Signal Energy and Power

Figure 1 shows a not ideal square wave with the definitions in the
time and amplitude domain. On the right side of the square wave
the corresponding histogram is shown. This histogram shows
how often a certain value appears. 2
 Average value
The average value of any signal of time x(t), over a finite interval
t1 to t2 , is:
𝑡2
1
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑥DC = න 𝑥 𝑡 d𝑡 , (1)
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡1
where we generally use the markings

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥DC + 𝑥AC 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑥0 (𝑡) .

Geometric interpretation of
the average value.

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The average value of signals that have infinite temporal extent is:

(2)

and for periodic signals, for any value of t0, is:

(3)

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The average value of signals that have infinite temporal extent is:

(2)

and for periodic signals, for any value of to, is:

(3)

To find the average value of a set of numbers (for discrete-time

signal), you just add the numbers and divide by the number of
numbers N
𝑁−1
1
𝑥𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ෍ 𝑥(𝑛) . (4)
𝑁
𝑛=0
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Energy and power

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Time-unbounded energy signals

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 Time-unbounded energy signals

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
sin 𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 sin π𝑡 sin2 𝑎𝑡
න d𝑡 = න d𝑡 = π න d𝑡 = 1 න d𝑡 = π 𝑎
𝑡 𝑡 π𝑡 𝑡2
−∞ −∞ for 𝑎 > 0 −∞ −∞

Remember these formulas! 8

Sampling function Sa(t)

Sinus cardinalis sinc(t)

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 (6 bis)

In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-
negative value of x without regard to its sign. The modulus of a complex number is
defined by the Euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from
the origin and can be conveniently expressed as

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Time-unbounded power signals

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13
Energy and power for discrete-time signals

(8)

(9)

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 Root Mean Square value RMS
The root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms), also known as
the quadratic mean, is defined as the square root of the mean of
the square of a signal.

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 Root Mean Square value RMS
The root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms), also known as
the quadratic mean, is defined as the square root of the mean of
the square of a signal.
In physics it is a characteristic of a continuously varying quantity, such
as a cyclically alternating electric current, obtained by taking the mean
of the squares of the instantaneous values during a cycle. It is equal to
the value of the direct current that would produce the same power
dissipation in a resistive load.

𝑥RMS = 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑇

The RMS for a periodic function is equal

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to the RMS of one period of the function.
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 Form Factor (Coefficient of Form)
In electronics, the form factor of an alternating current
waveform (signal) is the ratio of the RMS (Root Mean Square)
value to the average rectified value (ARV).
In electrical engineering, the average rectified value of the
quantity is the average of its absolute value. The average of
a symmetric alternating value is zero and it is therefore not
useful to characterize it. The form factor cannot be smaller
than 1. 𝑇
1
𝑥ARV = න 𝑥(𝑡) d𝑡 (10)
𝑇
0

𝑥RMS 𝑃
𝑘FF = = (11)
𝑥ARV 𝑥ARV

rectifier – pol. rektyfikator, przetwornik, prostownica, prostownik. 20

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D - duty cycle is the percentage of one period in which a signal is active;
duty – pol. obowiązek, służba, dyżur, cło, podatek, ciężar…

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 Power for sum of signals
Orthogonality
Two non-periodic power signals x1(t) and x2(t) are orthogonal if and
only if Complex conjugation for
complex signal x2(t).
(12)

and periodic signals with period T0 or non-periodic in interval t (0,T0)

if and only if
. (13)

If integrals (12) and (13) are different from zero signals are „correlated”.
Signals with non-zero average values are always non-orthogonal.
Same orthogonal signals: const  sin(k0t)  cos(k0t)  exp(jk0t)
.
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For real-valued periodic signals (period T0)

𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑥1AC (𝑡) + 𝑥1DC and 𝑃1

𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥2AC (𝑡) + 𝑥2DC and 𝑃2
and orthogonality of pair 𝑥1AC , 𝑥2AC ,

1 𝑇0
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑥1 𝑡 ± 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 ± 2 න 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0
can be calculated as
𝑃𝑥1 ±𝑥2 = 𝑃1AC + 𝑃2AC + (𝑥1DC ± 𝑥2DC )2 .

Remember that for any signal 𝑥 𝑡 its 𝑥DC and 𝑥AC components
are always orthogonal thus
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥AC + 𝑃𝑥DC .
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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3.

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 12 = 35
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 + 3)2 = 35

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 12 = 35
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 + 3)2 = 35
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) − 3.

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 12 = 35
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 + 3)2 = 35
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 − 12 = 11
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) − 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 − 3)2 = 11

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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 12 = 35
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 + 3)2 = 35
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 − 12 = 11
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) − 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 − 3)2 = 11
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
x2(t) = 4 sin(0t) − 3.
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For y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t),
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t),
Py = 22/2 + 42/2 = 10
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).

x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2,
Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 = 14
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t).
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 12 = 35
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) + 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 + 3)2 = 35
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 − 12 = 11
x2(t) = 4 cos(0t) − 3. Py = 22/2 + 42/2 + (2 − 3)2 = 11
x1(t) = 2 sin(0t) + 2, Py = 22/2 + 22 + 42/2 +32 + 2(8/2 - 6) = 19

x2(t) = 4 sin(0t) − 3. Py = (2 + 4)2/2 + (2 − 3)2 = 19

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