Topic 3 Video 1

Equivalent Resistance

Overview
• Solving resistor combinations
• Equivalent resistance

1 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Circuit Analysis: Equivalent Resistance
• In many circuits
– Some components are connected in series
• To have the same current
– Others are connected in parallel
• for the same voltage.
– Others are neither in series or parallel
– These circuits supply different currents and voltages
with one source of applied voltage.
• To analyse these circuits,
– the techniques of series and parallel circuits are
applied individually
• to produce a simplified total circuit.
– An equivalent resistance can capture the circuit
behaviour of an interconnection of resistors
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 Resistors in Series
• Series connected circuit elements carry the same current
– There is only one path for the current
• Total resistance of resistors in series
– Is the sum of the individual resistors in series
– For N resistors in series, the equivalent single resistor has a
resistor equal to the sum of the N resistances

𝑁𝑁

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁

𝑖𝑖=1

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 Resistors in Parallel: Equivalent Resistance
• For two resistors in parallel
– The equivalent resistance is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by the sum of their resistances.
1� 1 1 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �𝑅𝑅1 + �𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
…
• For N resistors in parallel,
– the equivalent resistance is 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
DC

𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
1� = 1� + 1� + ⋯ + 1�
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 …

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 Resistors in Parallel: Example 1
• For three resistors in parallel
• If 𝑅𝑅1 = 18Ω, 𝑅𝑅2 = 9Ω & 𝑅𝑅3 = 6Ω

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
R1 R2 R3
18 × 9 × 6
=
18 × 9 + 18 × 6 + 9 × 6

Then 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 18| 9 |6 = 3Ω

5 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Circuit Analysis: Vocabulary
Circuit elements may be connected in a way that they are
neither in series or parallel
• Ladder Circuit
• A series-parallel circuit with a topology that resembles a ladder.

• Ladder Circuit

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 Circuit Analysis: Simplifying Resistor Combinations

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 Example 1
• Find 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 : the equivalent resistance
• Start at far right

4. 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 3. Resistors in parallel 2. Resistors in parallel 1. Resistors in series

= 4 + 2.4 + 8 • (2 + 2)Ω||6Ω • 6Ω||3Ω =
6×3
= 2Ω • 1Ω + 5Ω = 6Ω
6+3
= 14.4Ω 4×6
• = = 2.4Ω
4+6

8 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Example 2
• Find the equivalent resistance of this ladder circuit

1. Resistors in series: 4Ω + 5Ω + 3Ω = 12Ω

4×12
2. Resistors in parallel: 4Ω||12Ω = = 3Ω
4+12

3. Resistors in series: 3Ω + 3Ω = 6Ω
6×6
4. Resistors in parallel: 6Ω||6Ω = = 3Ω
6+6

5. Resistors in series: 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 2Ω + 3Ω + 1Ω = 6Ω

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 Example 3
• Find 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 equivalent resistance

7.29Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 17.79Ω 21Ω 21Ω
10.5Ω

4. Resistors in series: 1. Resistors in parallel:

5. Resistors in parallel: 70 × 30
7.29Ω + 10.5Ω 70Ω||30Ω = = 21Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 17.79Ω||21Ω = 17.79Ω 70 + 30
2. Resistors in parallel:
17.79 × 21
= 12.5 × 17.5
17.79 + 21 12.5Ω||17.5Ω = = 7.29Ω
= 9.63Ω 12.5 + 17.5
3. Resistors in parallel:
15 × 35
15Ω||35Ω = = 10.5Ω
15 + 35
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 Example 4
• Find 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 equivalent resistance

5Ω 20Ω 20×5
1. Resistors in parallel: 20Ω||5Ω = = 4Ω
20+5

4Ω
2. Resistors in series:1Ω + 4Ω = 5Ω
1Ω

20Ω 5Ω 20×5
3. Resistors in parallel: 20Ω||5Ω = = 4Ω
20+5

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 Example 4
• Find 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 equivalent resistance

4Ω 4. Resistors in series:
2Ω 2Ω + 4Ω = 6Ω

18Ω 9Ω 6Ω 5. Resistors in parallel:18Ω 9Ω 6Ω

18 × 9 × 6
= = 3Ω
(18 × 9) + (18 × 6) + (9 × 6)
8Ω
3Ω

6. Resistors in series:
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 8Ω + 3Ω = 11Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

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 Example 5
Find the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .

10Ω 1Ω 1Ω

3Ω 6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 5Ω

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 Example 5 contd
• Find the equivalent resistance:
10Ω 1Ω 1Ω

3Ω 6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 5Ω 3Ω 6Ω 3Ω

10Ω 1Ω 1Ω + 5Ω = 6Ω 3Ω 6Ω 3Ω = 1.2Ω

10Ω
3Ω 6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 6Ω 12Ω 4Ω 6Ω = 2Ω 1.2Ω

10Ω 1Ω

3Ω 6Ω 2Ω 1Ω + 2Ω = 3Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 11.2Ω

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 In our next video…

We will be introduced to dependent voltage and current

sources

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 Topic 3 Video 2
Dependent Sources

Overview
• Independent vs dependent sources
• Revisit valid interconnections
• Five problems for your viewing pleasure

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 Independent vs Dependent Sources
• Ideal Independent Source
– Circle symbol
– Establishes a voltage or current in a circuit
• Independent of voltages or currents Independent Independent
elsewhere in the circuit. Voltage Source Current Source

– Active circuit element

• Models a device capable of generating
electrical energy
• Ideal Dependent source
– Diamond symbol
– Establishes a voltage or current in a circuit
• whose value depends on the value of a Dependent Dependent
Voltage Source Current Source
voltage or current elsewhere in a circuit
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 Ideal Dependent Sources
• Ideal dependent voltage source
• Voltage-controlled (VCVS)
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝜇𝜇𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
• 𝜇𝜇 is dimensionless Current-controlled (CCVS)
• 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝜌𝜌𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥
– 𝜌𝜌 volts/amps

• Ideal dependent current source

• Voltage-controlled (VCCS)
• 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼𝛼𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
Current-controlled (CCCS)
• 𝛼𝛼 amps/volts
• 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝛽𝛽𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥
– 𝛽𝛽 is dimensionless

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 Real World Perspective
• Dependent sources
– Ohm’s Law and KCL, KVL (with passive sign convention) can be used
– Can’t buy a dependent source
• Not a real world device
– Used in circuit theory as a theoretical model
• of complex real world electronic devices and components.

Example: the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is modelled as a VCCS

Large-signal BJT DC model Small-signal BJT AC model

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 Voltage Sources in Series
• Connecting voltage sources in series

BT1 BT2 BT3 BT4 BT5

• Can obtain higher applied voltage

• The total voltage available
• Is equal to the sum of the voltage sources in series
• The current capacity for voltage sources in series is the same as
for one of the voltage sources
• The same current flows through all of the voltage sources

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 Voltage Sources in Series
• Addition of voltage sources in series

• Need to account for the polarities of the voltage sources,

20V 20V

8V 8V
≡ 43V
≡ 15V
5V 5V

6V 6V

4V 4V

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 Voltage Sources in Parallel

ONLY voltage sources with equal output voltage can be connected in parallel.
• Same voltage: equivalent to increasing the size
of the electrodes and electrolyte
– For more current capacity
• Connect all +ve terminal together
• Connect all –ve terminals together
• Voltage sources of different potentials should
never be connected in parallel.
– Violates Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
– A source with a lower voltage can act as a
resistance and drain excessive current from
the cells with higher output voltage

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 Current sources in Parallel
• Connecting current sources in parallel

– Can be simplified by a single current source
– Magnitude and direction of the resultant current source
• Determined by adding the currents in one direction and
subtracting those currents in the other direction.

3A 3A 3A ≡ 3A

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 Current Sources in Series

• Current sources of different values are never placed in series
– Using Kirchhoff's current law at the node in-between the
current sources
• the current entering the node would be a different value to that
leaving the node
• This is a violation of KCL and is INVALID

3A 5A


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Interconnection of Independent Sources: Valid?

Both sources across same terminals a and b.

• KVL states voltage from both sources must be the same.
VS • The independent source supplies 5 V and the dependent
VCVS source supplies 15V.
• This interconnection violates KVL

NOT VALID

Both sources across the same terminals a and b.

• the voltage source is independent of current,
VS • This interconnection is: VALID
VCCS

VALID

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Interconnection of Independent Sources: Valid?
Both sources across the same terminals a and b.
• The independent current source supplies current through
terminals a and b, regardless of the voltage.
CS
• This interconnection is: VALID
CCVS

VALID

Two current sources, one independent, the other dependent,

supply current through terminals a and b.
CS
• KCL states each source must supply the same current at the
nodes.
CCCS
• In this circuit the independent source supplies 2A while
the dependent source supplies 6A.
• This interconnection violates KCL.
INVALID

26 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 In our next video…

We will solve resistive circuits with independent and

dependent sources

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 Topic 3 Video 3
Solving Circuits with Dependent Sources

Overview
• Problems solved for resistive circuits with
independent and dependent sources

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 Circuit Analysis Technique

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 Problem 1: Textbook Assessment 2.1
• Textbook Assessment • 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 = 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏�4
Ans:
• a) Value of 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 = −8𝐴𝐴
• Calculate 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 = 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏�4 = −2𝑉𝑉
• Therefore for this circuit to
be valid 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 = −2𝑉𝑉

CCVS VS CS
• b) 𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = −𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 . 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏
• = −(−2 × −8) = −16𝑊𝑊
• What kind of circuit is this? • Delivered/generated (-ve)
• Single-node-pair circuit
• Same voltage drop across
the three branches
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 Problem 2: Textbook P2.6
• Textbook P2.6
• What kind of circuit is this?
• Single-loop circuit
• Same current through
every element
• Ans:
VS • a) we know 𝑖𝑖 = 400𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣1⁄50 = 400𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝑣𝑣1 = 20𝑉𝑉
• b) 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑣𝑣. 𝑖𝑖
CS VCCS
• = 20 × 0.4
• = 8𝑊𝑊 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

31 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Problem 3
• Is this interconnection valid? • Ans:
This is neither a single loop or • 𝑖𝑖1 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
single node-pair • 3𝑖𝑖1 = 150𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖
𝑠𝑠
• 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 100𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
3𝑖𝑖1
• Use KCL at top node
• 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 − 3𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖1 = 0
– If this equation is correct then
• It is not possible to determine the circuit is valid.


the voltage between the top and • 100𝑚𝑚 − 150𝑚𝑚 + 50𝑚𝑚 = 0
bottom node • This is CORRECT so the
circuit is valid
• Cannot know voltage drop
across a current source.

32 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Problem 4: Textbook P2.9
• Is this interconnection valid? • Ans:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 • We know the values of voltage
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 & 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
• 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 30𝑉𝑉
• 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 1800𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 + 60 =
(1800𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 + 60)𝑉𝑉
1800 50𝑚𝑚 + 60 = 150𝑉𝑉
• This is neither a single loop or
• Use KVL
single node-pair
• for the circuit to be valid
• We can determine the voltage


• 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
between the top and bottom
• But 30𝑉𝑉 ≠ 150𝑉𝑉
node for two branches
• The interconnection is NOT
VALID.

33 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Problem 5: Week 3 Q2
Find 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 in the circuit shown
𝐼𝐼1 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜

2𝑘𝑘Ω +
• Use Ohm’s Law
• 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 × 3𝑘𝑘 = 𝐼𝐼1 2k + 4k
10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 DC

3𝑘𝑘Ω 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 4𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜

gv1

+
CCCS • 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�3𝑘𝑘
4𝑘𝑘Ω 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 −
− • 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�6𝑘𝑘
• Substitute back into KCL
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 is the same voltage drop between the 2 nodes • 10𝑚𝑚 + 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�6𝑘𝑘 + 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�3𝑘𝑘 − 4 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�3𝑘𝑘 = 0
• 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 12𝑉𝑉
Ans:
• Calculate 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 using Ohm’s Law
• Use KCL at top node
• 10𝑚𝑚 + 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 − 4𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 0 • 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼1 × 4𝑘𝑘 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠�6𝑘𝑘 × 4𝑘𝑘
• = 12⁄6𝑘𝑘 × 4𝑘𝑘 = 8𝑉𝑉

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 Problem 6: Week 3 Q5
• Use Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s
laws to find voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
+ −
CCVS
• Ohm’s law 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑖𝑖. 𝑅𝑅
• 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑣⁄𝑅𝑅 = 10⁄6 = 5⁄3 𝐴𝐴
• 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 . 3
Ans:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
• −3𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 + 3𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 0
• −3 × 5⁄3 + 5𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 0
• 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 1𝐴𝐴
• Substitute into Ohms law
• 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 = 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 . 3 = 3𝑉𝑉
• Question: Is there a current
between the two circuits?
• Ans: No

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 In our next video…

We will calculate equivalent resistance

36 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Topic 3 Video 4
Calculating Equivalent Resistance

Overview
• Problems solved for resistive circuits with a single source
• Series and parallel resistance examples
• Delta and Y configurations and conversions

37 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Circuit Analysis Technique

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 Voltage Divider Rule
Voltage Division
• The voltage drop across any resistor is
proportional to the magnitude of the resistor
• Any series circuit is a voltage divider
– The current is the same in all resistances in a
series circuit
• The IR drops are proportional to the applied
voltage
– the largest R has the highest V
• For N resistors connected in series the
voltage drop across each resistor is given by
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
𝑣𝑣𝑁𝑁 = ( )𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
We can calculate the voltage drop even when the current is unknown

39 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Voltage Divider: Example 1
• Find 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
a
100Ω

b 50Ω 100Ω
50Ω

40V 300Ω
b a
200Ω 40V 200Ω 300Ω

c c
• Ans: Voltage divider
• 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
300 3
• 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉 = × 40 = 30𝑉𝑉
100+300 𝑠𝑠 4
200 4
• 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 = × 40 = 32𝑉𝑉
50+200 5
• 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 30 − 32 = −2𝑉𝑉

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 Resistors in Parallel: Current Divider Rule
• Principle of current division:
– If current 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 enters a parallel network of resistors,
• the smallest value of resistor in the network will have the largest
amount of current
• Inversely the largest value of the resistance will have the smallest
amount of current.
• In general if N resistors are connected in parallel, the current
through each resistor is given by: …
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 1
𝑖𝑖𝑁𝑁 = ( )𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑁𝑁 ∝ 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 DC

1� = 1� + 1� + ⋯ + 1�
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 …

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 Current Divider: Example 2
• Solve for 𝑖𝑖0 & 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎
2mA
• Using current divider rule
• For resistors in parallel
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• 𝑖𝑖𝑁𝑁 = ( )𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
• 1�𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1�𝑅𝑅1 + 1�𝑅𝑅2 2mA 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 2𝑘𝑘×8𝑘𝑘 1𝑘𝑘 + 4𝑘𝑘 + 3𝑘𝑘
• 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 1.6𝑘𝑘Ω = 8𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 2𝑘𝑘+8𝑘𝑘
1.6𝑘𝑘
• 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 = 2𝑚𝑚 = 1.6𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2𝑘𝑘
1.6𝑘𝑘
• 𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑎 = 2𝑚𝑚 = 0.4𝑚𝑚 = 400𝜇𝜇𝐴𝐴
8𝑘𝑘

42 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Problem 1: Textbook Problem 2.35
𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
Find a) 𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 , b) 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 in circuit
• Ans:
• a) 𝑖𝑖0 = 0𝐴𝐴
VCCS
• b) use voltage divider to calculate 𝑣𝑣∆
𝑅𝑅∆ 6
• 𝑣𝑣∆ = 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 18 = 6𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖𝑁𝑁 = (
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
)𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 12+6
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣∆ 6
• 𝑣𝑣∆ → 𝑖𝑖𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = = 3𝐴𝐴 = −𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠
2 2
• With 2 resistors in parallel current divider
10||5)
• 𝑖𝑖1 = −3 = −1𝐴𝐴
10
10||5)
• 𝑖𝑖2 = −3 = −2𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 10 × 5 50
5 10||5 = = =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 10 + 5 15

43 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Resistors: Neither in Parallel or Series
• There are circuits where resistors are not in parallel or series

• For example:
– Note resistor in centre.
– How can we calculate the
equivalent resistance?

• Y(or T) and Delta(∆ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜋𝜋) configurations show us how we

can convert these circuits so they can be analysed

44 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Y(or T) and Delta(∆ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜋𝜋) Configurations
There are resistor configurations that are neither in series or parallel

• The Y or T configuration
• Look like the English letter Y or T
• They are the same

• Delta (∆) or pi (𝜋𝜋) configuration

• Look like Greek letter delta or pi
• They are the same

45 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

Y(or T) and Delta(∆ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜋𝜋) Configurations: Conversion
• Circuit analysis
– May be helpful to convert a Y to
a delta configuration or vice
versa.
• Analysis may be impossible
without the conversion
• Can make the analysis much
simpler.
– The formulas used to convert
between these configurations are
derived using Kirchhoff’s Law
• Proofs not assessable in this
course

46 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Delta(∆) to Y Conversion
• In some cases circuit analysis is simpler by converting a Delta
(∆) to a Y configuration

• Formula for conversion ∆ to Y

𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
• 𝑅𝑅1 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
• 𝑅𝑅2 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏
• 𝑅𝑅3 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∆

𝑅𝑅𝑌𝑌 =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∆

47 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Delta(∆) to Y Conversion: Example 3
• Convert this Delta to a Y configuration, calculate 𝑅𝑅1 , 𝑅𝑅2 , 𝑅𝑅3

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∆

• 𝑅𝑅𝑌𝑌 =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∆
30×60
• 𝑅𝑅1 = = 10Ω
30+60+90
30×90
• 𝑅𝑅2 = = 15Ω
30+60+90
60×90
• 𝑅𝑅3 = = 30Ω
30+60+90

48 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Y to Delta(∆) Conversion
• In some cases circuit analysis is simpler by converting a Y to a
Delta(∆) configuration

• Formula for conversion of Y to ∆

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 =
𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 =
𝑅𝑅3

Σ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌

𝑅𝑅∆ =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌

49 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Y to Delta(∆) Conversion: Example 4
• Convert this Y configuration to a delta configuration
– Note configuration has been flipped around point c

𝑅𝑅3

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

Σ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌

• 𝑅𝑅∆ =
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑌𝑌
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 +𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
• 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 =
4.8𝑘𝑘
3.6𝑘𝑘×4.8𝑘𝑘+4.8𝑘𝑘×2.4𝑘𝑘+3.6𝑘𝑘×2.4𝑘𝑘 37.44𝑘𝑘
• = = = 7.8𝑘𝑘Ω
4.8𝑘𝑘 4.8
37.44𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = = 10.4𝑘𝑘Ω
3.6𝑘𝑘
37.44𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 = = 15.6𝑘𝑘Ω
2.4𝑘𝑘

50 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Delta(∆) to Y Conversion: Example 5
• What is the formula for the equivalent resistance of this
circuit?
– the resistors are in neither in series or parallel
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒

– Delta(∆) to Y Conversion
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅3 + (𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 )||(𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒 )

51 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Delta(∆) to Y Conversion: Example 6
• Find the current 𝐼𝐼 though 𝑅𝑅5 for the circuit ∆
– Simple series and parallel combination

∆ to Y transformation

30𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = = 2.59𝐴𝐴
6Ω + 2Ω + 3.6Ω

52 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Y to Delta(∆) Conversion: Example 7
• Calculate the current 𝐼𝐼

• First conversion from Y to ∆

• The sides of the resulting ∆ are in parallel
𝐼𝐼
20Ω 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 15Ω|| 20Ω + 22.5Ω = 11.09Ω
15Ω
30𝑉𝑉
22.5Ω 𝐼𝐼 = = 2.706𝐴𝐴
11.09Ω

53 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Y to Delta(∆) Conversion: Example 8
• Calculate the current 𝑖𝑖

• Y to ∆ transformation

54 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 In our next video…

We will look at practical measurement of voltage and current

55 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Topic 3 Video 5
Measuring DC Voltage, Current and
Resistance
Overview
• Practical measurement
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Ohmmeter

56 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Practical Measurement
Often need to measure current, voltage and resistance
• Ammeter
– Measuring current
– Schematic circle with I or A
• Voltmeter
– Measuring voltage
– Schematics: circle with V
• Ohmmeter
– Measuring resistance
• Multimeter
– Measures all three
– Digital or Analogue
57 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics
 Analogue Multimeters
• Analogue meters are based on the d’Arsonval meter movement,
– a movable coil placed in the field of a permanent magnet.

• When current flows in the coil,

• it creates a torque on the coil,
• causes it to rotate
• moves the pointer across the scale.
• The coil has both a current and voltage rating,
• in one commercially available meter the rating
is 50mV and 1mA.
• when it has a 50mV drop the coil is carrying
1mA,
• the pointer will be deflected into the full scale
position.

58 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Ideal and Practical(real) Meters
• Ideal Meters
– Ideal ammeter
• Equivalent resistance of zero
• No voltage drop across the ammeter
– Ideal voltmeter
• Equivalent resistance that is infinite
• No current through voltmeter
• Practical(real) Meters
– Real ammeter
• Equivalent resistance greater than zero
– Adds resistance in series with the element whose current is being
measured
– Real voltmeter
• Equivalent resistance is not infinite
– Adds resistance in parallel with the element whose voltage is being
read.

59 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Practical(real) Meters
• Rule of thumb for practical (real) meters
– The circuit is negligibly disturbed when the following rules of
thumb are satisfied
– Ammeter
• Effective resistance should be no more than 1⁄10 𝑡𝑡𝑡 the value of
the smallest resistance in the circuit
– Voltmeter
• Effective resistance should be more than 10 times the value of the
largest resistance in the circuit
• The error introduced by a real meter in the circuit
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
• % 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ( − 1) × 100
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

60 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Practical (Real) Analogue Meters
• An analogue voltmeter
– includes a d’Arsonval movement in
series with a resistor
• This resistor limits the voltage drop
across the meter’s coil
• An analogue ammeter
– includes a d’Arsonval movement in
parallel with a resistor:
– This resistor limits the amount of
current flowing into the movement coil

• In both meters the added resistor determines the full-scale reading

of the meter movement

61 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Practical Meters
Real analogue ammeter Real analogue voltmeter
Resistors are in parallel with the Resistors are in series with the d’Arsonal
d’Arsonal movement movement

Single range

Multiple range

62 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Ammeter: Textbook Example 3.5
• Ohm’s Law: 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉⁄𝐼𝐼
• 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 5.55Ω
b) full-scale reading 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 =1A, 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 =?
• KCL at top node
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
+ • 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 = 1 − 1𝑚𝑚 = 999𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴
50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 • Ohm’s Law: 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴�𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴
• 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
−
• 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄999𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 50.05mΩ
a) 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 =? When 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 =10mA Note: for good meter accuracy, at this full
• KCL at top node scale current the smallest resistor in circuit
should be = 10 × 50.05𝑚𝑚 = 0.5𝛺𝛺
• 𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 = 10𝑚𝑚 − 1𝑚𝑚 = 9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
63 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics
 Ammeter: Textbook Example 3.5 contd
• 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄9𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 5.55Ω
• 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 50Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 5.55×50
• 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 5Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 +𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 5.55+50
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (for good accuracy of the meter, the smallest
𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴
+ R in the circuit should be = 5 × 10 = 50𝛺𝛺 )
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

d) 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 =1A What is the meter

−
equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ?
c) 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 =10mA What is the meter • 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄999𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 50.05mΩ
equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ? 50.05𝑚𝑚×50𝑚𝑚
• 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = 25.01mΩ
50.05𝑚𝑚+50𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀
• 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 ||𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 =
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 +𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀

64 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Ammeter Problem: Textbook Ass 3.5
Textbook Ass 3.5 • b) using ammeter

• a) Find the current in the circuit

• b) If the ammeter is used to • 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 5Ω (from prev example)
measure the current, what will it • 𝐼𝐼 𝑉𝑉
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = �𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
read? Use prev ex. 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 value.
• = 1�(5+100) = 9.53𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• c) What is the error?
Ans: c) Calculating error introduce by A
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
•% 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = − 1 × 100
• a) Ohm’s Law 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
9.53𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼 = 1�100 = 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
10𝑚𝑚
− 1 × 100 = −4.76%

65 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Voltmeter: Textbook Example 3.6
50Ω

𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 = 149.95𝑘𝑘Ω
c) What is the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ?
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 + 50 = 149.95𝑘𝑘 + 50 = 150𝑘𝑘Ω
For good meter accuracy, the largest resistor in the
+ 150𝑘𝑘
50mV circuit should be 10 = 15𝑘𝑘𝛺𝛺
− 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 50Ω d) Fullscale 5V
50
50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = ×5
Ans: 50 + 𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 = 4.95𝑘𝑘Ω
a) 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚⁄1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 50Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 + 50 = 4.95𝑘𝑘 + 50 = 5𝑘𝑘Ω
• Use voltage divider
For good meter accuracy, the largest resistor in the
50 5𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = 50𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = × 150 circuit should be 10 = 500𝛺𝛺
50 + 𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣

66 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 d’Arsonval Voltmeter: Textbook Assessment 3.6

𝑉𝑉

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(𝑉𝑉)
= 150𝑘𝑘Ω

Ans:
a) 2 resistors in series, use voltage 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 75𝑘𝑘||150𝐾𝐾 =
75𝑘𝑘 × 150𝑘𝑘
= 50𝑘𝑘Ω
divider rule 75𝑘𝑘 + 150𝑘𝑘
50𝑘𝑘
75𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = × 60 = 46.15𝑉𝑉
𝑣𝑣 = × 60 = 50𝑉𝑉 15𝑘𝑘 + 50𝑘𝑘
75𝑘𝑘 + 15𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
b) Place voltmeter that has been rated % 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = − 1 × 100
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
for 150V across the 75Ω. 46.15
= − 1 × 100 = −7.7%
50

67 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 In our next video…

We will measure voltage, current and resistance

68 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Topic 3 Video 6
Measuring Voltage, Current and Resistance
Overview
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Ohmmeter
• Ground
• Electrical Safety

69 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Practical Measurement
Often need to measure current, voltage and resistance
• Ammeter
– Measuring current
– Schematic circle with I or A
• Voltmeter
– Measuring voltage
– Schematics: circle with V
• Ohmmeter
– Measuring resistance
• Multimeter
– Measures all three
– Digital or Analogue
70 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics
 Digital Multimeters (DMM)

• Most digital multimeters

automatically select the correct range Main dial to select
the different modes.
for measurement.
– auto-ranging or auto-scaling
• Digital multimeters measure the
continuous voltage at discrete time
points
– The signal is converted from
analogue to digital
Select resistance,
• Digital multimeters are widely used voltage and current
– generally more accurate over different
ranges

71 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 How to Properly Use a Multimeter
• Good practice
– Turn off before connecting to circuit
– Always start with the meter set to the highest range
• Can move down the range if needed
• Avoids damaging the multimeter
• Observe proper polarity
– When measuring DC current or voltage
• To avoid damage always set to correct mode
– AC, DC, V, A, ohms
• Turn off when measurement is complete
– avoids draining the battery.

72 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 How to Measure Voltage?
Voltage is the potential difference between two points

• To measure voltage
– Place the voltmeter leads across the component

• Correctly use the red and black leads

– Insert the red lead into the + socket
– Insert the black lead into the – (or COM) socket
– The point where the red lead is connected is
positive with respect to the point where the black
lead is connected.

73 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 How to measure current?

To measure the current, we connect the

ammeter in series with the element.

Current to be measured

• If reading is positive,
– the point where the red lead is connected is
positive with respect to the point where the black
Ammeter correctly inserted lead is connected.

74 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 How to Use an Ohmmeter
• When using an Ohmmeter to measure resistance:
– Ohmmeter has its own battery
– Remove all power supplies from the circuit being
tested
• If not could damage ohmmeter
• If not, result is nonsense
– Isolate the component from the rest of the circuit
• Disconnect at least one terminal
– Connect the two probes across the component
• For resistors, the black and red leads are
interchangeable
• For other components, the resistance is dependent
on the current direction
– Check correct range on Ohmmeter
• For analogue: Most accurate when dial is close to
centre
– Turn off after measurement complete

75 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Earth Ground
• Ground
– Point of reference or a common point in a circuit
– Voltage must always be measured from a reference potential.
– We make this reference potential 0V
• commonly referred to as ground.
– The most frequently used reference potential is the Earth
• or more specifically the ground that your building is embedded in.

• a) Signal Ground:
• circuit reference point where we assume 0V
• b) Earth Ground:
• the earth is used as reference point
• c) Chasis Ground:
• when use the case or chasis as the circuit
reference point.

76 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Electrical Safety
• Electric shock
• Could fall or be thrown down
• Severe muscle contraction
• Respiratory system may be paralysed
• Heart beat could become irregular or
stop altogether
• Electrical burns on skin and deeper tissue

– Caused by current flow through the body

• Possible if working with power ‘on’ and touching ‘live’ conductors
– The body’s resistance is measured by holding a wire in each hand
• Between 10,000Ω and 50,000Ω.
– The tighter you hold the wires the lower the resistance
– If hold only one conductor, your resistance is higher
» The higher the body’s resistance the lower the current
» Depends on weight, skin moisture, points of contact

77 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Electrical Safety
• An electric shock can be from a current as small as 10µA
• The ‘let-go’ current
• ~ 9mA for men
• ~ 6mA for women
• The greatest danger to the human body
• is a source that can output more than 30V
• with enough power to maintain the load current through the body

78 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Electrical Safety: Example
• High-voltage circuits are dangerous, as they can produce
dangerous amounts of current
• Example:
500𝑉𝑉 across a human body of resistance of 25,000Ω
• 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑣𝑣⁄𝑅𝑅 = 500⁄25000 = 20𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 which can be fatal
• The power dissipated in the body
• 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉. 𝐼𝐼 = 500 × 20𝑚𝑚 = 10𝑊𝑊
• The danger of shock is also determined by the power of the
supply
• If source cannot supply the 10W
• Its output voltage drops
• the current is reduced.

79 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 In our next video…

We will cross the bridge of resistance.

80 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Topic 3 Video 7
Measuring Resistance with Wheatstone
Bridge.
Overview
• Derive the Wheatstone bridge equation

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 Resistors: Color Codes
• How to read the colour bands of resistors

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 Resistors: Variable

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 Measuring Resistance: Wheatstone Bridge

Precisely measures values in

range 1Ω to 1MΩ (accuracy
0.1%)
• Wheatstone bridge
– One of many different methods to measure resistance
– An unknown resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 is balanced against a standard
accurate variable resistor 𝑅𝑅3
• To balance the bridge, the value of 𝑅𝑅3 is varied
• Balance occurs when 0A current flows through the d’Arsonval
movement called a Galvanometer (G)

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 Wheatstone Bridge: Equation
Deriving equation for Wheatstone bridge
• Step 1: Balance the bridge
– Vary 𝑅𝑅3 until 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 = 0𝐴𝐴
– KCL: When 𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 = 0𝐴𝐴,
• then 𝑖𝑖1 = 𝑖𝑖3 & 𝑖𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥
• Step 2: Same voltage at a & b
• 𝑖𝑖1 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑖2 𝑅𝑅2 & 𝑖𝑖3 𝑅𝑅3 = 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
• Step 3: Substituting from Step 1
• Rewrite 𝑖𝑖1 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑖2 𝑅𝑅2 as 𝑖𝑖3 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅2
𝑖𝑖3 𝑅𝑅1 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2
• Step 4: = 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅3
𝑖𝑖3 𝑅𝑅3 𝑖𝑖𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1
• =
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
85 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics
 Wheatstone Bridge: Range of Resistance

𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1

• If 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑅2 , then 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅3

– This limits the range of resistance that can be measured
– If 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 1𝑘𝑘Ω, but 𝑅𝑅3 can only be varied over the range 0 to 100Ω,
then the bridge can never be balanced.

86 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Wheatstone Bridge: Range of Resistance

• For wide range of resistor measurement 𝑅𝑅2

𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅3
• vary the ratio of 𝑅𝑅2
�𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1
• Commercially 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2
• consist of decimal values of resistance
• Normally the decimal values are 1, 10, 100, 1000Ω
𝑅𝑅2
• Thus we can vary the ratio of �𝑅𝑅1 from 0.001 to 1000 in
decimal steps
• The variable resistor 𝑅𝑅3 is usually adjusted in integral values
from 1 to 11,000Ω

87 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Wheatstone Bridge: Textbook Assessment 3.7
• Solve:

𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅1
1000
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = × 150 = 1.5𝑘𝑘Ω
100

88 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Real World Perspective: Strain Gauges

not assessable
89 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics
Real World Perspective: Resistive Touch Screens

90 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 Independent Tutorial in Week03
• See: Independent Tutorial in Week03 (wattle)

91 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics

 In our next video…

We will begin Topic 4

92 ENGN1218 Introduction to Electronics