Signals – models and classification

Signals – models and classification

 Definition of signal
Signal it is an abstract mathematical model (function) of
a physical value, time-variant or space-variant and
generated by natural sources or systems.

Potentially a signal provides information on the status of

a physical system, but this is not particularly interesting
to us at the moment. In this approach, the signal has no
units (as V, A, kg).

Signal is a mathematical function of an independent

variable and we will explore (analyze) its properties.
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 Classification of signals – block diagram

transient signal  impulse signal

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Deterministic signals are signals that can be accurately
described mathematically, graphically or as a set of
values, e.g. in tabular form.
Real-world signals are never deterministic. There is
always some unknown and unpredictable noise added
or some unpredictable changes in the parameters, in the
characteristics etc.
It is, however, very often convenient to approximate or
model the signal by means of a deterministic function.

An important family of deterministic signals is the

periodic family.
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We assum that for us, a signal will be a function of an independent
variable as time, and not as distance, position, temperature, current etc.
D is an enumerable (countable) number system, number domain, set of numbers.

The parameter Ts it is a sampling time, sampling period, sampling interval.

For us a „sample”  time sample ≠ pattern (as a representative sample)
as e.g. wallpaper pattern, material or tissue pattern.
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We assum that for us, a signal will be a function of an independent
variable as time, and not as distance, position, temperature, current etc.
D is an enumerable (countable) number system, number domain, set of numbers.
ANALOG DIGITAL

discrete in amplitude
CONTINUOUS

DISCRETE

For some others:

The term CONTINUOUS SIGNAL and DISCRETE SIGNAL classify
the signals along THE TIME (i.e. only and only horizontal axis),
where as the term ANALOG and DIGITAL signal classify the signals
along THE AMPLITUDE (i.e. vertical axis).
The parameter Ts it is a sampling time, sampling period, sampling interval.
For us a „sample”  time sample ≠ pattern (as a representative sample)
as e.g. wallpaper pattern, material or tissue pattern.
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 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Analog x(t) Discrete x(n) = x[n], sampled

Digital x(n) or x[n]

Quantized x(t)

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My proposed short classification of signals
Generally, the term „discrete” itself is not precise.

x(t) xR xi  Dx
discrete in amplitude
tR continuous ( or analog)
or quantized
discrete in time
ti  Dt digital signal
sampled signal - x(nTs)

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My proposed short classification of signals
Generally, the term „discrete” itself is not precise.

x(t) xR xi  Dx
discrete in amplitude
tR continuous ( or analog)
or quantized
discrete in time
ti  Dt digital signal
sampled signal - x(nTs)

DISCRETE
FOR DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS

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 My proposed short classification of signals
Generally, the term „discrete” itself is not precise.

x(t) xR xi  Dx
discrete in amplitude
tR continuous ( or analog)
or quantized
discrete in time
ti  Dt digital signal
sampled signal - x(nTs)
DISCRET
DISCRETE
FOR RANDOM
FOR DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS
SIGNALS

The result of the dice roll is always an integer and not an analog value. 11
 Signal Energy & Power
It is often useful to characterise signals by measures (acting
as physical quantities), such as energy and power.
➢ For example, the instantaneous power of a resistor is:
1 2
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = v (t )
R
➢ and the total energy expanded over the interval [t1, t2] is:
t2 t2 1 2
t1
p(t )dt = 
t1 R
v (t )dt

➢ and the average power is:

1 t2 1 t2 1 2

t 2 − t1 t1
p(t )dt = 
t 2 − t1 t1 R
v (t )dt

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Total energy of a continuous signal x(t) over [t1, t2] is:
t2
E =  x(t ) dt
2
t1

where |•| denote the magnitude or modulus of the number

(generally of a complex number).
Similarly for a discrete time signal x[ n ] over [n1, n2]:

E = n = n x[n]
n2 2
1

By dividing the quantities by the length of the time period

(t2 - t1) or (n2 - n1 +1) respectively, gives the average
power Pavg = P.
REMEMBER: The length of this finite length sequence (or its
duration) is given by the formula (upper limit - lower limit + 1).
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For many signals, we are interested in examining the power and
energy over an infinite time interval (-, ). These quantities are
therefore defined by:
T 
E = lim T →  x(t ) dt =  x(t ) dt
2 2
−T −

E = lim N → n = − N x[n] = n = − x[n]

N 2  2

If the sums or integrals do not converge, the energy of such

a signal is infinite, and
1 T
P = lim T → 
2
x (t ) dt
2T −T

1

N
P = lim N →
2
x[ n ]
2 N + 1 n=− N

Because of convergence we distinguish two important classes of signals:

• finite total energy (and therefore zero average power),
• finite average power (and therefore infinite total energy).
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 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The continuous unit impulse signal (Dirac delta function)

is defined:

0 t  0
x (t ) =  (t ) = 
 t = 0

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 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The continuous unit impulse signal (Dirac delta function)

is defined:

0 t  0
x (t ) =  (t ) =  .
 t = 0
Description „1” is used to
denote area, rather than actual
value.

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 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The continuous unit impulse signal (Dirac delta function)

is defined:

0 t  0
x (t ) =  (t ) =  .
 t = 0
Description „1” is used to
denote area, rather than actual
value.

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 Continuous Unit Impulse and Step Signals

The continuous unit impulse signal (Dirac delta function)

is defined:

0 t  0
x (t ) =  (t ) =  .
 t = 0
Description „1” is used to
denote area, rather than actual
value.

  (t − t ) f (t ) dt = f (t )
−
0 0

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The delta function is sometimes thought of as an infinitely
high and infinitely thin spike (fast and short impulse), with
total area 1 under the spike, and physically represents the
density of an idealized point mass or point charge.
It was introduced by Paul Dirac.
English theoretical
physicist who made
fundamental
contributions to the early
development of
both quantum mechanics
and quantum
electrodynamics.
Dirac shared the Nobel
Prize in Physics for 1933
1902 - 1984 with Erwin Schrödinger.
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From a purely mathematical
viewpoint, the Dirac delta is not
strictly a function, because any
real function that is equal to zero
everywhere but a single point must
have total integral zero.
Formally it must be defined
as a distribution.
In many applications, the Dirac
delta is regarded as a kind of limit.

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The continuous unit step signal (Heaviside function)
is defined:

or .

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The continuous unit step signal (Heaviside function)
is defined:

or .
point of discontinuity  jump

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The continuous unit step signal (Heaviside function)
is defined:

or .
point of discontinuity  jump

Useful to describe a signal that begins at t = 0 (i.e. causal signal).

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The continuous unit step signal (Heaviside function)
is defined:
derivative of 1(t) with respect to time

or .
point of discontinuity  jump

Useful to describe a signal that begins at t = 0 (i.e. causal signal).

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 Discrete Unit Impulse and Step Signals
• The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:
0 n  0
x[n] =  [n] = 
1 n = 0

• The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n  0
x[n] = u[n] = 
1 n  0
• Note that the unit impulse is the derivative
(first difference) of the step signal
 [n] = u[n] − u[n −1]
• Similarly, the unit step is the integral (sum)
of the unit impulse.
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 Periodic signals
A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if we can write for a some
positive constant T0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇0 .
The smallest value of To that satisfies the periodicity
condition of this equation is the fundamental period of x(t).

For periodic discrete signal x(n) = x(n + N) for all

integer n and natural N.
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 Sinusoidal signal
A most basic form as a function of time t is:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2π𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜑 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑
where:
• A - the amplitude, the peak deviation of the function from zero,
• f0 - the ordinary frequency in Hz, the number of oscillations
(cycles) that occur each second of time,
• T0 = 1/f0 - the fundamental period (in brief: period),
• ω0 = 2πf0 or  = 2πf - the angular frequency in rad/s,
• 𝜑 - the phase (usually in radians), determines what is the angle
value for t = 0;
Note:
in general, we use indexed variables when we think about specific values.
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Generally, the signals presented in the form of the sum of any
frequency are not periodic
𝑁

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 2π𝑓𝑛 𝑡 + 𝜑𝑛 .
𝑛=1

Almost periodic signals are generated by summing signals, for

which at least one quotient of all possible pairs of frequencies is
expressed by an irrational number. These signals are not periodic,
despite the fact that they consist only of periodic signals.
A Rational Number can be written as a ratio of two integers.

Polyharmonic signal (periodic signal) with a basic frequency 𝑓0 = 𝑓1

𝑁

𝑥 𝑡 = ෍ 𝐴𝑛 sin 2π𝑛𝑓0 𝑡 + 𝜑𝑛 .
𝑛=1
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 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 sin 𝑡 + 𝐴1 sin 𝑡
𝑇1 𝑇1

Periodic signal: Almost periodic signal:

𝑇1 = 2, 𝑇1 = 3, 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 1. 𝑇1 = 2, 𝑇1 = 3, 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 1.

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 Exponential signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals are characteristic of real-world
signals and also from a basis for building other signals.
A generic complex exponential signal is of the form:
n
 1
x(t ) = Ce at
where e = lim 1 +   2,718
n →
 n
where C and a are generally complex numbers.
Some special cases of this signal – real exponential signals.

a0 a0
C 0 C 0

Exponential growth Exponential decay

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Consider when a is purely imaginary:
x(t ) = Ce j0t

By Euler’s relationship, this can be expressed as:

e j0t = cos 0t + j sin 0t

this is a periodic signals because for T = 2p /0

e j0 (t +T ) = cos 0 (t + T ) + j sin 0 (t + T )

= cos 0t + j sin 0t = e j0t

Note, that for real C = A:

𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑 = 𝐴 ∙ ℛ𝑒 𝑒 j 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑
,
𝐴 sin 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜑 = 𝐴 ∙ ℐ𝓂 𝑒 j 𝜔0 𝑡+𝜑
.

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 When in x(t ) = Ceat parameter a is a complex number
a = s =  + jω
we get the family of damped sinusoidal functions ( damping)

On the right, a function

ℛ𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛼𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
is plotted for different
values of complex
frequency s,
superimposed on the
complex s-plane.

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Complex exponential functions - why are they important?
• Almost any signal of practical interest can be
represented as a superposition (sum) of complex
exponential functions.
• The output of a linear, time-invariant (LTI) system
(to be defined later) is simple to compute
if the input is a sum of those complex functions.

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e ( a + j ) t - e ( a - j ) t
= e at sin(t )
2j

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1,

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1, 0,

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1, 0, p ,

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1, 0, p , e,
n
 1
e = lim 1 +   2,718281 ...
n →
 n

1 1 1 1 1 1
e=  = + + + + +
n = 0 n! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1, 0, p , e, j
n
 1
e = lim 1 +   2,718281 ...
n →
 n

1 1 1 1 1 1
e=  = + + + + +
n = 0 n! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

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The most beautiful theorem in mathematics

1, 0, p , e, j
n
 1
e = lim 1 +   2,718281 ...
n →
 n

1 1 1 1 1 1
e=  = + + + + +
n = 0 n! 0! 1! 2! 3! 4!

jp
e + 1 = 0
Euler's identity
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