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 31.102 : T27
ALASKA
CANADA

.A.
NATU.S
O
MEXIC

SWAMP

elhie %
IVD
1948
TAM

TERRAIN
flying
 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

HALUTET
3 1293 02073 6066
U. S. Luiin 1 IIUI UUMMERCE
LL
W. AVERE HARRI MAN , Secretary
CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION
T. P. WRIGHT, Administrator

A
RTMEN COM
MER
DEPA CE
A
IC
UNIT

ER
AM
ED

STATE
S
OF
TERRAIN
Flying
Presenting Advice
Of Veteran Pilots
To Promote Safety

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents , U. S. Government

Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. Price, 25 cents .
 Prefatory Note
Here is a flying " tool” which will prove of value to
the average private pilot.
The CAA is glad to present it to the flying fraternity
in the name of all the people who have contributed to
its writing. Because the list is so long not all of them
can be named here, but their ideas, opinions, and
advice have been gathered and boiled down into a
booklet for the pilot's pocket. Contained here is the
advice and warning distilled from many long hours
in flight by veteran pilots — the essence of knowledge
that came out of their misadventures — if heeded, fly
ing can be safe and pleasant.
I am sure no individual pilot could gather all this
knowledge through personal experience, and I am
just as sure that every pilot owes these men, who gave
generously of their experience, his thanks.
T. P. WRIGHT,
Administrator of Civil Aeronautics.

III
1
 Table of Contents

Page
Terrain Flying.. I

The Alleghenies...... 7

Rocky Mountain Region ........ 15

Swamp Areas ... 35

Desert Regions.. 39

Bad Lands, Cut-Over Lands, Forests, and Frozen

Wastes.... 47

Ocean, Bay, and Lake Shores.. 49

Cities and Towns..... 51

Flying in Mexico ..... 55

Flying in Alaska......... 65

IV
 SLP same

以
"
Terrain Flying
Is that phrase, “ terrain flying,” familiar to you ?
The Civil Aeronautics Administration hopes it will
be because it is important to you as a private flier.
The dictionary says of " terrain " :
"... a tract or region of ground immediately under
observation ” —so terrain flying refers to the problems
of flying over various kinds of landscape.
We have gathered here some thoughts, advice, warn
ings, and " hangar flying” which we think you ought
to read and study.
There was a time -- and not so long ago — when all
pilots talked “ terrain” before every flight over a new
route. That's still a good idea. But with the advent
1
of more and better instruments, a few more air mark
ers, better maps, more dependable engines, and planes
with longer range, the practice is less prevalent.
But the idea still is so good that we have done a lot
of terrain talking for you , and have written down in
this booklet the best thoughts of those who have “ been
there" before you ."
They themselves have learned what they know in
two ways : By personal and often rugged experience,
and by talking to a character known as the “ Senior
Local Pilot” before starting off over a terrain new to
them .
He's still around, this SLP — still flying and adding
up the hours because he's cautious, careful, and obeys
the regulations. If you just listen casually at the aver
age airport, or listen with great concentration and in
tentness at a Quiet Birdmen's meeting, you'll probably
hear him sounding off. You can learn аa. lot from an
SLP. Like all private flyers, he's a swell guy and
eager and happy to share his flying knowledge with
you .
But the SLP is not always available. You can't de
pend on his being at the airport before you take off on
1 This is not all the advice you need . Certainly there are other
helpful ideas not included here. We hope other experienced pilots
will share their knowledge and send in ideas for a later revision of
this booklet .
2
a new flight. So here are his ideas, his warnings, his
do's and don'ts. And this composite SLP presented
to you by the CAA is a cosmopolitan sort of man ; he's
been everywhere, from freezing Point Barrow to torrid
Central America, from the swamps to the bad lands,
over stump land, over deserts, and over the flat, square,
miles of Minnesota and Manitoba, and the soggy delta
of the Mississippi.
Note well that we are not talking about weather in
this booklet; nor engines, nor instruments, nor tech
niques of navigation . All of these are important, but
they are covered elsewhere; for example, in the CAA
publications Path of Flight, Realm of Flight, and Facts
of Flight. We'll stick to terrain flying.
Nor is this written for the airline pilot, or the pilot
of a private plane in industrial use — well equipped
with navigating instruments, radio, and perhaps with
two or more engines. Mostly, this is for the beginner
pilot, the man or woman who flies a small sport plane,
witha minimum of instruments and probably no radio,
who wants to use his plane for pleasure and vacation
flying.
The CAA's SLP's are the Assistants for Personal
Flying Development in the various CAA regions under
the national direction of H. Lloyd Child, Assistant to
the Administrator for Personal Flying Development.
3
Every one of these is aa veteran pilot. Every one has
back of him the veteran employees of the CAA , in
cluding the Regional Administrator and his staff and
the veteran flyers throughout the region. They have
all flown much longer than you, the beginner pilot.
You can learn a lot from them , so just drop your
flaps and keep tuned in. Note well that there is no
advice in this booklet against flying any particular
sections of the United States. If you can fly, you can
go almost anywhere. It's wonderful to be able to fly
over mountains, swamps, deserts, to see and to behold.
Moreover, it is safe, if you do it right. What this
booklet wants to say is that you are welcome anywhere
in your airplane; and you are safe, if you take the good
advice of those who have flown before where you are
flying now .
In the United States we have a wide variety of
terrain . The “ problem ” terrain divides itself into
four major groups: Allegheny Mountains, Rocky
Mountains, swamps, and deserts. Perhaps we ought
to list three other classifications, although they are not
of the size or nature of their first four : cities and indus
trial areas; bad lands, cut-over land, and frozen
wastes ; and oceans, bays, and lakes.
In a class by itself is Alaska, we have included the
Territory and the routes leading to it in a separate
chapter. So also with Mexico.
4
 Let's look at some reasons for a serious study of
terrain flying. Say you have learned to fly around
Muncie, Ind. The countryside consists of fairly large
and very flat fields. The weather and the winds and
the towns are very well known to you, part of your
daily life.
While you are still a new pilot you take a flight to
the West Coast, encountering high mountains and
uninhabited deserts. Your familiar friends the sec
tion lines, running north and south and east and west
designed, it seems to you , just for the convenience of
pilots, disappear. The winds are all mixed up among
these mountains, compared to what they were in Indi
ana. Even the clouds are different. And over the
desert: well, you just never
see anything or anybody.
“ This,” you say, fighting a
downdraft in a narrow val
ley, “is different! "
Or maybe you take a trip
to Florida, cutting corners
and flying straight courses,
even if they take you over
somber-looking swamps. If
your engine sputtered over
5
Ohio, you glanced casually at one of five fields into
which you could make a forced landing. Over the
Everglades, you almost twist your neck off trying to
find a likely dry spot, and you send up a little prayer
of thanks when the engine purrs again.
Flying is flying, but the terrain below you isn't
always good old flat Indiana.
Forewarned of special conditions you can adapt
your flying, you can use the advice and heed the warn
ings of the SLP. The CAA urges you to read this
book before you take off into strange country. For
your convenience, it is divided according to the seven
classes of terrain ; and while there may be repetition in
some of the advice given, read it, remember it, and live
to fly.

6
 SARD
於一 at
The Alleghenies
“Graveyard of pilots” they used to call the Alle
ghenies. For our purposes we consider the whole
Appalachian chain, from the Smokies down south to
the White Mountains in Maine, including the Catskills
in New York. These are mountains of a general simi
larity, different from the Rockies; and oh, how differ
ent from the flat lands in Indiana . Naturally, there
are fewer airports. Also, it is much easier to become
lost over mountainous terrain . Listen to an SLP on
the subject of the Alleghenies.
Roland Rohlfs, Assistant to the Administrator of the
First Region for Personal Flying Development, says:
“ Avoid crossing these mountains in single-engined
craft, especially in bad weather, unless it is necessary .
7
 " It is best to follow the path of valleys, main high
ways, or railroads crossinga range, rather than to fly
‘airline' regardless of the terrain under your wing.
Airports and usable fields are more prevalent along
such routes. Established airways are generally better
to follow than not, but caution should be exercised in
checking your range of action, especially if head winds
are contemplated . No extended flight over moun
tainous terrain is advised if weather isquestionable.
“ It is a wise practice to seek advice from local oper
ators before taking off on a mountainous cross- country
flight, and it is further advisable to file a flight plan.
Another point to bear in mind is the rapidity with
which dusk closes in at the end of day in the moun
tains. Allow yourself an extra half hour if your desti
nation is in mountainous territory.
“ Do not fly below 1,000 feet, and be sure to fly
higher if a strong wind is blowing. Turbulence, with
severe rising and falling currents, may be present.
Allow yourself ample air speed for combatting these
conditions, especially when landing at elevated places.
“ In winter, sudden local storms which are not re
portable can appear from nowhere in the mountains.
They bring high winds, snow , and, worst of all, sleet.
“ When in doubt, go the long way round, but watch
your gas. "
8
 Tom H. Davis, an SLP of
Winston -Salem , N. C., says
pilots should insist on visi
bility even more than ceiling
when flying in mountain
terrain . Rainfall, he says,
can reduce forward visibil
ity to zero within a very
short period of time.
" The natural darkness,
accompanied by summer
thunderstorms, blends in perfectly with the color of
mountains; and it is difficult under such conditions to
determine any horizon . It is very easy to fly into the
side of a hill when it appears to be only another dark
spot.”
John W. Terrell, an SLP of Hickory, N. C., who has
been flying Allegheny terrain for 16 years, believes the
most important thing for any pilot flying over the
mountains is to file a flight plan, even in good weather.
“ We have had one pilot crack up on the side of
Grandfather Mountain, and he died of exposure and
not of injuries. He had been out 5 days before any
body thought of looking for him .”
Carl W. Clifford, CAA official formerly in charge
of personal flying in the Second Region, consisting of
9
the southeastern States, has this to say about the south
ern portion of the chain :
“ In the Smoky Mountains cloud formations are en
countered when the skies are clear a short distance
from the mountains. At the edge of the mountains
the clouds are small and scattered cumulus, and they
increase in size and height as one gets farther into the
mountain area . Therefore, although the weather is
perfect on each side of the mountains, bad visibility
can and often does prevail over them .
“The safest plan for the novice, or the pilot inex
perienced in mountain flying, is to land at an airport
near the Smokies and get some advice from the natives.
Mountain wind conditions sometimes are peculiar. At
Morristown, Tenn ., just north of the Great Smoky
Range, prevailing winds are northwest to southwest
60 percent of the time. Just south of the range, some
60 airline miles away, the winds at Asheville, N. C.,
blow north to northwest 26.4 percent of the time and
are calm 44.8 percent of the time. This variation in
wind behavior suggests special caution in Appalachian
mountain flying
“ The most hazardous portion of this mountain sys
tem is the area known as the Great Smoky Mountains
National Park and extends for several miles up and
down the range from that section . Actually, there are
10
reported to be many planes in that section which have
been lost and never found . Experienced pilots usually
elect to go around rather than cross over this area,
unless they are perfectly equipped. There is a pass
running from Asheville, N. C., northwestward up the
French Broad River toward Newport, Tenn ., where
the crossing can be made at 2,500 to 3,000 feet if the
visibility is good.”
Listing the best routes throughout his region for the
novice pilot, Clifford advises : "First off, a good gen
eral suggestion is to pick from the sectional chart a
main highway or railroad that runs along the desired
course, even though it meanders somewhat, and stay
with it. This is particularly advisable when flying
over swamp areas.”
You can consider that as
sound advice for every kind
of terrain described in this
book , even if we do not re
member to repeat it. As to
swamps, Clifford has many
in his region, and there will
be more details about that
kind of flying later.
You will usually enter the
Second Region, says Clif
11
ford, from New Orleans, or Jackson , Miss.; Memphis,
Nashville, or “ Tri-Cities,” Tenn .; Greensboro, or
Raleigh, N. C. ( unless from outside the country ).
Assuming contact flying, these are the best routes from
the points of entry to Atlanta, headquarters of the
Second Region, to name an arbitrary destination :
From New Orleans: Northward toward Jackson
and Memphis, following the railroad which goes
around the west end of Lake Pontchartrain until the
swamp section is cleared.
Northeastward toward Hattiesburg, Laurel, and
Meridian, Miss., follow the railroad around the east
end of Lake Pontchartrain , taking the right fork at
Slidell .
Eastward toward Gulfport and Mobile, follow the
railroad or Highway go along coast line. Swamp
areas north and northeast of Mobile are quite exten
sive. Follow the railroads and highways north and
northwest, and the railroad running through Bay
Minette and Atmore when going east and northeast.
From Jackson, Miss.: Paralleling highways and
railroads run from Jackson in several directions, and
the average elevation is less than 500 feet..
From Memphis, Tenn.: There are six main systems
of paralleling highways and railroads running out of
Memphis. Eastward the terrain becomes gradually
12
more rugged toward Nashville, Chattanooga, or Bir
mingham . In such areas it is difficult to follow high
ways and railroads, and compass courses can be used
for considerable distances after the general heading
and drift have been established .
From Nashville, Tenn.. The terrain is hilly but
not mountainous. You won't find good straight sec
tion lines to follow , but there are no especially hazard
ous sections to be avoided. Use your compass and
ground check points.
From Tri-Cities ( Bristol, Kingsport, Johnson City,
Tenn. ) : If you enter this region in this area, you
already have had some mountain -flying experience,
useful in flights toward Knoxville and Chattanooga
or across the gap to Asheville, N. C. From Knoxville -
toward Chattanooga there aretwo main railroad-high
way systems, both of which follow the valley routes.
From Knoxville toward Atlanta, the preferable course
is the highway -railroad route running through Mary
ville, Etowah , Chatsworth , and Cartersville. It would
be unwise for novices to plan flights south or southeast
from Knoxville.
From Greensboro , N. C.: Any direction, except
northwest, is safe for the novice. Greensboro is on a
direct route from Washington, D. C., to Mobile and
New Orleans, roughly a straight course 1,000 miles
long and with few terrain hazards.
13
 From Raleigh , N.C.: East and south from Raleigh
coastal swamp areas will be encountered . Stay near
a road or railroad.
There are many other routes, of course, but the
SLP is your best bet. For example, an SLP at Atlanta
would not recommend courses between northwest to
ward Chattanooga and northeast toward Spartanburg.
The shore line down the east coast of Florida is per
fect for the amateur because of swamp areas in Central
Florida. Certain power lines are better to follow than
highways and railroads.
Other small ranges of mountains are similar in con
formation to the Alleghenies, notably the Ozarks. No
peaks in this area exceed 2,500 feet elevation, and
all the advice already given concerning Allegheny
flying should be applied to flying in this area . From
the Memphis area to Kansas City the novice is ad
vised to go via Walnut Ridge, Ark., and Springfield ,
Mo., thus following a valley route with a railroad.

14
 Rocky Mountain Region
The Rockies are not like the Alleghenies. In many
respects they are far more strange and awe-inspiring
to the average fat land pilot. They cover more area ,
they stick up into the clouds farther, and they present
more variety of terrain than their eastern brothers.
Before you tackle any part of the Rockies, read about
them here and get advice from the SLP at your point
of take -off.
Marshall E. Beeman , Personal Flying Development
Assistant in the CAA's Sixth Region at Santa Monica,
Calif., has personally done much flying in this area
and has done a lot of inquiring for you who are plan
ning to fly to or across the Rockies. He talked to
15
SLP's in the great Southwest by the dozens, and has
gathered the fruit of their wide experience.
Here is some of his general advice which will fit most
of the mountain areas :
The visual aspects of the mountainous and desert
country can be very deceptive. Pilots should main
tain 2,000 feet clearance over both mountains and
desert at all times. Often, when a pilot is trying to
find an 8,000- or 9,000-foot mountain as a landmark ,
he will miss it because he will be looking for a large
mountain when , in reality, it will be little more than a
knoll, as the floor of the terrain is 4,000 to 5,000 feet.
A compass should be relied upon at all times .
Some sort of treatment for chapped lips, such as
camphor ice, is very useful when extreme heat is en
countered. Zinc ointment, or an effective sunburn
preventive to rub on face and hands exposed to the
sun, will promote comfort. A cap with a generous
sun visor and dark glasses are very helpful.
During the winter, freezing temperatures and much
snow dictate warm clothing and the usual winter pre
cautions. In many of the Rocky Mountain areas,
pilots should carry canteens of water on every flight.
Most fields you will use are at higher altitudes than
those you have been using back home. This means a'
longer landing run and longer take -off run . Because
16
 ELEV0AT00ION
6 FT
no

of the mountains, there is generally greater air tur

bulence; wind velocity and turbulence usually increase
during the day. Thunderheads build up over moun
tains during summer afternoons.
Wherever possible, all trips through Rocky Moun
tain areas should be near a highway, airway, or rail
road . We cannot emphasize too much the importance
of filing a flight plan and remaining with the plane in
the event of a forced landing.
The extreme heat and cold encountered must be
considered on all flights.
In the summer, flights in this whole area ought to
be started as early in the morning hours as practicable.
This makes each trip more enjoyable because it avoids
the terrific up and down drafts, turbulence, and in
creasing westerly winds that usually grow as the day
progresses.
17
 In Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and parts of California
where high altitudes are encountered, light aircraft
should not be loaded to their allowable gross weight.
Perhaps your plane will not clear a ridge with enough
margin for safety.
Never fly up a canyon in order to clear a mountain .
Low ceilings, up and down drafts, turbulence, and de
creased performance are your enemies here, and they
are bad. Canyons "dead end," leaving you no space
within which to turn .
If your plane will not clear a range with sufficient
altitude for safety, go back to the nearest airport and
start your trip early the next morning when cool air
will improve your plane's performance.
Albert Meyer, CAA Aeronautical Inspector, Albu
querque, offers some valuable general suggestions:
“ About the main thing in flying in this country is to
have a good airplane and lots of gas to start with,” he
says . “I would suggest that the pilot with little expe
rience in mountain flying have an airplane that will
climb at least 200 feet per minute at 15,000 feet. If
he doesn't have such a plane, he should go around the
high terrain . In any case, this is the best course. File
a flight plan, stay on course, stay with the plane so
that search for you is made easier in the event of trou
ble. In an emergency, land in an uphill direction in
18
any forced landing in the mountains, regardless of
wind direction or velocity.
“ Don't walk around in mountains at night. Miners
have a habit of digging deep holes and leaving them
unguarded ."
This matter of thin air at high altitudes is very im
portant for newcomers to mountain flying. All pilots
with local experience warn about it. Perry Knowles,
of Elko, Nev., doubts whether he can stress the matter
of light summer air enough . “ Even in landing," he
states, “ if a person should misjudge and overshoot and
then attempt to slide-slip, he may find himself in seri
ous trouble if he keeps his slide-slip to within 25 to 50
feet of the ground, resulting in no recovery from the
slide-slip. Most of the boys around here make wheel
landings during the summer just for that reason . To
have flying speed until after the wheels are on the
ground is a mighty nice feeling."
So much for general advice on mountain flying.
There are many specific do's and don'ts as well.
The Colorado Aeronautical Commission has con
ducted a survey on this very question. They print
24 excellent sentences of advice in their little booklet,
“ Colorado Air Facilities.” It also contains a good
flying map of the State, and you can get a copy by
writing them at Denver. We have covered a few of
19
the Commission's 24 points in the general material
above, and we copy the others for your help :
The flight should be arranged to avoid topog
I.

raphy which would prevent a safe forced landing.

2. Sufficient altitude to permit gliding to a reason
ably safe landing area should be maintained at all
times.
3. The flight should also be along the populated
areas and well - known mountain passes.
4. Sectional charts are much better than regional
charts for detail of air pilotage. Study them thor
oughly for altitude over route and obvious check
points. Prominent peaks make good check points.
5. Believe your compass. Your compass, with
proper variations, deviation and wind correction , is
the only device you can rely
♡♡ upon to get you out of trou
ble, but watch for compass
irregularities in areas of
local magnetic disturbance,
usually marked on maps.
6. Don't fly in light air
us craft when the winds aloft
oma
Acr
on your proposed altitude
are above 35 miles per hour.
Expect winds to be of much
20
 iles
greater velocity over moun
tain passes than reported a
few miles distance away
from them . This is very
important.
7. Know your wind di
rection at all times, and com
pare it to water as it flows
up, over, and down the
mountain ranges. Watch
for abrupt changes of wind
directions and velocity in mountain areas.
8. Don't fly near or over abrupt changes of terrain,
such as cliffs or rugged areas.. Very dangerous turbu
lence may be expected, especially with high winds.
9. Don't fly up the middle of a canyon at any time.
It is better to fly along one side or the other so you can
execute a 180 -degree turn . Also never fly so far up
the canyon that a downdraft would let you down to
the point where you couldn't turn .
IO . Don't get excited if you get in a downdraft.
They usually will cease with enough altitude above the
ground to maneuver a plane safely away, but do not
count on this in extremely turbulent air or in canyon
areas.
When encountering a downdraft, keep nose
21
down. Maintain sufficient air speed . Don't stall plane
and fly out of it immediately with full throttle to area
of updraft or smoother air.
12 . Realize the actual horizon is near the base of
the mountain . The mistake of using the summit of
the peaks as the horizon will result in the aircraft being
placed in the attitude of constant climb.
13. Approach mountain passes with all the excess
altitude possible, as downdrafts of as much as 1,500 to
mi
2,000 feet per nute may be expected on the leeward
side. Approaching the passes over a ridge will lessen
this a lot. Fifteen hundred to 2,000 feet clearance is
preferred on windy days.
14. Expect winds above 10,000 feet to be prevail
ing westerlies in Colorado.
15. Approach passes and ridges at a 45 -degree
angle so that you will be able to turn go degrees to
the low country instead of 180 degrees if you encoun
ter too great a downdraft.
16. Many pilots advise any person first flying into
a field at high altitude to make a power approach and
a power wheel-landing. This procedure is definitely
advisable in gusty air.
Beeman picks out a few routes for you and gives you
good SLP advice which he has gathered from many
22
pilots. These three points of
that advice apply to the FUEN
T
flying of any route :
1. Check weather and
advance forecasts.
2. Check winds aloft. AIRM
A
3. File flight plan. GUI NS
DE
Never fail to do all three.
Denver to Salt Lake :
The direct route is over high
terrain with very few service
points. Better go by Cheyenne. Remembering the
high turbulence and high wind velocity effects, in
creasing during the day throughout this region, plan
this flight, as well as most others described hereafter,
for early morning.
Avoid all summer thunderheads in and around Salt
Lake Valley in the afternoons. Sometimes these pro
duce hailstorms which can rip the fabric from your
wings. During the winter months, smoke from fac
tories in this area reduces visibility considerably, at its
worst in the morning hours.
Reno to San Francisco : Follow the airway. It
takes 8,000 to 9,000 feet to get over Donner Pass. In
summer months, thunderheads will build up over this
area during the day, dissipating in the late afternoon .
23
Terrific snowstorms and freezing temperatures and
high wind velocity are encountered in winter months.
Salt Lake to Los Angeles, via Las Vegas: More
about this later under "Deserts” and “Cities and In
dustrial Areas,” but there are some mountains along
the route which call for the usual care in mountain
terrain flying. Stick to the airway between Salt Lake
and Las Vegas. Follow Highway 91 west of Las
Vegas. If Mint Canyon is closed in , take an alternate
route from Victorville through Cajon Pass via San
Bernardino. In case of bad weather, landings can be
made at Newhall or Palmdale, where transportation is
available into Los Angeles.
Winslow , Ariz ., to Daggett, Calif., via Needles,
Calif.: This route is suggested only for ships with
higher horsepower and long range, because of the dis
tances involved , high altitude, winds, thunderstorms,
and snow . There is much snow between Winslow
and Kingman during winter months. All airports are
above 4,000 feet. Gusty and high surface wind con
ditions usually prevail during afternoon hours. There
are usually westerly head winds. Pilot should follow
Highway 66 and take all the precautions advised for
both mountain and desert flying.
El Paso to Phoenix , via Tucson : This route is sug
gested for the itinerant pilot whose trip would ter
24
 20
ninate in southern Arizona or California. The ranges
are lower, weather conditions better, service points
more numerous, and generally good flying conditions
prevail during early morning and later afternoons.
Take mountain and desert precautions.
Phoenix to Los Angeles, via Blythe, Calif.: Here
the flight had best be made in the early morning. In
San Gorgonio Pass (4,100 feet altitude ), flanked by
Mt. San Jacinto and Mt. San Gorgonio ( 12,000 feet
high ), high winds and turbulence can become terrific
in the afternoon . These peaks make excellent land
marks, however. The same conditions prevail as on
the Salt Lake -Las Vegas-Los Angeles flight.
Tucson to San Diego : The suggested route here is
25
via Blythe and Los Angeles, adding only a careful
check of coastal weather on the last leg.
San Diego to Oregon State line, via Los Angeles:
Pilots will experience ideal flying conditions along the
coastal area in both summer and winter. Coastal fogs,
prevailing between March and July, usually burn off
by 10 a. m. or noon, and there are occasional high fogs
during winter months, suggesting a careful weather
check. Crossing the Techapi Mountains can be ac
complished most any time during the day and most
any time in the year. There are numerous thunder
heads over these mountains in the summer and fairly
heavy snow in the winter. Ideal flying conditions pre
vail in the San Joaquin -Sacramento Valley during
summer and winter, with a few low fogs in winter.
Wiley R. Wright, the CAA's personal flying man in
the Seventh Region at Seattle, knows the northern
Rockies, the valleys and passes of the Cascades, the
Siskiyous, and the Bitter Roots. Pay heed to Wright if
you're flying up there for the first time.
Wright first gives a general description of the out
standing topographic features of the Northwest States,
explaining the bearing this has on flying in general.
On the western edge of Oregon and Washington
there is an irregular, not too high, range of mountains
known as the Coast Range, topped to the north on the
26
Olympic Peninsula by the very rugged and sparsely
settled Olympic Mountains. These are between Puget
Sound and the Pacific Ocean just south of the Strait
of Juan de Fuca. Through this Coast Range be
tween Oregon and Washington flows the mighty
Columbia River. In southern Oregon this Coast
Range is fused in with the Cascade Mountains by the
Siskiyou Mountains.
East of the Coast Range from Vancouver, B. C.,
south along the edge of Puget Sound to Tacoma, Cen
tralia, and Portland is a fairly wide valley known as
Western Washington Valley, through which arterial
highways and railroads run . South of Portland to a
little below Eugene is the Willamette Valley. These
two valleys vary in elevation from practically sea level
to approximately 400 feet, except where the fringe of
the Cascade Mountains filter toward the west near
Kelso and Castle Rock, Wash. , and just northwest of
Portland where the Coast Range filters toward the
Columbia River. South of Eugene to Medford and
the east -west Siskiyou Mountains, the foothills of the
Coast Range and Cascades intermingle, which in some
instances makes for semihazardous contact flying in
bad weather.
East of the valleys mentioned above is the north and
south range of mountains, rugged and sparsely settled
27
for most of its distance, known as the Cascade Moun
tains. This range of mountains has many prominent
and high peaks. Starting from the north to south of
the Canadian border, Mt. Baker, 10,750 feet, and to
the east and southeast of Mt. Baker are many moun
tain peaks that rise to an elevation above 8,000 feet.
One of these, Glacier Peak, has an elevation of 8,145
feet. South of Mt. Baker and Glacier Peak near
Seattle is Mt. Rainier, over 14,000 feet, and to the
south of Mt. Rainier are Mt. St. Helens and Mt.
Adams.
In Oregon south of the Columbia River, are Mt.
Hood, Mt. Jefferson, Three Sisters, Mt. Thielsen, Mt.
Scott, and Mt. McLoughlin, all of which are above
9,000 feet in elevation . Through this Cascade Range
of mountains are several passes that are used both by
railroad, highway, and flyways: Stevens Pass, between
Wenatchee and Everett; Snoqualmie Pass, east of
Seattle to Yakima and Wenatchee, the gorge following
the Columbia River ; and the McKenzie River Pass,
east of Eugene .
East of the Cascades in Washington is the Columbia
River Basin which extends eastward to nearly the
Washington -Idaho line, to a large degree agricultural
and flat open country. East of the Cascades in Ore
gon is much higher land with some mountainous area
28
extending to the northeast to the Wallowa and Blue
Mountains of eastern Oregon. In southeastern Oregon
there is much sparsely settled, high, arid , desert-type
land.
In northern Idaho and western Montana there are
many mountain ranges running generally northwest
southeast that make up the great Rocky Mountain
chain, and consist of some rugged terrain and sparsely
settled area. Through these chains of mountains
there are few passes, the main one being the one that
follows through the Coeur d'Alene, St. Regis, and
Clark Fork River Valleys which takes you over Mullan
Pass, Superior, and Missoula Valleys. In south cen
tral Idaho there are some very rugged mountains that
branch off the Bitter Root Range and cover a vast
area , as well as some desert and lava -bed area . In the
Bitter Roots near Butte, Mont., and to the north is the
Continental Divide. From this toward the east, the
territory generally sweeps out into high plateaus ex
cept for scattered high mountains such as north of
Yellowstone Park area, southeast of Great Falls, and
south of Billings where the Big Horn Mountains ex
tend up into Montana from Wyoming.
In southeastern Idaho the mountains are offshoots
of more extensive mountains of western Wyoming,
which includes the Tetons and Wind River Range in
29
Wyoming and the Wasatch Mountains of northeast
ern Utah.
These mountains make for rather easy navigation,
Wright points out. But the weather is strange up
there and the ruggedness and sparsely settled areas
make it necessary that the pilot be versed in more than
just piloting ability. Knowledge of topography is
very important.
Wright insists the pilot flying in either summer or
winter in this area must know the fundamentals of
meteorology. The topography has a lot to do with
the variable weather conditions.
“There can be several types of weather prevalent in
these regions at the same time,” he says. “There can
be valley or coastal fog west of the Cascades, even
rain, and clear weather east of the Cascades, with a
still different kind of weather in the mountains of
Idaho and Montana. Many times during the sum
mer in the mountainous regions, particularly those of
Montana and Idaho, there can be severe turbulence
from thunderstorms accompanied often by hail ; and
it is not always possible accurately to forecast hail.
Icing conditions can be found either in summer or
winter, and this is of special importance to less expe
rienced pilots in mountain flying."
Wright believes strongly in advance study of your
30
 GAS

charts ; in taking along gas you know will be sufficient

to reach your destination or an acceptable and safe
alternate ; and in getting last-minute local advice.
He lists eight flyways that are usually followed in
the Seventh Region :
I. California into Oregon or Washington , via Red
Bluff, Calif., into Medford or Klamath Falls, Oreg .,
depending on whether the destination is to be east or
west of the Cascades. The most general route is Med
ford, Eugene, Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, and Belling
ham. Often in winter, bad weather exists just south
of the Oregon line over the Siskiyou Mountains and
in the Willamette and West Washington Valleys. In
most cases, the weather is better east of the Cascades.
The route from Klamath Falls to Bend, Red
31
mond, The Dalles, Yakima, and Ellensburg is generally
open and flyable. In the summer the temperatures
on this route can get quite high. In coming into this
route, it is generally advisable to come north between
Mt. Lassen and Mt. Shasta, with Shasta and the Cas
cades on the left. Always check the winds at these
high altitudes, especially in the summer .
3. From Salt Lake to Pendleton, via Ogden, Malad
City, Burley, Twin Falls, Boise, Baker, and LaGrande
is ordinarily a good flying route. You may want to
take a lower route ; in which case, north from Ogden
go via Snowville, Strevell, and Malta . The area in
southern Idaho can be very hot in summer, very cold
in winter, and produce high winds. Check carefully
on the weather over the Blue Mountains.
4. From Ogden through Great Falls to Cut Bank ,
Mont., is one of the most difficult airways in the
United States in the winter. There is more snow at
Idaho Falls than at any other airport in the Seventh
Region. High altitudes mark this route which is
Ogden, Pocatello, Idaho Falls, Dubois, Whitehall,
Butte, Helena, Great Falls, and Cut Bank. The air
port at Butte is at 5,500 feet, and Monida Pass is 6,000
feet. In hot weather it is possible for winds from 8
to 12 miles an hour to have gusts up to 40 and 50 miles.
5. Sheridan, Billings, Lewiston , and Great Falls is
32
 a route with conditions similar to those already de
scribed. From Billings to Lewiston the airways go to
the east of the Big Snowy Mountain . However, the
easiest and lowest elevation would be along a route
west of the Big Snowy through Judith Gap and Buf
falo . From Lewiston to Great Falls, generally follow
the course of the railroad over not too rugged terrain ,
but at an altitude of about 4,200 feet.
6. From Butte and Helena to the west, go via Deer
Lodge, Garrison, Drummond, Superior, St. Regis,
Mullan Pass, Kellogg, Coeur d'Alene, and Spokane.
+ 7. Spokane, Ephrata, Ellensburg, Easton, and
Seattle is a route over fairly flat country and generally
flyable.
8. Between Ellensburg and Seattle there are many
occasions when the weather east of the Cascades will
be CAVU , with fog boiling over the Cascades and dis
sipating on their eastern sides. Snoqualmie Pass is
on this route, at an altitude of about 3,500 feet, and on
many occasions fog from the west makes contact flight
impossible. You can get into trouble trying to fly
over or under this fog. Many pilots turn south from
Ellensburg to Yakima and follow the Columbia River
Gorge into Portland and thence to Seattle. Or, when
Snoqualmie is closed, Stevens or Stampede Passes
might be used . In Oregon , pilots flying between
33
Eugene and Redmond or Bend use the McKenzie
River Pass. These last three named passes are not on
the airways, and pilots should approach them and fly
through them with care and with sure knowledge of
the weather .

34
um PILOTS
KEEP OUT
Chloe L A T fin
n

15
Swamp Areas
Swamps are pretty dismal places to land airplanes.
They are inhabited by nasty little insects, bugs, snakes,
and assorted venomous reptiles ; and, besides, there
is usually somebody wandering around shouting
“ Chloe.” It's hard to find airplanes that have gone
down in swamps — still harder to find the people who
were in them . A little care in flying over swamps will
pay big dividends — so will a little carelessness. In
one case you get comfort — in the other misery.
Our biggest swamps are in Florida and Louisiana,
but there are swampy areas in other places which you
profitably can avoid : along the eastern seaboard, in
Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and Mississippi.
35
 There is no safe way to fly over swamps — at least
over swamps of such size that the pilot must be, at any
time, many miles from its edge. Forced landings can
be made, but the real hazard is survival and rescue
thereafter. By far the best practice is to skirt swamps
and stay in the close vicinity of a highway or railroad,
even if this involves adding miles to the flight.
William O. Lazarus, an SLP who is aviation super
visor for the State of Florida, has a good piece of
advice for a swamp landing if one should become
necessary .
“ In searching for a safe landing spot while flying
most anywhere in Florida, Georgia, or other areas
where cypress swamps and pine lands exist, ” he says,
“consider carefully the area between the cypress and
the pine. You will generally find any cypress swamp
surrounded by an area where neither cypress nor pine
trees grow . The area will vary in width from 30 to
100 feet or more, depending upon the slope of the
ground and other features.
“This area is grass-covered and usually very smooth
as it is the overflow area for the swamp. When the
water is high in the swamp, a few inches of water
floods this area and discourages the growth of pine
trees. Most of the year it is dry and firm so that cy
36
press will not root in it. This is the best - perhaps the
only — place for an emergency landing in a swamp."
Carl Clifford, CAA man quoted earlier, warns that
the Florida Everglades, the Okefenokee Swamp in
southern Georgia, and the coastal swamps along the
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the swamp area just
north and east of Mobile are to be avoided. He points
out that ocean coast lines make for easy piloting, but
he advises keeping close to highways along the coast
line near Charleston, Savannah, and Brunswick. Down
the east coast of Florida, he says, navigating is ab
surdly simple, but he insists that the novice pilot, when
flying any other direction from Jacksonville except
along the coast should follow closely a highway or
railroad and thus avoid the worst swamp areas.
Lazarus suggests that any pilot who becomes lost in
Florida should fly due east or west ; by so doing he will
arrive at the coast line within an hour, even in a slow
airplane.
“ From Miami, ” Clifford points out, " there are only
three routes available to the novice: straight north
along the shore line; straight west following the
Tamiami Trail to Ft. Myers, Tampa, and St. Peters
burg; and southwest to Homestead and Matecumbe
Key; thence west-southwest to Key West, following
37
the Key West highway. Beyond Key West is Havana
with a go-mile water hop for the more adventurous.
“ From Ft. Myers, St. Petersburg, Tampa, Lake
land, Orlando, and central Florida towns, no moun
tains will be encountered in any direction, but sizeable
swamp areas abound. The novice will be wise to find
a highway or railroad leading in the desired direction
and to stay close to it."
Nobody in the SLP category loves swamps. They
are not even pretty or interesting to fly over, it seems.
William M. Berry, the CAA's personal flying man for
the Fourth Region, points out that timbered and
swamp areas are encountered in Louisiana and Arkan
sas. He strongly advises novices to fly the established
airways where intermediate fields are available, or to
follow very closely the main highways.

38
 A
Desert Regions
Desert flying has its beauties and its dangers, too .
Wind and sun and lack of water are the natural ene
mies. Take care of the dangers they present and
curb the human impulse to do wrong things; then you
will enjoy desert flying.
Every SLP we have talked to has stressed the very
great importance of pilot behavior in the event of a
forced landing in the desert. They all point out what
an insignificant appearance a lone man makes on a
vast desert when someone in an airplane is searching
for him .
Their unanimous advice is that pilots, whether they
are veterans or novices, stick to the traveled routes,
whether they are airways or highways or railroads,
39
when flying over deserts. That involves filing a flight
plan, of course ; and this you will always do, if you're
smart.
Then, if you're forced down, STAY NEAR YOUR
AIRPLANE.
“ We cannot emphasize too much ,” says Marshall
Beeman , CAA's Sixth Region expert, “the necessity of
carrying water, chap lipstick, zinc ointment, cap with
sun visor, and dark glasses during the summer months.
Always fly close to the highways. Always file a flight
plan, and always stay with the airplane in the event
of a forced landing. You cannot survive the desert
heat for long in the direct rays of the su
sunn , and you
should stay in the shade of the airplane until help
arrives.
“Likewise, in flying in mountainous and desert
regions in the winter, adequate clothing is vital be
cause of the freezing temperatures encountered at
these high altitudes. Even in summer, desert tem
peratures at night are uncomfortably low . "
With 3,500 hours of desert flying behind him , E. N.
Sturdivant cautions a solid respect for the desert:
“ It's much better to stay close to a highway or rail
road so that, in case of forced landing, you will be
near civilization and not liable to perish for lack of
water. Sometimes you can even see houses in the
40
 TOWN 20 MI,

distance, but in case of forced landing, it's very doubt

ful if you would live to trek across the desert in the
midday without water. A few people, who don't
know the desert and how they can be fooled by dis
tance, may think they can walk 15 or 20 miles across
the desert without water, but few will survive the ex
perience. I keep a gallon of water in all my ships
when they leave for XC, regardless of where they are
>
going.”
An SLP in the Sixth Region has some specific
advice on the subject of desert wind conditions:
“There is an old axiom that says 'What you don't
know won't hurt you, but desert-flying pilots should
revise this to read : 'What you don't see may hurt you.'
I refer specifically to the thousands of small ‘whirl
41
pools' or ' twisters' encountered over southwestern
U.S. deserts.
“ In flight, you can spot these ' twisters' miles away ,
as they spiral upward with a characteristic column of
sand, dust, and even small twigs and grass. The birds
also can spot them, and you will see hawks and buz
zards nonchalantly riding these rising and twisting
currents of air to great heights. These birds are
merely riding these thermals for enjoyment.
“However, even if you do have wings, don't emu
late these birds. Stick to your aeronautical chart.
After all, if one of these birds fails to get home on
time no one will worry ; if you fail to arrive on time,
it will give us local pilots a lot of trouble buzzing
around these barren wastes looking for you . So when
you see these 'twisters,' ad
mire them all you want, but
alter your course to miss
them . ”
This pilot says there are
" twisters” which you cannot
see. It's very embarrassing
to have one flip your plane
over and pile it up on the
ground while you are taxi
ing or if you encounter one
42
near the ground. At least you can salvage your pride
somewhat by avoiding all those you can see.
When landing, he advises, watch for these little
disturbances on desert airports. If any are in evi
dence, land on the dirt surfaces because there they
are most visible and can be avoided . You cannot see
them on a concrete runway, Keep plenty of control
and speed. Both will help in case a " twister" jumps
you .
As with mountain flying, desert flying has its en
thusiastic boosters. Glen L. Engle, Indio Airport,
Indio, Calif ., points out some of the pleasures of
desert flying. In his opinion , one of the nicest fea
tures about flying in the desert regions is the fine
weather that prevails almost the entire year. By
fine weather he means absence of haze, smoke, and
precipitation. The visibility is generally excellent to
the extent that distances are deceiving. A landmark
or range of mountains, while appearing close, actually
may be perhaps twice the estimated distance from the
observer.
A. R. Mortensen of Hinckley Field, Ogden , Utah ,
in describing the country between Ogden and Elko
says this is mostly typical Nevada desert, except for the
50 miles between Elko and Wells, Nev. He assumes
the pilot is following the Southern Pacific Railroad
43
and points out that about 10 miles west of Ogden,
on the shore of the Great Salt Lake, this railroad
" goes to sea .”
It crosses the lake on a combination of earth fills
and trestle bridges. The first part of the lake be
tween Hinckley Field and Promontory Point, where
there is an emergency field, is generally shallow and
safe to cross at lower altitudes. The major portion
of the lake between Promontory Point and Lakeside
reaches a depth of 40 feet, and it is advisable to fly
at an altitude which would enable the pilot to glide
in for a shore landing in case of total power failure.
The safe altitude is generally considered to be at
least 8,000 feet, which will give 4,000 feet clearance
between the airplane and the water. At this altitude,
with the conventional airplane, the time in the middle
of the lake at which it would be impossible to glide
in , can be measured in seconds.
In the event of a forced landing in the lake it
would not be impossible to land on the railroad trestle
as it is wide enough to support double tracks at sev
eral points. The water in the lake is 20 percent salt,
and an attempt to swim at excessive speeds, dive, or
splash would result in strangling. By merely draw
ing the lower part of the legs upward it is possible to
sit in the water and float like a cork with the head
44
and shoulders protruding. In warm weather a per
son might float indefinitely.
The advice already given on planning mountain
and desert trips in the early morning holds very
strongly for most flights in our desert areas ; from
Salt Lake to Elko to Reno, Salt Lake to Las Vegas
to Los Angeles, El Paso to Tucson to Phoenix, etc.
Flying across southern Texas offers no particular
hazard , the terrain being low and smooth . In the
western section , however, the State has lots of hill
country , covered with timber, mesquite, sagebrush,
and sand dunes. Human habitations are few and
far between , a good argument for sticking to the high
ways where rescue will be easier in an emergency.
Novices in desert flying should count on much
longer runs for take -off and longer rolls in landing as
a general practice. Many of our deserts are at fairly
high altitudes; and all of them, of course, run high
temperatures. Both conditions affect seriously the
performance of any airplane, and there are many
opportunities for pilot error.
No formula has been worked out in a simple
enough detail for use in this kind of flying. The
novice is pretty much on his own in his first landing
on a high field, or a hot desert field . At his first
chance, he should come in “ hot” with lots of control
45
and immediately discuss this change in flying con
ditions with a pilot familiar with desert flying. Hav
ing learned from him the fundamental differences,
the novice ought to familiarize himself with the be
havior of his own plane under the new conditions.
Heated and rarefied air is no friend of a pilot.
Generalities about desert flying are not enough.
There are routes over deserts which may be poison
to the light plane with short range. Take this terse
description by Marshall Beeman of the straight line
route between Tucson and San Diego.
“ This route is not suggested for light aircraft in
summer months due to high winds, terrific turbulance,
up and down drafts, and the distance between service
facilities as well as coastal fogs. Suggest route be
planned instead via Phoenix, Blythe, Los Angeles,
and San Diego. If trip is necessary , suggest it be
planned in early morning hours taking into consider
ation winds aloft and fuel supply aboard, after com
plete check of coastal weather information . ”
That ought to be enough to warn the novice to
check in advance with an SLP on every flight
attempted over desert country.

46
 ER

ER
T
UT
UTT
SP
-SP

Bad Lands, Cut-Over Lands,

Forests, and Frozen Wastes
These conditions are spotty. In general, only for
ests occupy very large areas and they present their
particular hazards to the novice pilot. Perhaps you
have flown along and contemplated the fluffy green
carpet of a forest beneath you, thinking it ought to
be a soft and safe pace to land. If it were all leaves
it would be, but there are big limbs and tree trunks
in that mattress, and tree landings must be listed as
dangerous and expensive. In all but a few such areas
there are small open fields in which an emergency
landing can be made. When flying over all the
47
others, the novice pilot should seek the advice of an
SLP and listen very attentively to him .
Bad lands, excepting perhaps those of South Dakota,
are rather limited in area , and they can be avoided.
There is no reason, in fact, for flying directly over
the middle of any very bad stretch of country. You
can always go around — it may stretch your flight, but
it also will stretch your span of life.
Cut-over ground is bad for airplanes. It's as easy
to run between the rain drops as it is to land between
stumps. You might walk away from many stump
field landings, but your airplane will probably be a
washout. There seems to be a lot of this kind of ter
rain , but actually there are few spots where the area
is very great - certainly not too great to fly around
when safety dictates the course.
" Frozen wastes” sounds bad, doesn't it? But we
have them of varying sizes in this big United States.
Only very hardy and experienced pilots who cannot
postpone their flights should attempt such areas. You
can be just as much alone and lost in the county
sized wheat fields of North Dakota and Minnesota as
an Alaskan " bush ” pilot forced down between Galena
and Nome. A forced landing is not too difficult, even
in deep snow ; but freezing to death at the same spot
is still easier.
48
 Ocean, Bay, and Lake Shores
There's no prettier flying than along the shore of a
rolling ocean or a beautiful lake. Such flying, how
ever, has some hazards. Certainly it should be done
only under ideal conditions.
“ An off -shore wind,” says Roland Rohlfs, drawing
on his experience as a veteran SLP in the CAA First
Region, “with poor visibility can , in no time, place
the unsuspecting pilot in a precarious position where
he might be unable to make his way back to the shore,
if flying a landplane, or be unable to reach a sheltered
spot for a landing, if flying a seaplane. Extra care
should be exercised in crossing Chesapeake Bay, Dela
ware Bay, or Long Island Sound when visibility is
49
poor. In poor visibility, the unskilled pilot can easily
become confused for lack of a horizon . Better not
cross unless the other side is clearly visible and then ,
if possible, it is better to cross so as to intercept the
paths of boats. It's better to land near a boat than
all by yourself.”
Rohlfs might also have included almost any of the
Great Lakes in these warnings. There's an awful
lot of water, even in little Lake Huron, to fly across
in a landplane. Because some of these lakes are com
paratively shallow , they produce high waves under
windy conditions. What he has to say about fog
also applies to the Great Lakes.
Watch for fog along the ocean coasts. It will
sometimes lay for hours in a straight line just off
shore and then within a few minutes move inland
covering aa wide area . It can easily and quickly cover
that seashore airport where you had planned to land.
In questionable weather, always have an alternate
destination airport in mind. Fog around Long Island
is doubly dangerous because of the large bodies of
water on each side, and it takes only a short time, in
extreme cases, for fog to blanket the whole island.

50
 PILOTS
STAV
AWAY.

Cities and Towns

There are two extra good reasons for not flying
foolishly in these areas. One is that you can break
your neck easily and sensationally if you get caught
too low over such an area and are forced to land ;
the other is that you do flying in general a great dis
service by making a nuisance of yourself and your
airplane by low or unnecessary flying over populated
areas. Low flying over a town is not only impolite
but it actually is a hazard to you. You can be arrested
by the local police for such flying. You can be cited
by the CAA for a violation. Fines and even impris
onment can be the penalty.
If you obey the Civil Air Regulations and State
laws and maintain an altitude that will enable you to
51
glide to the outskirts of town in the event of a
forced landing, you will be high enough not to dis
turb the people on the ground with the noise of your
plané.
“ Smog” is prevalent around most big cities, and
around smaller towns with many factories. This mix
ture of fog and smoke is one of your worst enemies.
It easily obscures an airport. It destroys your horizon,
limits both vertical and forward visibility. Stay out
of it whenever you can. Where possible, land at an
airport outside the limits of the smog, talk to an SLP
and get his advice on flying to any airport closer which
may be covered with smog .
“Hank” Coffin of Vail Field, Los Angeles, has
some sound and simple advice for pilots on the sub
ject of smog. He sums it up with the statement that
a pilot must pick his way carefully through heavy
smog
“This hazy, light fog which is a mixture of ocean
moisture and manufacturing smoke,” he declares, “ is
proving an increasing pain -in -the-neck to local pilots.
Depending on wind conditions, the visiting pilot may
either fly ‘on top' at about 4,000 feet and still see
hazy landmarks on the ground, or he may drop to
1,000 feet and fly through the haze. Smog conditions
usually are most severe early in the morning and burn
52
off partially during the day. On fields near the coast,
late afternoon ground fog will obscure the ground
during winter months.
“ There are more light airplanes per square mile
in southern California than anywhere else in the
United States. Airports are crowded, and traffic is a
problem . A visiting pilot should use extreme care in
entering a strange, crowded field . There usually are
planes circling any southland field at any hour when
flying is permissible, and a visitor should plan to fol
low a local plane into the traffic pattern .”
What Coffin says about smog in California also
applies to such places as Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Wil
mington, or Nashville. City haze or smog is a hazard
which all pilots should respect. It causes trouble on
the scheduled air lines, and many a trip which was in
bright sunshine a few miles out of town finishes vir
tually on instruments.
The private pilot often has the option of several
airports at large cities, and flights should be planned
with such alternates in mind . It is not possible here
to say which airports at major cities profit by prevail
ing winds and have their smog blown away, but the
pilot himself ought to learn these facts about any cities
into which he flies regularly.
Remember that new regulations in Part 60, CAR ,
53
require visual flight to be 1,000 feet above the highest
obstacle within 2,000 feet of the aircraft.
This will affect the ticklish problem of getting into
a city where industrial smoke and fog combine to
restrict visibility. This rule, and known difficulties
of visual flying under smog conditions, make it doubly
wise for the pilot to land outside the affected area and
talk it over with an SLP.
Check points in the outskirts of any large city are
plentiful, but they must be of the memory kind, be
cause no aeronautical charts are in sufficient detail to
show them . Without radio, the pilot must make pin
point observations in approaching the airport. Only
two real aids are available : his own memory of land
marks gathered in previous flights, or the advice of
an SLP .
Small cities on coasts and rivers are not so difficult
to enter under hazy conditions as big, sprawling places
like Chicago, Kansas City, Boston , and Detroit. Cities
like Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, on rivers, give check
points which are obscured only by the thickest smog .
But where subdivisions, looking much alike, cover
many square miles and the airport is surrounded by
built-up areas, the job of finding the airport is a job
for an expert.

54
霍 心
२२
TE
Flying in Mexico
Your SLP in this case is Leslie I. Hables, Aeronau
tical Inspector of the CAA with long service along
the border in the Fourth Region. He has aa wealth of
experience which he here shares with you.
Pilots should be cautioned that the physical aspects
of the terrain are entirely different from those en
countered in any portion of the United States. The
lowlands, while level, have not been cultivated and
are covered in most instances with brush, cacti,
swamps, gullies, or rocks. There are many places
where only a crash landing could be effected in the
event of an emergency ; and in many instances were
such a crash landing successful, the occupants of the
55
aircraft would be days getting to communities or trans
portation. It would have to be accomplished by foot,
or by ox team , or by horseback, if the latter two could
be obtained .
Some "highways” cutting through such areas are
suitable for light aircraft emergency landings, but
pilots should be cautioned that remote roads shown
on maps as joining small communities usually prove
to be foot trails or nonexistent.
The beach along the eastern coast of Mexico offers
safety in the event of forced landings. The moun
tains are extremely steep and reach to very high
altitudes. They have the characteristic violent
mountain air currents and small orographic squalls
and frontal danger phenomena in passes inherent in
terrain of this nature .

56
ad
 Many of the highland plateaus are arid and un
cultivated and develop violent convectional disturb
ances, most particularly in late afternoon, which are
increased in their danger by the extreme altitude.
Landing fields in highland areas are at high alti
tudes (Mexico City Airport is 7,400 feet above sea
level) and pilots should be warned to maintain speed
in their approach for landing and further warned
concerning not becoming panicky and attempting to
pull a ship off during take -off from such field .
Landings in small fields in the proximity of villages
usually attract a huge crowd of natives with no under
standing whatsoever of aircraft. Unless carefully
watched , they may virtually tear a ship to pieces in
57
their interest concerning the equipment. They are
entirely unconcerned about walking into the pro
peller or running in front of the ship during take -off.
Large birds, most particularly buzzards, are a real
source of constant danger in practically all portions
of Mexico and should be scrupulously avoided in
flight. Instances have been reported of such birds
diving at aircraft, apparently believing the craft to
be another bird .
The magnetic variation , as indicated by isogonic
lines, does not at all follow the regularity of pattern
of the United States and should be most carefully
studied over most any selected course by pilots at
tempting distance cross -country flying and relying
upon aa magnetic compass.
Occasionally haziness, particularly in mountain
areas, distorts distances, and pilots will approach what
appears to be the most distant range visible, only to
find immediately behind it a much higher series of
peaks which he had not previously been expecting.
Flight in the immediate vicinity of such ranges and
on the downwind side has sometimes ended disas
trously for light aircraft as they failed to clear and
could not turn back. Careful planning and the selec
tion of well -traveled routes with established airports
or emergency fields is advised. Along these the pilot
58
will not encounter many of the described dangers.
Virtually no mechanical report or alteration is ob
tainable, except at the largest of airports. Supply
materials are in many instances unavailable even at
these ; the method of repair in some instances is not
that of the customary standards of the CAA licensed
A & E Mechanics (although in others it is ) . It is not
advisable for pilots to rely on repair stations in the
Republic of Mexico for maintenance or periodic
checks since such services are practically unobtainable
on short notice .
Small aircraft may find it necessary in some in
stances to take sufficient reserve gasoline in cans in
order to get from one point to another of available
supply. Some intermediate fields do not have gas
available. At company fields owned by air lines, gas
will not be sold unless the purchaser has a company
letter. Compania Mexicana de Aviacion ( CMA)
authority can be obtained from CMA Operations
Manager at Brownsville, Tex. Pilots of light aircraft
should take a funnel and chamois, since handling of
fuel at many airports is such that it is contaminated
with water or dirt. Tie -down ropes and equipment
are most important, and a small shovel and a few
empty sacks may be the means of saving an aircraft
under many circumstances.
59
 Published charts have been found incorrect as to
altitudes ( some peaks have been determined to be
as much as 2,000 feet higher than indicated on the
map ) . Many good position checks, such as small
communities, occasionally a railroad, or other salient
visible objects will either appear on the map and prove
nonexistent or stand out from the terrain and never be
indicated on the map. Mountains have been found
inaccurately placed as much as 30 miles on the maps,
and completely disregarded in some instances. Very
few communities or cities have any visible identifi
cation marking readable from the air.
Because of previous searches made necessary in an
attempt to find lost airmen , Mexican flight rules re
quire that no flight shall be commenced without com
pleting certain prelimary arrangements with the
Mexican Government. For the convenience of pi
lots, the CAA has collaborated with Mexican Govern
ment aviation officials and simplified these require
ments as much as possible. They are as follows:
Flights of a tourist or private nature only are permitted
to enter Mexico, and prior permission must be ob
tained from the nearest Mexican Consul for a fee of
$ 4.12; at the airport of departure from the United
States, if an inspector of Aeronautica Civil de Mexico
is resident there; or by letter or wire directly to the
60
Jefe Aeronautica Civil, Secretaria de Comunicaciones
y Obras Publicas, Mexico, D. F.
If the latter method ( letter or wire ) is used, give
the following information : Full name and citizenship
of pilot; grade and number of pilot certificate and
ratings; make and model of aircraft; identification
(NC number ) ; full names and citizenship of all other
persons aboard ; the port of entry to Mexico ; the pro
posed date for entering Mexico ; proposed itinerary
of travel in Mexico, including intermediate stops and
destination ; and statement that such flight is for
tourist or pleasure purposes.
If the applicant gives his home address and spe
cifically requests that he be notified at his address of
the issuance of the permit, he will be so notified ; other
wise the permit is sent directly to the United States
airport named as the point of departure.
Prior to entering Mexico, a telegram must be sent,
at the pilot's expense, to the following authorities:
Comandante de Aeropuerto ( Airport Manager) at
the city of first intended landing in Mexico, which city
must have an Aeropuerto Central ( designated airport
for Mexico) where immigration, public health , and
customs officials are on duty; and Aeronautica Civil
( S. C. O. P. ) , Mexico, D. F.
61
 The telegram should be in this form :
Pilot John Rogers Doe, Commercial pilot,
Certificate number 121212, departed Browns
ville, Texas, 1315 C. S. T. en route Monter
rey, Mexico, in Aircraft NC10100, with two
passengers on tourist flight. Ultimate des
tination Mexico, D. F.
( Signed ) John Rogers Doe.
At some points of entry, permission may be obtained
from the representative of the Mexican Ministry of
Communications and Public Works, Department of
Civil Aeronautics, who is on duty at the airport on the
American side.
Failure to observe these rules may result in a heavy
fine. Pilots are urged to be very cautious concerning
infraction of minimum altitudes over communities or
acrobatics in Mexico, since both are punishable by
confiscation of the aircraft for infraction of regu
lations.
Both entry and exit must be made at the Mexican
airport specified in the Foreign Flight Permit.
Upon leaving Mexico, the pilot must observe some
other requirements.
Two telegrams, giving information similar to that
required upon entry and addressed to the same Mexi
can authorities must be sent.
62
 At large airports, these wires are sent without charge
on the Federal Government's radio or telegraph. In
the provinces and where landings are made at small
villages, however, the pilot must dispatch such tele
grams personally before such cross-country flight. It
is advisable for him to have a signed copy of such
telegrams for his own protection because failure to
send such wires constitutes an infraction of the regu
lations.
Negotiations are continuous to eliminate as many
complications from international air travel as possible,
and current requirements may change. Pilots should
check carefully before each flight to see whether
changes have been made.
While in Mexico, pilots of the United States are not
authorized ( except by spe **
cial written permission ) to
fly aircraft of Mexican reg 114
istry. Breaking of this rule
will result in a heavy fine.
For their own protection ,
pilots and occupants of a
plane are advised to have a
series of protective inocula
tions prior to travel in tropi
cal countries.
63
T
 Smallpox, typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, undulant
fever, tetanus, yellow fever, and amoebic dysentery
are common tropical diseases. If travel to the re
moter sections is contemplated, some understanding
of the causes and preventive measures, relative to
these is essential. Small cuts should be treated
promptly to prevent infection .
Try to arrive at a Mexican airport when officials
are on duty clearing international air carrier planes.
At other times, these officials may be unavailable, or
it may be necessary to make special arrangements at
added cost.
Overtime charges are 30 pesos after 12 noon for
immigration inspection, and a fee based on a full
day's wages for each inspector involved for each three
hours or fraction thereof after 2 p. m. for customs
inspection. Charges also may be made for a cus
toms guard to watch the plane, and for taxi fare to
bring the inspectors to the field after 12 noon . In
United States money , total fees may run as high as
$ 15 to $20.
These are the Mexican airports of entry : Mata
moros, Nuevo Laredo, Hermosillo, Monterrey, Ciudad
Juarez, Mexicali, Tampico, and Mexico City.
The only United States requirement for flying
United States private aircraft abroad is that the air
craft be airworthy and registered.
64
 Flying in Alaska
Here you have something entirely different. Here
you also have a large number of pilots with long expe
rience, all willing — nay eager — to advise you . The
reasons are easy to find . They are nice guys, and
they want to be helpful, and they've lost all interest
in the hardships encountered in hunting for little lost
pilots in the wilds of the bush country. So, they'll
do anything they can do to keep you from getting lost.
Virgil Stone is the CAA's personal-flying man in
Alaska. He is also an SLP of note . He's a good
source of advice on how to get to Alaska.
At Great Falls, Mont., clear your flight with U. S.
Customs. Then file your flight plan to Lethbridg
Canada — 165 miles.
65
 Check with Canadian Customs at Lethbridge. The
next flight plan should be made to Edmonton, another
285 miles. At Edmonton you should again check
with customs and clear with the Royal Canadian Air
Force with respect to rations and equipment needed
before departure. This equipment will include such
items as sleeping bag, flashlights, pocket compass, ax ,
matches in waterproof container, insect lotion, rifle
with ammunition , and fishing tackle.
After the RCAF gives you clearance on the above
and with the necessary weather clearance, proceed
to Grande Prairie, distance 240 miles (see later com
ments relative to stops ).
Then Grande Prairie to Ft. St. John, 100 miles;
Ft. St. John to Ft. Nelson, 190 miles ; Ft. Nelson to
‫נויי‬
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W.SA CANADA

66
Watson Lake, 235 miles; Watson Lake to Whitehorse,
215 miles; Whitehorse to Northway, Alaska, 270
miles; and Northway to Fairbanks, 225 miles.
Flight Charts 13, 14, and 15 will guide you from
Great Falls, Mont., to Fairbanks, Alaska.
You will be advised to follow the Alaskan High
way along a greater portion of the route, in which
case your flight will be extended somewhat, but in no
instance should it exceed 325 miles. Also, you might
be permitted to pass over some of the shorter hops
if your gasoline allowance is sufficient. However,
make certain where you are told to land next and see
that you do.
At Whitehorse, last Canadian stop, clear customs
again. Nearest U. S. airport of entry is Fairbanks,
500 miles away , but you may have to refuel at North
way. If so, you must ask permission of U. S. Customs
at Juneau to land at Northway, and they will notify all
concerned . Clear U. S. Customs only at Fairbanks,
Anchorage, or Ft. Yukon in the interior and thus avoid
unusual expense .
Fuel and accommodations for eating and sleeping
are available at all stations in Canada. At the North
way, Alaska, station, fuel is presently available from
surplus Army stocks; but the responsibility for proper
" shammying" of gasoline rests with the traveler. At
67
present this service is rendered only as a courtesy to
the transient pilot in emergency .
Your trip should be planned, if possible, so you will
not have to call the Customs officers before 8:00 a. m.
or after 5:00 p. m. or on Saturdays or Sundays, else
an extra charge may be made.
Now , as to flying in Alaska, Stone goes into consid
erable detail ; but every word is worth while. Listen
and learn and live to fly.
The pilot new to Alaska should be properly
equipped with either sectional or strip charts showing
airports and range courses, and the Alaskan Airman's
Guide. In many cases these charts are not entirely
accurate as to bends in rivers, and the altitudes of
the mountains shown thereon are none too accurate .
Some charts still show unsurveyed sections. It is ad
visable to stay on the regularly traversed routes or
airways unless special arrangements are made to take
some other route . The principal routes are as
follows:
1. Anchorage to Cold Bay, via Iliamna, Naknek,
and Port Heiden.
2. Fairbanks to Kodiak Island via Summit,
Talkeetna, Anchorage, Kenai, and Homer.
3. Anchorage to Nome via Skwentna, Farewell,
McGrath, and Unalakleet. ( From Unalakleet
68
 to Nome is practically all over water, via direct
air line; therefore, the small plane should fol
low the coast past Moses Point and thence to
destination .)
4. Fairbanks to Nome via Tanana, Galena, and
Moses Point.
5. Bethel to Fairbanks via Aniak, McGrath ,
Minchumina, and Nenana.
6. Northway to Fairbanks via Tanacross and Big
Delta. ( This is the Alaska portion of the Wat
son Lake -to -Fairbanks chart.)
In addition to these listed routes, there are other
perhaps less frequently traveled airways, including
those from Fairbanks to Barrow via Bettles, from
Nome to Barrow via Kotzebue and from Anchorage
to Northway via Gulkana. Each of the above
mentioned sites has range stations and weather report
ing facilities, as well as airports.
Most of these routes entail the crossing of moun
tainous terrain , and some the crossing of mountain
ranges. The charts the pilot should have with him
on all flights will, of course, show where these ranges
are located and the general height of the peaks. Rel
atively low passes are to be found through most of
these ranges. However, the pilot who is new to
Alaska is.cautioned not to fly low over the mountains
69
 ON
ALALY R.R.
츠 IS
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or through the passes on account of the severe down

drafts which he may encounter .
There are only a few highways to serve as check
points for the pilot. Section lines are completely
lacking here. There is only one railroad of any ap
preciable length . It is the Alaska Railroad operated
by the Department of the Interior, 460 miles long,
and runs from Seward ( and Whittier) on the Gulf of
Alaska. coastal area northward through Anchorage,
Wasilla, Willow , Talkeetna, Curry, Summit, McKin
ley Park, and Nenana to Fairbanks near the central
part of the Territory.
The highways consist chiefly of the following: The
Alaska Highway enters the eastern part of the Terri
tory from Whitehorse, Yukon territory, and passes
70
within approximately 6 miles of Northway, a CAA
airport and radio facility 30 miles west of the Cana
dian border at latitude 62 ° 58' N. and longitude
141 ° 56' W. ( An access road connects this station
with the main highway.).) The highway then con
tinues in a northwesterly direction through Tanacross
to Big Delta, both of which have good airports and
radio facilities constructed by the CAA.
At Big Delta the highway joins the old Richardson
Highway and continues on another 100 miles to Fair
banks. The Richardson Highway, originally started
as a trail in the early part of the twentieth century
and later rebuilt and improved from time to time by
the Alaska Road Commission, continues south from
Big Delta through Gulkana and on to the town of
Valdez on the coast. Also from Gulkana a road runs
northeast to the Habesna mines. Near Slana, on this
road, the Army has constructed a cut-off known as
the Eagle Highway which joins the Alaska Highway
II miles east of Tanacross. From Gulkana, where
another CAA airport and radio facility has been con
structed, the Glenn Highway runs westward past
Sheep Mountain and down through the Matanuska
Valley to Anchorage. This, in general, comprises the
principal highway system of Alaska.
Although several other short roads or trails do exist
in the neighborhood of other settlements or villages,
71
they extend outward from these communities but a
few miles. They usually lead to mines or villages
nearby, but do not connect with the other highways.
Hundreds of glaciers cover the slopes of Alaska's
three mountain ranges. The valleys are generally
broad and relatively flat and contain many rivers and
smaller streams and innumerable lakes. The coun
try, largely a glacial moraine, is covered with a mossy
tundra or muskeg, varying in depth from a few inches
to many feet. In the swampy areas where the muskeg
is found, travel in the summer time is next to impos
sible on foot.
Alaska abounds with wildlife. Black and brown
bear, moose, deer, caribou, and reindeer are plenti
ful in certain sections. In addition, fur-bearing ani
mals, including the preda
tory wolf pack, are found in

w w . y practically every section .

w Fur trapping ranks third in

Ooow ! the Territory's industry, be

ing exceeded only by com
mercial fishing and gold
mining. Migratory birds
as well as local wild fowl
are abundant. This infor
mation is injected into the
72
general description of the country because it has con
siderable bearing on the equipment that the pilot
should take with him on his flight into and over the
wilderness areas.
Exclusive of the airports constructed in the Aleutian
chain there are at least 42 airports in the Territory
proper that the civilian pilots may use and which have
been constructed or improved during the past few
years by the CAA, Army, and Navy.
While Alaska has an area one - fifth that of the Con
tinental United States, these airports are quite well
spaced and can be visited by the ordinary small plane
if good judgment is exercised in checking mileage,
weather, and fuel supplies before departure. With
but few exceptions, these fields all lie south of the
Arctic Circle ( Barrow , Kotzebue, and Bettles being
exceptions). No fields have been constructed in the
northeastern part of Alaska under the above-men
tioned construction program . There are, however,
nearly 200 cleared landing strips, constructed by the
Alaska Road Commission and by private interests at
other points over the country. Many of them have
received little or no maintenance during the last few
years, and airplane maintenance and servicing facili
ties are either nonexistent or definitely limited .
73
 Servicing of small aircraft, even on the fields con
structed with Government funds, is still a problem .
It is hoped that within the next year arrangements
can be made whereby the itinerant pilot can be given
assurance that he can obtain the necessary fuel, oil,
and hangar space and a place where he can obtain
food and a place to spend the night at all the major
fields in Alaska.
It may seem strange that so many airports and radio
facilities have been constructed by the U. S. Govern
ment here and yet these accommodations and serv
icing facilities are not available, except in emergen
cies. It must be understood, however, that many of
the facilities were originally constructed as a national
defense measure, and the Federal Government is not
in the business of dispensing fuels and oils to private
individuals and furnishing them with food and
lodging.
The Alaska Aeronautics and Communications
Commission early in 1943 adopted certain rules per
taining to radio and emergency rations and other
emergency equipment to be carried in aircraft. This
is the law . Canada also requires transient civil air
craft to be equipped with certain supplies for the pro
tection of the passengers, and clearances will not be
given until the pilot complies.
74
 Alaska, particularly the coastal area, is frequently
subjected to sudden changes in weather with resultant
storms of varying intensity. High winds or “williwas”
make flying extremely hazardous, and these sections
where such conditions exist should be avoided unless
the plane is properly equipped and the pilot has full
knowledge of weather conditions. The pilot should
always check his weather before departure, and peri
odically en route, in order to avoid bad weather as
much as possible.
The summer days are long, particularly during the
months of May, June, and July.
Along the coastal regions, and especially in south
eastern and southwestern Alaska, much rain and fog
is prevalent. Rainfall as heavy as 140 to 160 inches
per year is not infrequent along the Gulf of Alaska.
Fog banks are an everyday affair along this coast.
In the interior, the rainfall and fog is much lighter;
in fact, some sections have comparatively little rain .
It is advisable to fly relatively high when crossing
mountain ranges in order to avoid the turbulent air.
The pilot, new to Alaska, is cautioned not to attempt
to fly below the low overcast and through these passes.
Some of the older "bush ” pilots who are familiar with
the terrain do frequently fly contact through them ;
however, this procedure is not recommended, not only
75
on account of possible down drafts, but also on account
of the possibility of taking the wrong valley which
may end in a blind alley rather than a pass.
Planes equipped with pontoons are ideal for the
pilot who wishes to stop at good fishing and hunting
spots, as the many lakes afford excellent surfaces for
take - offs and landings and enable him to reach sec
tions otherwise inaccessible.
The winter days are quite short, consequently they
afford the pilot only a few hours of daylight flying.
The plane equipped with skis has a considerable
advantage over the wheel-equipped plane, in the
event of a forced landing away from an airport, be
cause the many frozen lakes and other open areas
offer the pilot an opportunity to get down safely, or
at least with less possibility of a serious crack -up.
Before starting on a flight away from his home air
port there are a few items that the private pilot should
always carry.
Good charts of the terrain to be covered ; a two -way
radio in good operating condition ; gun with ample
supply of ammunition ( a 12- or 20 -gauge shotgun is
good ); flashlight, complete with fresh batteries;
emergency rations, good for ten days (any CAA in
spector or Port-of -Entry official will explain ); first
aid kit; hand ax; flares or smoke bombs for signaling ;
matches in waterproof package; pocket compass.
76
 sho

It is advisable to carry these regardless of the sea

son . In winter, the following additional: engine and
airplane covers ; fire pot with fuel ; oil can and funnel ;
at least one pair of snowshoes but preferably a pair
for each person aboard ; one bedding roll for each
three persons.
In summer, the following additional: mosquito
nets and head nets with gloves for each person ; bottles
of " stayaway" or similar insect preventive; fishing
rod and tackle, complete ; pair rubber hip boots (rec
ommended but not absolutely essential) .
Things to do :
1. Always file a flight plan before you start.
2. Stay on the regularly traversed routes or air
ways.
77
 3. Report your progress along the way in accord
ance with established procedure.
4. Be sure you close the flight plan on arrival at
destination, or report any interruption or change in
original plan . That is where your two -way radio
comes in, especially if you land at a point where there
are no radio facilities.
5. Be sure you have your emergency supplies
aboard. Think twice before you “ pooh -pooh ” emer
gency supplies. They were developed by the " bush ”
pilots who have flown this country for years and they
know what is needed and the true value of them in
case they are forced down.
6. In the event you are forced down for any rea
son, it is normally advisable to stay with your airplane.
Search and rescue parties can locate a plane much
easier than they can a man. If searching planes, or
for that matter, any plane is seen overhead, use your
smoke bomb or rocket signal to attract their attention.
If possible to do so , direct them to a landing area,
if there is one close at hand. Partake of your reserve
Partake
or emergency rations sparingly and in accordance with
instructions contained in the package. This is par
ticularly important if you have not been located or if
there isgoing to be some delay in reaching you due to
the remoteness of the section , or for any other reason .
78
Try to replenish your food supply by game or fish , if
you are near a source of supply, and the chances are
you will be. But in so doing, know where your plane
is at all times. This is where your pocket compass
will come in handy. Be resourceful.
Things not to do:
1. Do not allow yourself to become confused re
garding the large variations in magnetic declinations
in Alaska. Your flight charts show the magnetic
heading to fly. Correct only for cross winds or local
magnetic attractions, usually only a few degrees, if
any. Check and verify this frequently as you fly the
range leg on your course. If your compass reads 270
degrees do not get the idea that you are headed di
rectly west for you are not.
2. In the event of a forced landing do not wander
away from your plane.. If you are absolutely sure
you know where you are , and a shelter is nearby, it
is advisable to go to it. But first try your radio and
attempt to contact the nearest communications station
if you did not do this before landing. Then before
you leave your plane, if you have decided that is the
thing to do and you are sure of yourself and your
position, plot your course over the ground, check
your pocket compass, time of travel, etc., before start
79
ing out. For, after all, you might be wrong in your
calculations. Whether right or wrong,you will likely
want to return to your plane.
Remember your course out and the time or dis
tance traveled on each leg of the trip . One hundred
and eighty degrees in the opposite direction over each
corresponding leg of the tripshould bring you back, if
you have checked everything properly. This plan of
leaving your plane, however, is not recommended ex
cept as a last resort, particularly for the novice. Do
not take unnecessary chances. Do not lose your head .
If you are alone and decide to stray way from your
plane seeking food or shelter, take along some signal
ing device. A searching party may be looking for you
and, in all probability, you will be unable to return
to your plane in time to signal them before they have
passed. This might be your one and only chance of
being rescued.
3. Do not be misled by the appearance of level
land with no brush . This may be tundra or even
swampy ground with deep muskeg. You will find it
extremely difficult to walk out as you may sink in
anywhere from your ankles to your neck .
Even in clear weather in Alaska, radio transmission
and reception is often erratic due, in many instances,
to the aurora borealis, or electrical discharges in the
80
upper air, and often referred to as “ Northern Lights."
Therefore, the importance of keeping the ground ad
vised of your whereabouts cannot be overstressed, even
though it may be necessary to make an extra landing
to do so. Bear in mind that Alaska is a large terri
tory to cover ; in case a search is necessary, and if you
have given the CAA radio network the proper infor
mation with respect to your location , it may mean the
difference between life and death.
Finally, we dip into the history of flying training
in wartime for some good advice for new pilots who
become lost. In the Civilian Pilot Training program
cross-country course, the knowledge of experienced
pilots on how to "find yourself when you're lost” was
boiled down and taught to fledglings. It's still good.
“ Even the best ofpilots become lost occasionally ,
usually when the visibility is restricted such as in
heavy rain , smoke, dust storms, and the like. There
fore, every good pilot provides against this contin
gency by selecting easily identifiable brackets' by
means of which he can reorient himself. Instead of
attempting to find his position by 'flying around' or
zigzagging, the pilot who has set up his major brackets
flies a straight course to what he believes is the nearest
reorients himself, and sets up a new course to his
destination or an alternate. A bracket should always
81
be a line, such as a river, power line, range of hills,
or the like ; never a point such as a lake or a city .
“Ideal bracketing bounds both sides of the course
and the destination . If identifiable boundaries are
not available on all sides, one or two will serve. For
example: if there is a large river parallel to your
course, but some miles to the left, and no other fea
ture which you are sure you can identify if lost, you
know that you can always fly to the river and follow
it until you pick up a recognizable point.
“ List only the brackets you feel sure you cannot
miss in the proper space on the flight plan ; one bracket
you are sure of is better than three which may be
missed. Your proposed flight is now plotted and the
plan has been prepared with the exception of the al
lowances for wind, weather, and elapsed time. Data
applying to these items cannot be prepared in advance,
since the prevailing conditions at the time of flight
will determine your ground speed and the heading
necessary to make good your course.

82
 PREPARED BY
AVIATION
INFORMATION

16–53778-1 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE