Computer/Electronic Maintenance and Repairs

CTE 123
Mr Elijah Emmanuel

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
On completion of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Understand the general use of tools and testing instruments.
2. Understand cabling, jointing soldering and de-soldering techniques.
3. Know different electronic circuit components
4. Use manufactures service manual and circuit wiring diagrams.
5. Maintain GSM phones.
6. Use of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) and Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR)
 CHAPTER 1

THE GENERAL USES OF TOOLS AND TESTING INSTRUMENTS

1. MULTI-TESTER OR DIGITAL MULTI-METER

Uses of Multi-tester
i. Testing voltage: You can use the voltage setting to measure voltage drop across circuit components and
to measure total voltage across a circuit. You will need the DC voltage setting for most small circuit
components and for testing batteries and the AC voltage setting for testing residential circuit
components, such as light switches, light fixtures and outlets. Note that you can measure voltage without
disconnecting the circuit. Simply touch one probe to the negative terminal and touch the other probe to
the other terminal and record the reading. 
ii. Testing current: You normally use the mA scale for testing current through an electronic circuits and
the A scale for testing residential current. To test current, the meter must be part of the circuit. In most
cases, you have to make a break in the circuit, and then connect one wire to one of the meter probes and
the other wire to the other probe.
iii. Testing resistance: The meter has a built-in power source that is activated when you choose the
resistance scale. It sends a small current from one probe and the smaller the current recorded by the other
probe, the higher the resistance. If the second probe records no current, the meter displays infinite
resistance or the letters OL, which means open line. This function is useful for continuity testing. You
can also use it to check a diode by checking the resistance in one direction across the device, then
reversing the probes and checking resistance in the other direction. If the diode is good, you should get
low resistance in one direction and near infinite resistance in the other.
iv. Test batteries: Just use the DC voltage setting and touch the probes to the battery terminals to determine
how much of its original voltage the battery supplies. 
v. Determine if a power cable is broken: Measure the resistance between the hot and neutral wires of any
residential electric cable. If the resistance is infinite, or the meter reads OL, the cable is damaged. 
 vi. Test a switch: If a light fixture isn't working, or is flickering, testing the switch is often the first and
easiest step to diagnosing the problem. To check a switch, choose the 200-volt range, place a probe on
the terminal connected to the load and place the other probe on the ground screw. You should get a
voltage reading around 120 volts when the switch is closed and o volts when it's open.
vii. Test an outlet: To check a household outlet, choose the 200-volt range and insert the probes into the
outlet slots. If you don't get a reading of around 120 volts, there's a problem with the outlet or the
circuitry. 
viii. Test old incandescent light bulbs: Adjust the meter dial to test for resistance or continuity. Touch one
probe to the screw thread and the other to the foot on the bottom of the bulb. The bulb is bad if the
display shows OL or the meter shows infinite resistance. 

2. TRANSISTOR TESTER

Uses of Transistor Tester

Transistor tester is an instrument which is used to test the electrical behaviour of a transistor or diode.
Digital multi-meter and Ohms meter are suitable for both PNP and NPN transistor testing.
3. OSCILLOSCOPE

Uses of Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are used to view the signals coming directly from devices such as sound cards, allowing the
real-time display of waves. They are used as electrocardiograms, to test circuits and to troubleshoot
electronic devices such as televisions. Oscilloscopes with storage features allow signals to be captured,
retrieved and analysed for later use.

4. ELECTRONICS VOLTMETER

Uses Electronics Voltmeter

 It is used for measuring the voltages of both the AC and DC devices. The electronic voltmeter gives  the
accurate reading because of high input resistance.

CHAPTER 2
 CABLING JOINTING, SOLDERING AND DE-SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

TYPES OF CABLE
Electrical and Electronics cables are classified based on their uses, below are the types of cables:

1. Power Supply Cable

Network engineers that work around the world are well aware of the many different types of plugs and
sockets in use. There is more than one standard being used in the world; different country may use different
power cord types, different plugs and connectors, especially the plug types. Below are the types of power
supply cables and plugs:

i. Type A: Type A plug has two flat parallel prongs is pretty much standard in most of North and Central
America. It is known as NEMA 1-15 and was invented in 1904 by Harvey Hubbell II. The plug has two
flat 1.5 mm thick blades, measuring 15.9 – 18.3 mm in length and spaced 12.7 mm apart. Type A plugs
are generally polarised and can only be inserted one way because the two blades do not have the same
width. The blade connected to neutral is 7.9mm wide and the hot blade is 6.3mm wide. This plug is rated
at 15A. Since 1965, ungrounded type A outlets are not permitted anymore in new constructions in the
United States and Canada, but they can still be found in older buildings.

This plug has two flat prongs with (often, but not always) a hole near the tip. These holes aren’t there
without a reason.

ii. Type B: This type of plug is designated as American standard NEMA 5-15. It has two flat 1.5 mm thick
blades, spaced 12.7 mm apart, measuring 15.9 – 18.3 mm in length and 6.3 mm in width. It also has a
4.8 mm diameter round or U-shaped earth pin, which is 3.2 mm longer than the two flat blades, so the
device is grounded before the power is connected. The centre-to-centre distance between the grounding
pin and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two power blades is 11.9 mm. The plug is rated
at 15 amps.
iii. Type C: Type C is the most widely used plug internationally. This two-wire plug is ungrounded, un-
polarised and has two round prongs. It is popularly known as the Euro-plug which is described in CEE
7/16. The plug has two 4 mm round pins, measuring 19 mm in length on centres spaced 18.6 mm apart at
the base and 17.5 mm apart at the tip. The two pins have 10 mm long insulated sleeves. They converge
slightly, but they are relatively flexible which allows the plug to mate with any socket that accepts 4.0 –
4.8 mm round contacts on 17.5 – 19 mm centres. The plug is generally limited for use in class II
applications that require 2.5 amps or less.

iv. Type D: India has standardized on a plug which was originally defined in British Standard 546 (the
standard in Great Britain before 1947). This 5 amp plug has three round prongs that form a triangle. The
central earth pin is 20.6 mm long and has a diameter of 7.1 mm. The 5.1 mm line and neutral pins are
14.9 mm long, on centres spaced 19.1 mm apart. The centre-to-centre distance between the grounding
pin and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two power pins is 22.2 mm.

v. Type E: France, Belgium and some other countries have standardized on a socket which is different
from the CEE 7/4 socket (type F) that is standard in Germany and other continental European countries.
 Fortunately, type F plugs are fully compatible with type E sockets and the other way round. In the past,
however, this wasn’t the case. The reason for the initial incompatibility was that grounding in the E
socket is accomplished with a round male pin, which is permanently mounted in the socket. Old type F
plugs did not have a grounding hole to accept the earth pin of the type E socket. This grounding pin is 14
mm long and has a diameter of 4.8 mm. The plug itself is similar to C except that it is round and has the
addition of a female contact to accept the socket’s grounding pin. The plug has two 4.8 mm round pins,
measuring 19 mm in length on centres spaced 19 mm apart. The centre-to-centre distance between the
female contact and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two power pins is 10 mm.

vi. Type F: Plug F is known as CEE 7/4 and commonly called “Schuko plug”, which is the acronym of
“Schutzkontakt”, a German word meaning “protection contact” or “safety contact”. The plug was
designed in Germany shortly after the First World War. It goes back to a patent (DE 370538) granted in
1926 to Albert Büttner, a Bavarian manufacturer of electrical accessories.
Type F is similar to C except that it is round and has the addition of top and bottom indentations with
conductive clips in them in order to earth the appliance. The plug is not perfectly round, but has a pair of
plastic notches on the left and right side to provide extra stability when using large and heavy plugs (e.g.
with built-in transformers).

vii. Type G: Type G is mainly used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Cyprus, Malta, Malaysia, Singapore,

Hong Kong and the Arabian Peninsula.
This 13 amp plug has three rectangular prongs that form an isosceles triangle. The central earth pin is 4
by 8 mm and 22.7 mm long. Line and neutral pins are 4 by 6.35 mm and 17.7 mm long, on centres
 spaced 22.2 mm apart. The centre-to-centre distance between the earth pin and the middle of the
imaginary line connecting the two power pins is 22.2 mm. The 9-mm long insulated sleeves prevent
accidental contact with a bare connector while the plug is partially inserted.

viii. Type H: Type H is used exclusively in Israel and Palestine. This earthed 16 amp plug is unique to Israel.
It has three 4.5 mm round prongs, measuring 19 mm in length and forming a triangle. The centres of the
line and neutral pins are spaced 19 mm apart. The centre-to-centre distance between the earth pin and the
middle of the imaginary line connecting the two power pins is 9.5 mm.

ix. Type I: Type I is mainly used in Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, China and Argentina.
This 10 amp plug has two flat 1.6 mm thick blades, set at 30° to the vertical, forming an upside-down V.
Their centres are spaced 13.7 mm apart and both prongs measure 17.3 mm in length and 6.3 mm in
width. The flat earth blade also measures 6.3 by 1.6 mm, but it is 20 mm long. The distance between the
centre of the grounding pin and the middle of the plug is 10.3 mm. There is an ungrounded version of
this plug as well, with only two flat V-shaped prongs. Both plug versions have insulated live and neutral
pins, so even if the plug is not fully inserted into a socket, touching the exposed part of the prongs can’t
give you a shock.
x. Type J: Type J is used almost exclusively in Switzerland and Liechtenstein. Switzerland has its own
standard which is described in SEV 1011. This plug is similar to C, except that it has the addition of a
grounding pin. Type J plugs have three 4 mm round pins, measuring 19 mm in length. The centres of the
line and neutral prongs are spaced 19 mm apart and they have 10 mm long insulated sleeves. Older
versions of this plug have unsleeved pins. Type J looks very much like the Brazilian type N standard, but
it is incompatible with it since type J has the earth pin further away from the centre line than  type N: the
centre-to-centre distance between the earth pin and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two
power pins is 5 mm. This connector system is rated for use in applications up to 10 amps. Above 10 A,
equipment must be either wired permanently to the electrical supply system with appropriate branch
circuit protection or connected to the mains with an appropriate high power industrial connector. A type
C plug fits perfectly into a type J socket.

xi. Type K: Type K is used almost exclusively in Denmark and Greenland. The Danish standard is
described in DS 60884-2-D1. Unlike the similar type E plug, the grounding pin is not mounted in the
receptacle, but it is on the plug itself. The U-shaped earthen pin is 14 mm long, 4 mm thick and has a 6.5
mm diameter. The line and the neutral pins of type K are round and have a 4.8 mm diameter. They are
19 mm in length and their centres are spaced 19 mm apart. The centre-to-centre distance between the
earth pin and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two power pins is 13 mm. The plug is rated
at 16 A. A type C plug fits perfectly into a type K socket. The Danish socket will also accept plug types
E and F: however, there is no grounding connection with these plugs because a male ground pin is
required on the plug. Because of the huge amount of imported European appliances fitted
with E/F plugs, the Danish government decided to make it legal to install type E or F sockets too. So, the
expectation is that, in the long term, the standard European type F socket (or – but this is less likely – the
less frequently used type E) will eventually replace the Danish type K socket.
xii. Type L: Type L is used almost exclusively in Italy, Chile and Uruguay and is also randomly found
throughout North Africa. The Italian grounded plug/socket standard, CEI 23-16/VII, includes two styles
rated at 10 and 16 amps. Both plug top styles consist of three rounded pins placed in a straight line. They
differ in terms of contact diameter and spacing, and are therefore incompatible with each other. The 10
amp version has three 4 mm round pins, measuring 19 mm in length. The centres of the line and neutral
pins are spaced 19 mm apart. The distance between the centres of either of the two outer prongs and the
centre of the ground pin is 9.5 mm. The 10 amp style socket also accepts type C plugs.

xiii. Type M: Type M is used almost exclusively in South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho. This plug
resembles the Indian type D plug, but its pins are much larger. Type M is a 15 amp plug, and it has three
round prongs that form a triangle. The central earth pin is 28.6 mm long and has a diameter of 8.7 mm.
The 7.1 mm line and neutral pins are 18.6 mm long, on centres spaced 25.4 mm apart. The centre-to-
centre distance between the grounding pin and the middle of the imaginary line connecting the two
power pins is 28.6 mm. The South African version of the M plug often has insulated sleeves on the pins
to prevent accidental contact with a bare connector while the plug is
xiv. Type N: Type N is used exclusively in Brazil and South Africa. In 2001 and 2013,
respectively, Brazil and South Africa standardised on the type N socket and plug system in order to put
an end to the proliferation of different socket and plug types within their borders.

xv. Type O: Type O is used exclusively in Thailand. The type O plug, rated at 16 amps, is one of the official
standards in Thailand. The standard is described in TIS 166-2549 (incidentally, the last four digits refer
to the Buddhist year 2549, which corresponds to the year 2006 in the Gregorian calendar).
2. System Communication Cables

Three Major Types of network cables used in Communication Systems are:

1. Fibre optic cable,
2. Twisted pair cable and
3. Coaxial cable
Each of them is different and suitable for various applications.

Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages
modulated onto light waves.
Fibre Optic cable has a complicated design and structure. This type of cable has an outer optical casing that
surrounds the light and traps it within a central core. The inside of the cable (the core) is configured in two
different ways – Single-mode and multi-mode; although the difference may seem small, but tremendous to
the performance and the usage of cables.

Types of Optical Fibre Cable

Best for LAN Best for WAN

LOCAL AREA NETWORK CABLES or LAN CABLE: LAN cable also called Ethernet cables are
commonly used in connection for a network. LAN cables are a specific type of data cable used in computer
networking. LAN cables have a plug like structure at both the ends, which plugs into the appropriate port. It
cables contain 8 wires. There are two different types of local area network cables. The first is called
Straight Cable that connects a computer to a router or hub, and the second is called a Crossover Cable,
connecting two computers together. Below are the typical diagrams of LAN cable.
Note: LAN cable is constructed following the RJ45 cable colour code.

Straight Cable: Straight cable is used for connecting two dissimilar devices such as PC to router or hub, PC
to Switch, or Switch to router. Below is the construction technic using RJ45 colour code.

Crossover Cable: Cross cable is used for connecting two similar devices such as PC to PC, Switch to
Switch and Router to Router.

Generally LAN cables applications are called as Category 3, Category 5 and so on and are abbreviated as
CAT3, CAT6, etc. The category of cable chosen for the application usually determines the speed of internet.
CAT3 and CAT5 cables are considered to be obsolete as they are used for low internet speed applications.
We have CAT5e where ‘e’ stands for enhanced, shows that the cable can resist any unwanted transfer of
signals. Similarly, CAT6a where ‘a’ stands for augmented can support almost twice bandwidths than CAT6
cables and have thicker shielding due to which these can be less flexible. CAT7 and CAT7a are the most
advanced cables one can buy for the network use.
 LAN Cable
WAN
WAN port connects to a high-speed modem, like a DSL or cable modem, which in turn connects the router
to the Internet. WAN cables are almost the same as LAN cables just that they are mostly used with hubs and
modems. Below are some typical diagrams of WAN cables.
WAN Connecto
Details
Method r
Modem RJ-11 Serial cable from PC to modem. Cable connecting modem to phone line has an RJ-11 connector
UTP straight-through with RJ-45 connectors at both ends of the cable run from the ISDN router to an
ISDN RJ-45
NT1 connector that connects to a telephone line.
The cable that runs from the DSL router has a RJ-11 connector at the end that plugs into the phone
DSL RJ-11
socket. A micro-filter is used to allow you to plug both a phone and a DSL cable into the phone socket.

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is a type of ordinary wiring which connects home and many business computers to the
telephone company. It is made by putting two separate insulated wires together in a twisted pattern and
running them parallel to each other. Twisted pair cable is suitable for transferring balanced differential
signals. The method of transmitting signals dates back to the early days of the telegraph and radio.  The
advantages of improved signal-to-noise ratio, crosstalk, and ground bounce that balanced signal transmission
brings are particularly valuable in wide bandwidth and high fidelity systems.

According to whether the cable has a shielding layer, there are two common types of twisted pair cables—
shielded twisted pair (STP) cable and unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable. STP cable is available for Token
Ring networks, while the UTP cable is more suitable for Ethernet networks. The most common UTP cable
types applied in Ethernet network are cat5e, cat6a, and cat7 cables, etc. The following image shows the
different structures of UTP and STP cables.
Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, or coax cable, is another type of copper cable which has an inner conductor surrounded by foam
insulation, symmetrically wrapped by a woven braided metal shield, then covered by in a plastic jacket (as shown in
the following image). This unique design allows coaxial cable runed to be installed next to metal objects such as
gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. The coaxial cable acts as a high-
frequency transmission cable made up of a single solid copper core and compared to twisted pair cable. It has 80 times
or more transmission capability. This kind of cable is mainly adopted in feed lines connecting radio transmitters and
receivers with their antennas, computer network connections, and distributing cable television signals.

Note: Optical fiber cables has many separate insulated wires together and running parallel to each other, twisted
cables has two pieces of separate insulated wires together running them parallel to each other and coax cable has just
one insulated wire.

TYPES OF CABLE FOR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN SYSTEM AND PERIPHERALS

The Cable Standards

Computer cables are not some random pieces of electrical wire, we usually identify cables and connectors
using “strange numbers” such as RJ45 and IEC 60320. There is no need to be confused, these are just
standard codes by the various international organizations. These are the few that you should be aware of:
 IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 USB IF – USB Implementers Frontier
 RJ – Registered Jack
 IEC – International Electro technical Commission
 
Male-Female
There is a “gender” in the world of connectors.
 The “male” part refers to the connector side with pins.
 While the “female” refers to the receptacle side.
1. HDMI cable
HDMI (High definition Media Interface) is a type of computer cable used to transmit high definition video
and audio signals. Using the HDMI cables, the audio and video signal can be easily transmitted without
compromising the quality of images and can send crystal clear images using this cable. The HDMI cables
are used to connect cable boxes, TVs, DVD players, media streamers and other electronic devices. All types
of Av devices can be connected to one standard cable, which is an HDMI cable. Also, one HDMI cable is
capable of transmitting both audio and video signals at the same time.

2. 1) Video Graphics Array (VGA)

VGA (Video Graphics Ray) cable is another type of computer cable which is used for sending video signals
and is used to link the monitor and the CPU of a computer. The VGA cable can also be used in HD
televisions. All the information displayed on the monitor is coming from the VGA cable. There is a total of
15 pins in the plugin the cable, which have three rows containing 5 pins each. And the cable is easily fitted
in the monitor and the other end is fixed in the CPU of a computer system.

3. Digital Visual Interface (DVI) cable

DVI cables are used to connect the LCD monitor and the video card. Using this cable, the user can see high
image quality without having any disturbance. The DVI cable is mostly used in CRT monitors, which have a
VGA connection. This cable transmits the digital and analog signals to the computer system. The DVI cable
is capable enough of digital connections and analog connections. The DVI cable can be easily distinguished,
whether it is analog or digital, by looking if there is any flat pin present on the cable. If the flat pin has four
pins around, then it is a DVI analog, and there is only a flat pin, then it is DVI digital.

4. Ethernet Cable
The Ethernet cable is a type of computer network cable which is used for a wired network. The Ethernet
cable is used to connect the switches, monitors, PCs to the LAN (Local Area Network). The length and
durability of the Ethernet cable describe the quality of the connection. If the cable is too long and is not
durable, it will contain a poor quality of the signal. And due to this factor, there are different types of
Ethernet cables present in the market. The Ethernet cables are plugged into the Ethernet port present on the
motherboard. The Ethernet cable looks like a phone cable but contains more wires than phone cables. There
are eight wires in the Ethernet cable, and they can be available in different colors in the market.

5. Personal System/2 (PS/2) Cable

The PS/2 cable is a standard cable to connect the mouse and keyboard to the computer system. The length of
the PS/2 cable is long enough so that the user can easily connect the mouse and keyboard to the system and
use the system. There are a total of 6 pins in PS/2 cables and have a round connector. There are majorly two
sizes of PS/2 cable. The smaller size is the most common cable, but some adaptors can be used to convert it
into a larger size. This cable is now replaced with USB cables as they are universal cables and can be easily
plugged into any system.

6. 3.5mm Audio Jack Cable

The 3.5mm audio cables are a type of computer cables that are used in computer audio applications. This
cable can be used for connecting a mini-stereo audio device, PC sound card or any portable CD player to
any multimedia speaker. This cable can also be used to connect earphones and headphones to the system.

The green port is for headphones and computer speakers. Blue port is for DVD player, MP3 player and pink
port Is used for connecting microphones.
7. USB cables

The USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable is a standard cable used to connect universal devices or personal
computers. It is mainly used for short-distance digital communication. The digital data can be transferred
using a USB cable. Nowadays, the USB cable is used to charge devices like smartphones, Bluetooth
speakers, trimmers and many more. The USB cables can be used to connect two devices directly. The USB
cable is connected to the USB port present in the computer system. The mouse and keyboard are also
connected to a USB port as they have USB cables. As the device is connected through the USB cable, the
unplugging of the USB cable when a device is running can cause damage to a device, so whenever there is a
need of removing the USB cable, first it should be eject safely and then it should be removed from the
system.

8. Lightning
Lightning is the latest generation of iPhone/iPad connectors, and it is specific to Apple devices only. Well,
the certain fruit company definitely has no love for the mainstream standards.

9. Optical Fiber Audio Cable

Unlike the traditional copper wires, this one uses light to transmit data, and thus called “optical fiber”.
Although expensive, the reason why some people may choose optical fiber is that copper wires have a
tendency to introduce noise (static sound).
Light signals do not introduce noise, and that results in a cleaner sound. Just don’t stare into the ends of the
optical fiber cable, some may use lasers and can blind people.

CABLING PROCEDURE AND PRACTICE

Joining electrical power cables can be as simple as twisting the wires and taping them or more detailed using
a variety of inline adapters and connectors. The method used for a particular joint depends on the voltage,
type of cable, type of joint, type of connector, application and other factors.
Regardless of the method used, it is important to have the proper tools and materials. Some of the key
factors that ensure clean, safe and reliable connections are;
 Using the proper size of the connector for the particular cable
 Proper tools
 Clean cuts and stripping
 Restoring the insulation, armor and outer-sheath
 Proper technique

Typical electrical cable jointing methods

1. Western union splice joint
This is a straight joint used for small solid cables. Below is the procedure:
 Remove the insulation
 Bring the two conductors to a crossed position and then make a long bend or twist in each wire.
 Wrap the end of one of the wires around the straight portion of the other wire, and then do the same
for the other wire. Repeat this for about four or five times.
 Press ends of the wires down close to the straight portions of the wire to prevent the ends from
piecing through the insulation tape.
 Insulate the joint using the tape

2. Rattail joint
The rattail joint is usually used in the junction boxes. It allows the connection of branch or multiple circuits
in buildings.
To create the joint,
 Strip the insulation off the ends of the cable to be joined
  Twist the wires to create the rattail effect

3. Fixture joint
This is a type of branch joint connecting a small-diameter wire to the large diameter conductor, such as
those used in lighting fixtures.
 Remove the insulation
 Wrap the fixture wire around the branch wire
 Bend the branch wire over the completed turns
 Wrap the remaining fixture wire over the bent branch wire
 This can be followed by soldering and taping, or simply taping of the joint.

4. Knotted tap joint

The knotted tap joint is used to for branch joints to connect a branch wire to a continuous wire.
 Remove about 1 inch of insulation from the main wire and about 3 inches from the branch wire.
 Place the branch wire behind the main wire so that three-fourths of its bare wire extends above the
main wire.
 Bring the branch wire over the main wire, around itself, and finally over the main wire so that it forms
a knot. Wrap the wire around the main conductor in short, tight turns and trim its end.
5. Joints using wire nut and split bolt
The wire nut replaces the rattail joint splice. The nut is usually housed in a plastic insulating casing. To
make a joint,
 Strip the conductors
 Place the two to be joined into the wire nut
 Twist the nut

6. Split bolt connector

The split bolt is mainly used to joint large conductors. This replaces the knotted tap joint and can be used
to join three ends or join a branch wire to a continuous conductor.

The bare wires are placed through the space between the two bolts, after which the nut is tightened to
ensure a sound joint.

SOLDERING & DE-SOLDERING TECHNIQUES

A typical printed circuit board, or PCB, contains a large number of electronic components. These
components are held on the board by solder flux that creates a strong bond between the pins of a component
and their corresponding pads on the board. However, the main purpose of this solder is to provide electrical
connectivity. Soldering and de-soldering is performed to install a component on a PCB or to remove it from
the board.

Soldering with Soldering Iron

A soldering iron is the most commonly used tool to solder components on PCBs. Generally, the iron is
heated to a temperature of about 420 degrees Celsius, which is enough to quickly melt the solder flux. The
component is then positioned on the PCB such that its pins are aligned with their corresponding pads on the
board. In the next step, the solder wire is brought into contact with the interface between the first pin and its
pad. Briefly touching this wire at the interface with the heated soldering iron tip melts the solder. The molten
solder flows on the pad and covers the component pin. After solidifying, it creates a strong bond between the
pin and the pad. Since the solidification of the solder happens fairly quickly, within two to three seconds,
one can move to the next pin immediately after soldering one.
Reflow Soldering
Reflow soldering is generally used in PCB production environments in which large numbers of SMD
components need to be soldered at the same time. SMD stands for surface mount device and refers to
electronic components that are much smaller in size than their through-hole counterparts. These components
are soldered on the component side of the board and do not require drilling. The heat-oven method of
soldering requires a specially designed oven. The SMD components are first placed on the board with a
solder flux paste spread over all of its terminals. The paste is sticky enough to keep the components in place
until placing the board in the oven. Most reflow ovens operate in four stages.
 First stage, the temperature of the oven is raised slowly, at a rate of about 2 degrees Celsius per
second to about 200 degrees Celsius.
 Second stage, which lasts for about one to two minutes, the temperature increment rate is
significantly lowered. During this stage, the flux starts to react with the lead and the pad to form
bonds.
 Third Stage, the temperature is further raised to about 220 degrees Celsius to complete the melting
and bonding process. This stage generally takes less than a minute to complete.
 Fourth stage, the cooling begins. During cooling, the temperature is rapidly decreased to a little
above room temperature, which helps in quick solidification of the solder flux.

De-soldering with Copper Braid

Copper braid is commonly used to des-older electronic components. This technique involves melting the
solder flux and then allowing the copper braid to absorb it. The braid is placed on the solid solder and gently
pressed with a heated soldering iron tip. The tip melts the solder, which is quickly absorbed by the braid.
This is an efficient but slow method of de-soldering components since each soldered joint must be worked
on individually.

De-soldering with Solder Sucker

Solder sucker is basically a small tube connected to a vacuum pump. Its purpose is to suck the molten flux
off of pads. A heated soldering iron tip is first placed on the solid solder until it melts. The solder sucker is
then placed directly on the molten flux and a button on its side is pushed that quickly sucks the flux.

De-soldering with Heat Gun

De-soldering with a heat gun is generally used to de-solder SMD components, though it can also be
employed for through-hole components. In this method, the board is placed on a perfectly flat place and a
heat gun is pointed directly at the components to be de-soldered for a few seconds. This quickly melts the
solder and on the pads, loosening the components. They are then immediately lifted with the help of
tweezers. The downside of this method is that it is very difficult to use for small, individual components
since the heat can melt the solder on nearby pads, which can dislodge components that are not be de-
soldered. Also, the molten flux can flow to nearby traces and pads, causing electrical shorts. It is therefore
very important to keep the board as flat as possible during this process.

CRIMPING AND FASTENING METHOD

Crimping is joining two or more pieces of metal or other ductile material by deforming one or both of them
to hold the other. The bend or deformity is called the crimp.
It is an important step in assembling a wire harness. Crimping joins wires within the harness that connects
that wire to another wiring component or to other wires. Wire crimping requires the right material and tools
such as wire strippers, crimp tool to suit the terminals, heat-shrink, crimp terminals to suit the application
and stranded wire; and following step-by-step procedures.
With materials and tools in hand, the step-by-step procedure necessary to accomplish wire crimping and
fastening are:

Step 1 Choosing the Wire: depending on your application, you may or may not have a choice on the wire
to use. Firstly do not use solid cored wire, rather go for wire with many strands.

Step 2: Choosing the Crimp Terminal: As with wire sizes, there are also many types of crimp terminals to
choose from. Selection and quality of the crimp terminal is determined by the application requirements of
the device. There are three main factors to consider when choosing a terminal:
 Plating will be required for the terminal to ensure low contact resistance or to protect it from
corrosion or both?
 The terminal requires pre-insulation, i.e., a metal sleeve used to grip the wire.
 The correct turn pin for the terminal to support the creation of connectors

Step3. Selecting the Crimping Tool

The right crimping tool is needed to ensure the crimp is formed to specifications. There is no universal
crimping tool, they vary with crimping designs. Therefore, the tool selected for the crimp terminal must be
designed for crimping that particular terminal.

Step4. Making the Crimp

Once the tool, terminal, and wire gauge is determined, crimping is a multi-step process that first requires
selection of the correct length of stranded wire. Next, strip the end to a length that leaves approximately one-
sixteenth of an inch (1-2 mm) protruding once the wire has been inserted into the crimp. Trim the insulation
from the end to expose the wire strands and insert the wire into the crimp. Make sure that every wire strand
has been inserted into the crimp. Seat the crimp and wire into the crimping tool and press the tool until the
crimp become firm on the wire then release it.

Step5. Heat-Shrink Applications

In those applications that require heat-shrinking, a hot air gun is necessary to shrink the tubing. When heat-
shrinking, be sure the sleeve is fitted correctly and positioned over the crimp and wire. It should not be
covering the crimp’s terminal end.
 CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENT CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive electrical component with two-terminals that implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element.

Types of Resistor
1. Carbon Composition Resistor: This is a commonly used resistor and has low cost.

2. Thermistor: Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient which means its resistance will fall
down when the temperature increases.

3. Wire Wound Resistor: In this type of resistor, wire is wound around a cylinder of insulating material
and the temperature coefficient of resistance is almost zero.

4. Metal Film Resistor: This resistor is constructed by depositing a thin film of a conductive material
such as pure carbon or metal on to an insulating core.

5. Variable Resistor: The variable resistor means its resistance value can be adjusted. There are a
rotating shaft and a wiping contact.

6. Varistor: They are made of materials such as silicon carbides, zinc oxide, its resistance is not uniform
and it does not obey Ohms law.

7. Light Dependent Resistor: A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) will vary in resistance depending on the
intensity of light falling on it.
Values of Resistors Using Colour Codes
Components and wires are coded with colours to identify their value and function. Generally, the resistance
value, tolerance, and wattage rating are printed on the body of a resistor as numbers or letters when the
resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors.
But when a resistor is smaller the print is too small to read, so the specifications must be shown in using
colour code.

Three or Four Band Resistors

 The first two bands always denote the first two digits of the resistance value in ohms.
 The third band represents the multiplier. This multiplier will basically shift your decimal place around to
change your value from mega ohms to milliohms and anywhere in between.
 The fourth colour band signifies tolerance. Keep in mind that if this band is absent and you are looking
at a three-band resistor, the default tolerance is ±20%.

Five or Six Band Resistors

Resistors with high precision have an extra colour band to indicate a third significant digit. If your resistor
has five or six colour bands,
 The third band becomes this additional digit along with bands one and two.
 The fourth colour band is the multiplier
 The fifth band the tolerance.
 For a six-band resistor, it is basically a five-band type with an additional ring indicating the reliability, or
the temperature coefficient.
 Using brown, the most common sixth band colour as an example, every temperature change of 10°C
changes the resistance value by 0.1%.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive electronic component with two terminals that stores electrical energy in an electric
field.

Types of capacitor
1. Electrolytic Capacitor
2. Paper Capacitor
3. Mica Capacitor
4. Non-Polarized Capacitors
5. Film Capacitor
6. Ceramic Capacitor

Capacitor Colour Code

Here is the different colours used on the capacitor, each colour has its digit, multiplier tolerance and
temperature co-efficient. The colour code chart is given below:
The following table shows the working voltage depends upon the capacitor:

Where,
Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors,
Type K – Mica Capacitors,
Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors,
Type M – Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors,
Type N – Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors

TRANSISTORS
DIODES

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

RESISTORS: Identify the values and power rating

CAPACITORS: Identify the working voltage of the capacitors.

OPEN CIRCUIT AND SHORT CIRCUIT DEFECTS IN ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Open Circuit Fault

An open circuit is a circuit whose path has been broken or “opened” at some point, preventing current from
flowing. It is characterized by having infinite resistance when testing for the fault. Note open circuit is either
caused by: component failure, break in circuit and intentional interruption.
Note: You need a closed circuit to get electric current to flow, so if there’s a break anywhere in the path,
you have an open circuit, and the current stops flowing.
 
Short Circuit Defect
A short circuit is a direct connection between two points in a circuit that are not supposed to be directly
connected, such as the two terminals of a power supply. Electric current takes the path of least resistance, so
in a short circuit, the current will bypass other parallel paths and travel through the direct connection.
A short is characterized by having a zero resistance or very low resistance. When a short circuit occurs
within a series component; others components in the series have higher currents. The best tool for diagnosis
is a VOM or volt ohmmeter.

In-circuit testing
In-Circuit Testing, ICT is a powerful tool, which helps detect defective components by checking them
individually. ICT is a highly accurate form of testing that performs a “schematic verification”. The ICT,
which is a fully automated test, thus helps detect defects in an assembly, which can be replaced accordingly
before making it final. ICT is usually conducted in two parts such as Power-off Tests and Power-on Tests.

What defects are identified with In-Circuit Testing?

ICT is a comprehensive test covering all the components on a printed circuit board (PCB). Below are some
of the defects tested for using In-Circuit testing (ICT):
 Component spacing, lead spacing, land sizes, and component sizes
 Component markings
 Soldering and process issues
 Shorts between traces and/or component leads
 Open circuits (“opens”) where electrical continuity should exist
 Values of resistors in the circuit
 Jumpers/switches in correct location/setting or not
 Presence/absence of passive components
 Presence/absence of active analog components
 Misoriented analog components
 Misoriented digital components
 Capacitance and inductance values
 Wrong or missing components
 Solder bridges
 Short circuits
 CHAPTER 4
THE USE OF MANUFACTURES SERVICE MANUAL AND CIRCUIT WIRING DIAGRAMS

Troubleshooting Electrical Faults

Electrical faults are common and are relatively easy to troubleshoot. Let’s take a look at some common
faults and how to diagnose them.
Identifying Electrical Faults
 Open circuit: Typically, this type of fault can be identified quickly as some part of the circuit will not be
operating since it is not receiving the voltage it requires for correct operation. Look for burned out light
bulbs, open operating coils and loose connection or terminal points to cause this type of fault. On equipment
with wiring that continually flexes, you may find a broken conductor inside the insulation which causes an
open circuit.
 Short circuit faults are more difficult to find and repair. Typically, a short circuit occurs when the insulation
around a conductor deteriorates and the current finds a path to another conductor or grounded object. This
can cause fuses or circuit breakers to operate because of unwanted excessive current flow. Another
possibility is that the short circuit will energize other parts of the circuit and cause other components to
operate unintentionally. Although a fuse or circuit breaker can open from “old age”, it is more likely an
indicator of a short circuit or overcurrent situation.
 Low voltage problems can cause relays to chatter or not pick up at all. Motors and components with coils
can heat up more than normal and cause electrical insulation to deteriorate and possibly fail.
 Over voltage problems generally shorten the lifespan of most components due to greater than normal
heating. Lighting and motors are most affected by this problem.
 Electro/mechanical faults usually happen to components that are nearing end of life or have manufacturing
defects. This type of fault includes things like a pushbutton that no longer closes when pushed or a relay
with stuck/welded contacts. This type of fault often exhibits no exterior signs of internal problems.

Troubleshooting Logic
Safety first! Before you begin to troubleshoot an electrical fault, ensure you know your organization’s safety
rules and procedures, including the lockout/tagout rules and testing procedures.
 To be an effective troubleshooter you must always start with a strategy, a systematic approach, if you will.
To begin, gather information about the equipment and the fault including prints and manufacturer’s manuals.
Understand how the equipment is designed to operate and review documentation of the problem such as
work orders, trouble reports or discussions with the person who reported the problem. Then, follow this
systematic approach.
1. Observation
Look for visual signs of malfunctioning equipment including loose components, parts in bottom of cabinet
or signs of overheated components. Don’t forget to use all your senses including smell, listening for
abnormal sounds and touching to feel for excessive heat or loose components. Also, fully test operates
equipment if possible and note what is working correctly and what is not.
2. Define Problem Areas
From your observations decide what parts of the circuit are operating correctly and which are not. Any
properly functioning parts of the circuit can be eliminated from the problem areas which will decrease your
testing time required later.
3. Identify Possible Causes
Once you have identified the problem area, you can now begin to list probable causes. Try to think of every
possibility that could cause the problem and rate each by probability. Typically, possibilities would include
the following: blown fuses, mechanical components, windings and coils, terminal connections and wiring.
4. Test Probable Cause
Now that you have a list of most probable causes you can begin testing. Start with the most probable cause.
Always know what to expect before you take a meter reading and know what it means if you get a reading
different than what you predicted. From your tests you may need to sectionalize the circuit further to reduce
the problem area. Continue with this method until you find a suspect component or wire.
5. Replace Component and Test Operate
Once you have proven a component is defective, replace the component and test operate the complete
circuit. Make sure you check all features and operations of the circuit. If everything is operating correctly
return the equipment to service. If the circuit still does not operate correctly, you will need to rethink your
logic and return to step one.

Tools for Trouble shooting faults

Many tools are available for electrical troubleshooting, but we basically use the following:
1. Multimeter which is usually all you will need to perform most of your tests. A typical multimeter can
measure AC volts, DC volts, resistance and small flows of current.
2. Another great addition would be a clip-on ammeter for measuring operating current.
1. Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter measures resistance in a circuit and is a great tool for finding short circuits, open coils or
burned out light bulbs. Power to the circuit must be shut off and locked out before taking an ohmmeter
reading and remember to put the leads together and take a reading to prove the meter is operating correctly
before starting. It is always good practice to remove one wire from a component before taking a reading to
ensure there are no parallel paths in your reading.
2. Voltmeter
A voltmeter measures AC or DC volts in a circuit and is preferred for finding open circuits. Always check
 your meter on a known voltage source to verify it is working correctly before taking test readings. Try to
keep one lead as a reference lead and keep it on neutral or ground. Use the other lead for picking terminals
for your test points.
3. Clip-on Ammeter
A clip-on ammeter is useful to measure current draw of components while they are operating. A motor that
is drawing more current than normal may have worn bearings or could be overloaded. The clip-on ammeter
is also useful for determining current flows in different parts of a circuit.
A Few More Tips
 Never underestimate the power of your own senses in determining faults. The “burnt insulation” smell
is almost always a good indication of a failed component.
 Listening for abnormal sounds when operating a device can also lead you to a problem.
 Looking at components for visual signs of burning is always a good place to start and checking for
overheated equipment can also be an indicator of trouble. Just be careful not to get burned yourself when
checking for hot equipment

How to Isolate Computer Problems

The following are the fundamental rules in isolating computer problems.
 Approach the problem systematically: start at the beginning and walk through the situation in a careful
way. Remember it and apply it every time.
 Divide and conquer: This rue is the most powerful. Isolate the problem. In the overall system, remove
one software or hardware component after another, until the problem is isolated to a small part of the
whole system.
 Don’t overlook the obvious: ask simple questions. Is the computer plugged in? Is it turned on? Is the
monitor plugged in? Most problems are so simple that we overlook them because we expect the
problem to be difficult.
 Check the simple things first: it is more effective to first check the components that are easiest to
replace.
 Make no assumptions
 Write things down: keep noting down the symptoms. They will help you think more clearly.
 Reboot and start over: This is an important rule. Fresh starts are good for us and uncover events or steps
that might have been overlooked.
 Keep your cool: In an emergency, protect the data and software by carefully considering your options
before acting, by not assuming data is lost even when hard drive and floppy drive errors occur, and by
taking practical precautions to protect software and OS files.
 Don’t assume the worst:
 Know the starting point.
 A careful visual inspection should catch the following types of

Faults
 Loose wires
 Broken wires
 Blown fuses
 Wrong switch settings
 Missing jumpers
 Loose connectors
 Burnt PCB track
 PCB track cut
 PCB track short
 Wrong insertion of connector/cable
 Cold solder joints
 Solder bridges
 Broken IC leads

Observation test methods are:

i. Visual;
ii. Touch;
iii. Smell;
iv. Hearing.