data highway connecting all types of field devices, of a control system has finally emerged. Although there is no universally accepted standard communication protocol and its supporting standardized hardware in place, a few implementations do coexist, such as Foundation Fieldbus Hart, AS-i bus, PROFIBUS-DP, and high-speed Ethemet. ‘These are specialized microprocessor-based devices capable Of executing all the control tasks included in Functional Section 1. These devices operate in real time and could be structured to provide self-tuning, redundancy contral, and ‘communication. In this category one should add specialized controllers such as PLCs (programmable logic controllers), RCUs (remote contral units), NCs (numeric controllers),M18 Overall Plant Design ict ‘ervey a - ee EEE eae mtchg ed T be FG. 1.88 Flowchar for MRP1 and MRP2 (extended MRP1), (From Waldner, LB. Principles of Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992, With permission.) process analyzers, ments, etc. weighing systems, laboratory instru- Workstations Workstations are crested to provide the interface between ‘human operators and the control and management system to Which these devices are connected. Workstation hardware includes video monitors, Keyboards, a mouse, tackballs, video cameras, barcode readers, and a fully equipped com- puter that services all these operator 1/0 devices. The work- stations provide a complete operator-fiendly environment, ‘which consists of a broad range of functions associated with operating and managing a given industrial enterprise. Well- designed and flexible interactive video displays, input com- mands, and a hierarchy of protection passwords have become well-accepted operation tools. 12000 by Bea Lipa Communications ‘The key hardware elements of control and management sys- tems exchange information in real time, via different types of communication networks. These networks are constructed (o provide horizontal communication to ensure dala transfer ‘within the domain of each functional section, as defined above. Furthermore, vertical communication is also provided for data transfer between the domains of Functional Sections I, 2, and 3, The communication technology applied at present {o control and management systems is not standardized. One group of manufacturers and users tends to support a comrau- nication network standard (hardware, protocol, and software), while another group promotes a different standard, However, for a while several communication standards ‘will coexist, Selecting and using them would influence the selection and use of a particular control and management system, which fits best an industrial enterprise1 is helpful co mention some of the communication buzzwords that are used in connection with contyol and man- agement systems. Data highway is a generic term adopted by mamufactur- ‘ers, which developed proprietary communication networks, designed to service mainly proprietary control devices. Foundation Fieldbus isa de facto standard for « commu- nication network dedicated to field instruments and control devices. Hart isa de facto standard for a communication network dedicated also to field instruments. Hart is a precursor stan- dard to Foundation Fieldbus. Ethernet is a well-established communication standard bom at Xerox Corp. in the late 1970s and adopted as a standard by the IEEE in 1988 as IBEE 802.3. Over the years Ethemet improved in terms of speed (now 100 Mbaud, in the near future 1 Gbaud) and message integrity in spite of its nondeterministic protocol. Internet and intranet represent essentially the same com- ‘munication technology. The Internet became a worldwide ‘communication standard allowing access to information needed by all fields of human interests, The intranet limits access to users ofa particular enterprise, provides specialized information domains, and enhances security of information transactions. IntemeV/intranet navigation is assured by brows- cers such as Microsoft Explorer, Netscape Navigator, etc. Architectural Concepts ‘The fundamental concept in today's system architecture is the distribution of functions executed by a distribution of hardware key clements. These distributions (functional and hhardware) operate as an integrated system due to links to ‘communication networks that ensure fast, accurate, and secure exchange of information, in real time. Several other architectural concepts should be considered inthe process of engineering control and management systems: + Availability, that is, the inclusion in the system struc- ture of adequate redundancy, which would ensure uninterrupted system operation + Interoperability, that is, having all system points of access configured alike, therefore allowing the usage of identical procedures for sending and retrieving system information + The open system concept, meaning the structuring of a system by using components made by different manufacturers + Flexibility in terms of expansion in size and/or func- tionality ‘STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION Structuring a system is based on an in-depth knowledge of the enterprise operation in its entirety 12000 by Bea Lipa 1.8 Concepts of Hierarchical Control 119 In principle one should adopt a bottom-up configuration, which determines the type, quantity, and distribution of all the instruments, control devices, and any other primary equipment that needs to be connected to the system. Then, in accordance with various functional requirements, one con- figures the communications requirements and the measure- ‘ment and control hardware as patt of Functional Section 1 Next using similar criteria we configure successively Func- tional Sections 2 and 3. 'A block diagram of a bottom-up system structural coniig- ‘uration is shown in Figure 1.8e. For clarity, the diagram shows only one hardware/software block of a kind, An example of a commercially available system is shown in Figure 1.8d, HARDWARE/SOFTWARE INTERPLAY Engineering a management and control system is in itself a ‘complex and an iterative process where the interplay between functionality and hardware/software should ultimately pro- duce an optimal structural configuration meeting given requirements. Familiarity with the IT domain and specifically ‘with its application to control and management of industrial enterprises is a must. Hundreds of minisystems, large sys- tems, microprocessor-based devices, workstations, commu- nications equipment, and software packages are offered to potential users. Making sense of this myriad of products is daunting. Here are some IT considerations and trends. Hardware Each and every device included in a control and management system, such as controllers, workstations, and servers, contains a classical computer architecture consisting of microproces- sors, memories, an internal communication bus, communi cations ports, external storage devices, monitors, printers, keyboards, ete. An operating system makes the hardware execute predetermined instructions. This commonality in the hhardware structure has reduced system design complexity and has enhanced its operability and maintainability. Trends in hardware are toward higher-speed microprocessors, reli= ability of all components, and cost reductions. Furthermore, the utilization of commercially available equipment such as PCs vs. hardware dedicated solely to industrial control is an issue that is still being debated. “The introduction and proliferation of “intelligent instru. ments,” “intelligent control devices,” and “intelligent UO sub- systems” impact the control system hardware design, whereas ‘more processing power is dedicated to communications, and some measurement/contol tasks are executed at the instru ‘ment and contzol device level Operating Systems ‘The following operating systems are being used in control and management systems: Windows NT, UNIX, LINUX, and various proprietary operating systems, NT is widely used120 Overall Plant Design | | | sy sto AG, 1.86 Hardware architecture—conceptual block diagram and firmly established. NT support all applications included Application Software in Functional Sections 2 and 3 wel. There are some concerns regarding NT supporting real time process contol (Functional Section 1). Propriety operating systems are used more fte- ‘qently in the process control domain UNIX, including its proprictary extensions, is wsed in lange and very large systems supporting ll funcional sec- tions. UNIX bas a good stability and security track record. 10 processing anu has been in operation for over 30 years + Integrated contol tool set fr total control solutions ‘The application software encompasses a vast domain of pro- ‘grams, mostly proprietary, which perform all the tasks that are included in Functional Sections 1, 2, and 3. The following is a list of important programs dedicated to perform control and management functions: LINUX is a rather new operating system with a limited including logic/sequential control and continuous con- application base. However, is acceptability as a viable alter» gol domains native to NT remains to be proved in the future + Graphic and display tools for generating interactive process control and management displays + System-wide information management ‘Communication Protocols + System communication networks management + Production control and information management Ethernet high-speed protocol, TCPAP protocol, and other tools, such as proprietary or de facto protocols coexist today in industrial Analyzer management software ‘control and management systems. It would be difficult to Batch software predict which of these protocols, if any, will be universally Historian adopted. Process optimizer 12000 by Bea LipaINTERNET! una — ee AiG. 1.84 1.8 Concepts of Hierarchical Control 124 WORKSTATION. ee aa ETHERNET HASTY Control and management system. (Courtesy of Control Associates, Ine.) Production modeling tools Statistical process control ‘Spreadsheet + Software development tools for system configuration and/or programming of custom solutions ‘SYSTEM HIERARCHY INTERPLAY ‘The hierarchy interplay is between functionality defined for Functional Sections 1, 2, and 3, the application software which will implement a given function such as batch control, alarm processing, operator-system interface, and the system hardware and software best suited to execute it, This is an iterative process, which takes place until a system hierarchy is conceived In this iterative process, additional criteria should be ‘considered: ‘The size ofthe control and management system (small, ‘medium, large) ‘The geographical spread of the enterprise Expansion/modernization of an existing enterprise ‘The overall system response time and also very specific response time of real-time critical tasks such as VO processing Reviewing commercially available hardware and software packages dedicated (o enterprise control and management 12000 by Bea Lipa and trying to match them with functional requirements is a complex undertaking. The better the match, the fewer the surprises that may occur during implementation and operation, “This iterative process helps to better define vatious func- tions once one has a better understanding of the application software and system software and hardware available, The ‘conclusions of this process may determine if a single source control and management system supplier would be accept- able or if a hybrid system may be more suitable, ‘SYSTEM SPECIFICATION, SELECTION, DESIGN, AND IMPLEMENTATION ‘These are well-established engineering tasks, which are well served if a control hierarchy is conceived following the con- cepts described in this chapter. It helps in the generation of functional specification, which comes closer tothe available technology while translating the enterprise goals to feasible functions. ‘The selection process of system offers/proposals is helped by making a more objective selection and by avoiding “shoe-in” systems that claim to fit all applications. Increas- ingly, hybrid systems are the answer for medium and large systems, The hybrid systems include specialized hardware! software packages supplied by different manufacturers inte- {grated into a control and management hierarchy best suited for a particular enterprise.122, Overall Plant Design System cost considerations ofthe initial investment, the ‘expenditure outlay over the life of the system, and the ROL (cetum on investment ofthis undertaking are also part of the selection process The design and the system implementation depend ‘mainly on personnel competence, experience, and training. In the iteration process, where the interplay between func- tionality and hardware and software takes place, itis important to consider if one has the resources (technical and manage- rial) to implement a particular system hierarchy Concepts of hierarchical control provide directions to follow in the application of IT to total control and management of industrial enterprises. The demands for better and better con- trol and management of enterprises become more sophisti- ‘cated to respond to global market pressures. IT rapid progress 12000 by Bea Lipa will provide better and faster means to control and conduct business ‘The concepts of hierarchical control are adaptable tools, which will keep pace with progress, Bibliography Feeley. J, Merit, R, Ogden, Stadbaker, P, and Waterbury B., "Process ‘Corl rom 1980," Como! Magazine, www conilmag.com, December 1999, Heber, D., “Where's the Support?” Convo Magacne, November 2000, pa eran, H, “The Cos of Distsbuted Contol.” Control Magasin, Fay 1995, O'Brien, L. "DCS Grows Up” Control Magasin, Janvary 2000, p73, Studebaker, P, “All for One—The Top 10 Trends sn Process Conta Control Magazine, worw-cotrolmag com, Api 1998, Wialdoes,J-R., Principles of Computer Inegrated Manafactaring, New "York: John Wiley & Sons, 1992 Watesbry, B., ‘Distsbued Intel gence Goes to Werk,” Control Mage ‘August 2000p.