Ramage, J., Bean, J., and Johnson, J. (2010) Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings (8th Ed.

Analyzing Visual
Arguments
9
To see how images can make powerful arguments, consider the rhetorical per-
suasiveness of the polar bear marching in a small town parade (Figure 9.1).
Sponsored by local environmentalists advocating action against global warming,
the polar bear uses arguments from logos (drawing on audience knowledge that
climate change threatens polar bears), pathos (evoking the bears vulnerability),
and ethos (conveying the commitment of the citizens group). Delighting children
and adults alike, the bear created a memorable environmental argument.
This chapter is aimed at increasing your ability to analyze visual arguments
and use them rhetorically in your own work. We begin with some basic compo-
nents of document and visual design. We then examine genres of visual argument
ranging from posters to Web pages, explain how you can use visuals in your own
arguments, and conclude by explaining how to display numeric data graphically.

Figure 9.1 A visual argument about climate change

165
166 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument

To understand how visual images can produce an argument, you need to understand
the design elements that work together to create a visual text. In this section we ll
explain and illustrate the four basic components of visual design: use of type, use of
space and layout, use of color, and use of images and graphics.

Use of Type
Type is an important visual element of written arguments. Variations in type, such as
size, boldface, italics, or all caps, can direct a reader s attention to an argument s
structure and highlight main points. In arguments designed specifically for visual
impact, such as posters or advocacy advertisements, type is often used in eye-catching
and meaningful ways. In choosing type, you need to consider the typeface or font
style, the size of the type, and formatting options. The main typefaces or fonts are
classified as serif, sans serif, and specialty type. Serif type has little extensions on the
letters. (This text is set in serif type.) Sans serif type lacks these extensions. Specialty
type includes script fonts and special symbols. In addition to font style, type comes in
1
different sizes. It is measured in points, with 1 point equal to 72 of an inch. Most text-
based arguments consisting mainly of body text are written in 10- to 12-point type,
whereas more image-based arguments may use a mixture of type sizes that interact
with the images for persuasive effect. Type can also be formatted using bold, italics,
underlining, or shading for emphasis. Table 9.1 shows examples of type styles, as well
as their typical uses.
The following basic principles for choosing type for visual arguments can help you
achieve your overall goals of readability, visual appeal, and suitability.

Table 9.1 Examples and Uses of Type Fonts

Font Style Font Name Example Use

Serif fonts Times New Roman Use type wisely. Easy to read; good for long
Courier New Use type wisely. documents, good for body
Bookman Old Style Use type wisely. type, or the main verbal parts
of a document
Sans serif fonts Arial Use type wisely. Tiring to read for
Century Gothic Use type wisely. long stretches; good for display
type such as headings,
titles, slogans
Specialty fonts Zapf Chancery Use type wisely. Difficult to read for long
Onyx MT Use type wisely. stretches; effective when used
sparingly for playful or
decorative effect
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 167

Principles for Choosing Type for Visual Arguments

1. If you are creating a poster or advocacy advertisement, you will need to decide
how much of your argument will be displayed in words and how much in images.
For the text portions, choose display type (sans serif) or specialty fonts for titles,
headings, and slogans, and body or text type (serif) for longer passages of text.
2. Make type functional and appealing by using only two or three font styles per
document.
3. Use consistent patterns of type (similar type styles, sizes, and formats) to indicate
relationships among similar items or different levels of importance.
4. Choose type to project a specific impression (a structured combination of serif and
sans serif type to create a formal, serious, or businesslike impression; sans serif
and specialty type to create a casual, informal, or playful impression, and so forth).

Besides these general principles, rhetorical considerations of genre and audience

expectations should govern decisions about type. Text-based arguments in scholarly
publications generally use plain, conservative fonts with little variation, whereas text-
based arguments in popular magazines may use more variations in font style and size,
especially in headings and opening leads. Visual arguments such as posters, fliers, and
advocacy ads exploit the aesthetic potential of type.

Use of Space or Layout

A second component of visual design is layout, which is critical for creating the visual
appeal of an argument and for conveying meaning. Even visual arguments that are
mainly textual should use space very purposefully. By spacing and layout we mean all
of the following points:
* Page size and type of paper
* Proportion of text to white space
* Proportion of text to image(s) and graphics
* Arrangement of text on page (space, margins, columns, size of paragraphs, spaces
between paragraphs, justification of margins)
* Use of highlighting elements such as bulleted lists, tables, sidebars, boxes
* Use of headings and other means of breaking text into visual elements

In arguments that don t use visuals directly, the writer s primary visual con-
cern is document design, in which the writer tries to meet the conventions of a
genre and the expectations of the intended audience. For example, Megan
Matthews s researched argument on pages 394 400 is designed to meet the
document conventions of the American Psychological Association (APA). Note the
use of a plain, conventional typeface (for easy reading); double spacing and 1-inch
margins (to leave room for editorial marking and notations); and special title page,
headers, and page number locations (to meet expectations of readers familiar with
APA documents which all look exactly the same).
168 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

But in moving from verbal-only arguments to visual arguments that use visual
elements for direct persuasive effect for example, posters, fliers, or advocacy ads
creative use of layout is vital. Here are some ideas to help you think about the layout
of a visual argument.

Principles for Laying Out Parts of a Visual Text

1. Choose a layout that avoids clutter and confusion by limiting how much text and
how many visual items you put on a page.
2. Focus on creating coherence and meaning with layout.
3. Develop an ordering or structuring principle that clarifies the relationships among
the parts.
4. Use layout and spacing to indicate the importance of items and to emphasize key
ideas. Because Western readers read from left to right and top to bottom, top and
center are positions that readily draw readers eyes.

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type

and Spatial Elements
To illustrate the persuasive power of type and layout, we ask you to consider Figure 9.1,
which shows an advocacy ad sponsored by a coalition of organizations aimed at fighting
illegal drugs.
This ad, warning about the dangers of the drug Ecstasy, uses different sizes of
type and layout to present its argument. The huge word Ecstasy first catches the
reader s attention. The first few words at the top of the ad, exuding pleasure, lull
the reader with the congruence between the pleasurable message and the playful
type. Soon, however, the reader encounters a dissonance between the playful
type and the meaning of the words: dehydrate, hallucinate, paranoid, and dead
name unpleasant ideas. By the end of the ad, readers realize they have been led
through a downward progression of ideas beginning with the youth culture s
belief that Ecstasy creates wonderfully positive feelings and ending with the ad s
thesis that Ecstasy leads to paranoia, depression, and death. The playful informal-
ity of the font styles and the unevenly scattered layout of the type convey the
seductiveness and unpredictability of the drug. The ad concedes that the first
effects are falling in love with the world but implies that what comes next is
increasingly dark and dangerous. At the end of the ad, in the lines of type near
the bottom, the message and typestyle are congruent again. The question Does
that sound harmless to you? marks a shift in type design and layout. The
designer composed this section of the ad in conventional fonts centered on the
page in a rational, businesslike fashion. This type design signals a metaphoric
move from the euphoria of Ecstasy to the ordered structure of everyday reality,
where the reader can now consider rationally the drug s harm. The information
at the bottom of the ad identifies the ad s sponsors and gives both a Web address
and a telephone number to call for more information about Ecstasy and other
illegal drugs.
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 169

* * * FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Comparing the Rhetorical Appeal of Two Advocacy Ads
This exercise asks you to examine Figure 9.2, an advocacy ad sponsored by Common
Sense for Drug Policy, and to compare it to the ad in Figure 9.1. Figure 9.2 also

FIGURE 9.2 Advocacy advertisement warning against Ecstasy

 FIGURE 9.3 Common Sense for Drug Policy advocacy ad

170
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 171

focuses on the drug Ecstasy and also uses type and layout to convey its points. (This ad
appeared in the liberal magazine The Progressive.) Individually or in groups, study this
advocacy ad and then answer the following questions.
1. What is the core argument of this ad? What view of drug use and what course of
action is this ad promoting? What similarities and differences do you see between
the argument about Ecstasy in this ad and the ad in Figure 9.1?
2. What are the main differences in the type and layout of the two ads in Figures 9.1
and 9.3? To what extent do the ad makers choices about type and layout match
the arguments made in each ad?
3. How would you analyze the use of type and layout in Figure 9.3? How does this
ad use typestyles to convey its argument? How does it use layout and spacing?
4. The ad in Figure 9.2 appeared in the weekly entertainment section of the Seattle
Times, a newspaper with a large general readership, whereas the ad in Figure 9.3
appeared in a liberal news commentary magazine. In what ways is each ad
designed to reach its audience? ***

Use of Color
A third important element of visual design is use of color, which can contribute signifi-
cantly to the visual appeal of an argument and move readers emotionally and imagina-
tively. In considering color in visual arguments, writers are especially controlled by genre
conventions. For example, academic arguments use color minimally, whereas popular
magazines often use color lavishly. The appeal of colors to an audience and the associa-
tions that colors have for an audience are also important. For instance, the psychedelic
colors of 1960s rock concert posters would probably not be effective in poster argu-
ments directed toward conservative voters. Color choices in visual arguments often have
crucial importance, including the choice of making an image black-and-white when color
is possible. As you will see in our discussions of color throughout this chapter, makers of
visual arguments need to decide whether color will be primarily decorative (using colors
to create visual appeal), functional (for example, using colors to indicate relationships),
realistic (using colors like a documentary photo), aesthetic (for example, using colors that
are soothing, exciting, or disturbing), or some intentional combination of these.

Use of Images and Graphics

The fourth design element includes images and graphics, which can powerfully con-
dense information into striking and memorable visuals; clarify ideas; and add depth, live-
liness, and emotion to your arguments. A major point to keep in mind when using
images is that a few simple images may be more powerful than complicated and
numerous images. Other key considerations are (1) how you intend an image to work in
your argument (for example, to convey an idea, illustrate a point, or evoke an emotional
response) and (2) how you will establish the relationship between the image or graphic
and the verbal text. Because using images and graphics effectively is especially challeng-
ing, we devote the rest of this chapter to explaining how images and graphics can be
incorporated into visual arguments. We treat the use of photographs and drawings in the
next main section and the use of quantitative graphics in the final section.
172 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using

All the Design Components
Before we discuss the use of images and graphics in detail, we would like to illustrate how
all four of the design components use of type, layout, color, and images can reinforce
and support each other to achieve a rhetorical effect. Consider the Save the Children
advocacy ad appearing as Figure 9.4. This advocacy ad combines type, layout, color, and
image skillfully and harmoniously through its dominant image complemented by verbal
text that interprets and applies the ideas conveyed by the image. The layout of the ad
divides the page into three main parts, giving central focus to the image of the mother
standing and looking into the eyes of the child she is holding in her arms. The blank top
panel leads readers to look at the image. Two color panels, mauve behind the child and
rose behind the mother, also highlight the two figures, isolate them in time and space, and
concentrate the readers attention on them. The large type in the black borders ( SHE S
THE BEST QUALIFIED TEACHER FOR HER CHILDREN and IMAGINE IF SHE
HAD AN EDUCATION ) frames the image, attracts readers eyes, and plants the main
idea in readers minds: mothers should be equipped to teach their children.
This advocacy ad, which appeared in Newsweek, skillfully blends familiar, univer-
sal ideas a mother s love for her child and the tenderness and strength of this bond
with unfamiliar, foreign associations: a mother and child from a third-world country,
wearing the traditional clothing of their country depicted by the head scarf the
mother is wearing and the elaborate design on her sleeve. In addition to the familiar-
unfamiliar dynamic, a universal-particular dynamic also operates in this ad. This
woman and baby are every mother and child (after all, we don t know exactly where
she is from), but they are also from some specific third-world country. The two figures
have been posed to conjure up Western paintings and statues of the Madonna and
Christ child. With this pose, the ad intends that readers will connect with this image
of motherly love and devotion and respond by supporting the Every Mother/Every
Child campaign. Color in this ad also accents the warm, cozy, hopeful impression of
the image; pink in Western culture is a feminine color often associated with women
and babies. In analyzing the photographic image, you should note what is not shown:
any surroundings, any indication of housing or scenery, any concrete sense of place
or culture. The text of the ad interprets the image, provides background information,
and seeks to apply the ideas and feelings evoked by the image to urging readers to
action. The image, without either the large type or the smaller type, does convey an
idea as well as elicit sympathy from readers, but the text adds meaning to the image
and builds on those impressions and applies them.
The ad designer could have focused on poverty, illiteracy, hunger, disease, and
high mortality rates but instead has chosen to evoke positive feelings of identification
and to convey hopeful ideas. While acknowledging their cultural difference from this
mother and child, readers recognize their common humanity and are moved to give
mothers and children the best chance to survive and thrive. The large amounts of
blank space in this ad help convey that the main points here are important, serious,
elemental, but also simple as if the ad has gotten to the heart of the matter. The
bottom panel of the ad gives readers the logo and name of the organization Save the
Children and a phone number and Web address to use to show their support.
FIGURE 9.4 Save the Children advocacy ad
173
174 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

The Compositional Features of Photographs

and Drawings
Now that we have introduced you to the four major elements of visual design type,
layout, color, and images we turn to an in-depth discussion of photographic images
and drawings. Used with great shrewdness in product advertisements, photos and
drawings can be used with equal shrewdness in posters, fliers, advocacy ads, and
Web sites. When an image is created specifically for an argument, almost nothing is
left to chance. Although such images are often made to seem spontaneous and nat-
ural, they are almost always composed: designers consciously select the details of
staging and composition as well as manipulate camera techniques (filters, camera an-
gle, lighting) and digital or chemical development techniques (airbrushing, merging
of images). Even news photography can have a composed feel. For example, public
officials often try to control the effect of photographs by creating photo ops (photo-
graphing opportunities), wherein reporters are allowed to photograph an event only
during certain times and from certain angles. Political photographs appearing in
newspapers are often press releases officially approved by the politician s staff. (See
the campaign photographs later in this chapter on page 180.) To analyze a photo-
graph or drawing, or to create visual images for your own arguments, you need to
think both about the composition of the image and about the camera s relationship
to the subject. Because drawings produce a perspective on a scene analogous to that
of a camera, design considerations for photographs can be applied to drawings as
well. The following list of questions can guide your analysis of any persuasive image.

* Type of photograph or drawing: Is the image documentary-like (representing a real

event), fictionlike (intended to tell a story or dramatize a scene), or conceptual (il-
lustrating or symbolizing an idea or theme)? The two photos of mosh pits a girl
shown crowd surfing and an unruly, almost menacing mosh pit crowd (Chapter 5,
page 95) are documentary photos capturing real events in action. In contrast, the
drawing of the lizards in the Earthjustice ad in Figure 9.5 is both a fictional narra-
tive telling a story and a conceptual drawing illustrating a theme.
* Distance from the subject: Is the image a close-up, medium shot, or long shot?
Close-ups tend to increase the intensity of the image and suggest the importance
of the subject; long shots tend to blend the subject into the background. In the
baby photograph opposing phthalates in children s toys (Chapter 1, page 4), the
effect of the baby s wearing a poison bib is intensified by the close-up shot with-
out background. In contrast, the photograph of the young woman crossing the
bridge in Haiti (Chapter 6, page 117) is a long-range shot showing her blending
into the poverty-stricken background, suggesting the devastating effect of poverty.
* Orientation of the image and camera angle: Is the camera (or artist) positioned
in front of or behind the subject? Is it positioned below the subject, look-
ing up (a low-angle shot)? Or is it above the subject, looking down (a high-
angle shot)? Front-view shots, such as those of Carlitos and his mother in the
stills from Under the Same Moon (page 1), tend to emphasize the persons
being photographed. In contrast, rear-view shots often emphasize the scene
FIGURE 9.5 Earthjustice advocacy ad
175
176 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

or setting. A low-angle perspective tends to make the subject look superior and
powerful, whereas a high-angle perspective can reduce the size and by impli-
cation, the importance of the subject. A level angle tends to imply equality.
The high-angle shot of the girl in the mosh pit (page 95) emphasizes the supe-
riority of the camera and harmlessness of the mosh pit. In contrast, the low-
angle perspective of the lizards in the Earthjustice advocacy ad in Figure 9.5
emphasizes the power of the lizards and the inferiority of the viewer.
* Point of view: Does the camera or artist stand outside the scene and create an
objective effect as in the Haiti photograph on page 116? Or is the camera or artist
inside the scene as if the photographer or artist is an actor in the scene, creating
a subjective effect as in the drawing of the lizards in Figure 9.4?
* Use of color: Is the image in color or in black and white? Is this choice determined
by the restrictions of the medium, (such as images designed to run in black-
and-white in newspapers) or is it the conscious choice of the photographer or
artist? Are the colors realistic or muted? Have special filters been used (a photo
made to look old through the use of brown tints)? The bright colors in the lizard
and Goldilocks drawing in Figure 9.5 and in the forest scene in the Saturn VUE
ad later in this chapter on page 178 resemble illustrations in books for children.
* Compositional special effects: Is the entire image clear and realistic? Is any portion
of it blurred? Is it blended with other realistic or nonrealistic images (a car ad that
blends a city and a desert; a body lotion ad that merges a woman and a cactus)? Is
the image an imitation of some other famous image such as a classic painting (as in
parodies)? Both the Earthjustice ad in Figure 9.5 and the Saturn VUE ad later in
this chapter on page 178 are conscious imitations of children s picture books.
* Juxtaposition of images: Are several different images juxtaposed, suggesting rela-
tionships between them? Juxtaposition can suggest sequential or causal relation-
ships or can metaphorically transfer the identity of a nearby image or background
to the subject (as when a bath soap is associated with a meadow). This technique
is frequently used in public relations to shape viewers perceptions of political
figures as when Barack Obama was photographed beneath a huge American flag
at a campaign appearance (page 180) to counter Republican Party charges that he
was not American enough.
* Manipulation of images: Are staged images made to appear real, natural,
documentary-like? Are images altered with airbrushing? Are images actually
composites of a number of images (for instance, using images of different
women s bodies to create one perfect model in an ad or film)? Are images
cropped for emphasis? What is left out? Are images downsized or enlarged? For
an example of a staged photo that is intended to look natural, see the Save the
Children advocacy ad on page 173. Note too how the figures in the Save the
Children ad are silhouetted to remove all background.
* Settings, furnishings, props: Is the photo or drawing an outdoor or indoor scene?
What is in the background and foreground? What furnishings and props, such as
furniture, objects in a room, pets, and landscape features, help create the scene?
What social associations of class, race, and gender are attached to these settings
and props? Note, for example, how the designers of America s Army, the army
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 177

video game, used a few simple props to create a gritty urban street fighting scene
(Figure 9.12). The burned-out vehicle hull suggests the aftermath of days of street
fighting, whereas the telephone or power poles in the middle of a narrow, desert-
ed street suggest a poor city in a third-world country.
* Characters, roles, actions: Does the photo or drawing tell a story? Are the people in
the scene models? Are the models instrumental (acting out real-life roles) or are
they decorative (extra and included for visual or sex appeal)? What are the facial
expressions, gestures, and poses of the people? What are the spatial relationships
of the figures? (Who is in the foreground, center, and background? Who is large
and prominent?) What social relationships are implied by these poses and posi-
tions? In the Save the Children advocacy ad shown in Figure 9.4, the pose of the
mother and child each completely absorbed in adoration of the other tells the
story of the bonds of love between mothers and babies.
* Presentation of images: Are images separated from each other in a larger composition
or connected to each other? Are the images large in proportion to verbal text? How are
images labeled? How does the text relate to the image(s)? Does the image illustrate the
text? Does the text explain or comment on the image? For example, the poster advocat-
ing vegetarianism (page 145) effectively juxtaposes words and images. The top is
dominated by a question Think you can be a meat-eating environmentalist? The an-
swer is the image of a world with a big bite taken out of it. The text beneath the image
Think again . . . makes sense only after the viewer has interpreted the image. In con-
trast, the coat hanger hook dominates the advocacy ad on page 000.

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images

To show you how images can be analyzed, let s examine the advertisement for a
Saturn VUE sport-utility vehicle in Figure 9.6. At one level, the persuasive intent of
this ad is to urge viewers to buy a Saturn VUE. But at a more subtle level, this adver-
tisement participates in an international debate about SUVs and the environment.
Whereas Europeans and now many Americans also are buying smaller, more fuel-
efficient cars, some Americans are still buying SUVs that guzzle gas like trucks. Among
their opponents, SUVs whether fairly or unfairly have become a worldwide symbol
of Americans greed for oil and their disdain for the environment.
How do car manufacturers fight back? Clearly, they can t make a logical argument
that owning an SUV is good for the environment (although some car companies are
coming out with hybrid SUVs that claim to be green ). But they can use psychological
strategies that urge consumers to associate SUVs with pro-environment sentiments. So
in this ad Saturn turns to visual argument. Using a carefully designed drawing, the ad-
vertisement shows the Saturn VUE blending into an evergreen forest scene.
Surrounded by a moose, a porcupine, a bear, a squirrel, and other forest birds and
animals, the SUV seems to belong in its forest home. The brilliance of the ad is the
insert legend at the bottom left, where the forest creatures are identified by name. The
ad teaches city dwellers who buy SUVs the names of the forest animals not just bird
but Black-Capped Chickadee, not just rabbit but Snowshoe Hare. (Because the ad
was designed as a two-page magazine spread, we had to reduce its size in Figure 9.5,
 FIGURE 9.6 General Motors consumer ad for the Saturn VUE
178
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 179

making the animal names tiny. They are easily readable in the original.) The ad
becomes a mini-lesson in identifying and naming the creatures of the evergreen
forest creature number one, of course, being the Saturn VUE.
To make the Saturn VUE blend harmoniously with the forest, this ad cleverly
de-emphasizes the size of the vehicle, even though the dominant size of SUVs is part
of their appeal to urban consumers. To compensate for this choice, the typical appeals
of SUVs are rendered symbolically. For example, the VUE s power and agility, hinted
at in the brief copy at the bottom right of the ad, are conveyed metaphorically in the
image of the puma, poised like the Saturn, crouching and oriented in the same di-
rection, like the car s guiding spirit. It enters the scene from the outside, the predator,
silent and powerful the main animal to be identified with the car itself. Other ani-
mals close to the car and facing the same direction as the car each stand for one of
the car s attributes so that the VUE also possesses the speed of the hare, the brute
size and strength of the bear, and the soaring freedom of the goshawk.
The whole ad works by association. The slogan At home in almost any environ-
ment means literally that the car can go from city to country, from desert to
mountains, from snow to tropic heat. But so can any car. The slogan s purpose is to
associate the car with the words home and environment words that connote all the
warm, fuzzy feelings that make you feel good about owning a Saturn VUE. In addi-
tion, the use of drawings and the identification of animals by numbers conjure up the
delightful, instructive innocence of children s books: this car must be a good thing.
And in its own special way, this ad has skillfully shifted consumers attention away
from global warming and environmental degradation.

* * * FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Analyzing Photos Rhetorically

1. The techniques for constructing photos come into play prominently in news
photography. In this exercise, we ask you to examine four photographs
of American presidential campaigns. Working individually or in groups, study
the four photos in Figures 9.7 through 9.10 , and then answer the following
questions:
a. What do you think is the dominant impression of each photo? In other words,
what is each photo s implicit argument?
b. What camera techniques and compositional features do you see in each
photo?
c. What image of the candidates do these photographs attempt to create for
citizens and voters?
2. Three of these photographs (of Reagan, Clinton, and Obama) are mostly success-
ful in promoting the image intended by their campaigns. But one of the photo-
graphs (of Democratic candidate John Kerry in 1994, running against George
W. Bush) is an example of a photograph that backfired. Republicans reversed
the intended impact of the photograph and used it to ridicule Kerry.
a. What is the intended effect of the Kerry photograph, which is from a windsurfing
video showing Kerry zigzagging across the water?
180 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

FIGURE 9.7 Ronald Reagan at his California FIGURE 9.8 Presidential candidate John Kerry
ranch home windsurfing

FIGURE 9.9 Incumbent President Bill Clinton in a FIGURE 9.10 Presidential candidate Barack
campaign ad Obama making a speech

b. How might the Kerry photograph (and the windsurfing video) produce an
unintended effect that opens the candidate to ridicule from the opposing party?
(Suggestion: Enter Kerry windsurfing photo into your Web search engine. For
another example of a campaign photograph that backfired, search for Michael
Dukakis tank photo. )
3. The poster shown in Figure 9.10 is for the documentary film Wal-Mart: The High
Cost of Low Prices, produced in 2005 by filmmaker and political activist Robert
FIGURE 9.11 Poster for Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Prices

181
 FIGURE 9.12 Urban assault scene, America s Army video game

FIGURE 9.13 Village scene, America s Army video game

182
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 183

Greenwald. According to its Web site, the movie features the deeply personal
stories and everyday lives of families and communities struggling to survive in a
Wal-Mart world.
Working individually or in groups, answer the following questions:
a. What compositional features and drawing techniques do you see in this image?
What is striking or memorable about the visual features?
b. How would you state the argument made by this image?
c. This effect of this image derives partly from what cultural analysts call inter-
textuality. By this term, analysts mean the way that a viewer s reading of an
image depends on familiarity with a network of connected images in this
case, familiarity with posters for Godzilla films from the 1950s as well as with
Wal-Mart s conventional use of the smiley face. How does this drawing use
viewers cultural knowledge of Godzilla and of smiley-faces to create an image
of Wal-Mart? Why is this monster wearing a suit? Why does it have five
or more arms? Why is this monster destroying a suburb or housing area
rather than a city of skyscrapers? In short, what does it retain of conventional
Godzilla images, what does it change, and why? Similarly, how is the
monster s smiley face similar to and different from the traditional Wal-Mart
smiley face?
4. The images in Figures 9.12 and 9.13 are screen captures from the very popular
and controversial PC action game America s Army, created by the U.S. Army.
This virtual soldiering game, free to download from the Web site
http://www.americasarmy.com, claims to provide players with the most au-
thentic military experience available.
a. In these screen captures from the game, what is the effect of the camera s distance
from the subject and the camera s point of view on the viewer/player?
b. How do color and composition affect the visual appeal of these images?
c. What impressions do settings, characters, and roles convey?
d. Based on these two scenes from the game, why do you think this game has pro-
voked heated public discussion? How effective do you think this game is as a
recruitment device? ***

The Genres of Visual Argument

We have already mentioned that verbal arguments today are frequently accompanied
by photographs or drawings that contribute to the text s persuasive appeal. For exam-
ple, a verbal argument promoting U.N. action to help AIDS victims in Africa might be
accompanied by a photograph of a dying mother and child. However, some genres of
argument are dominated by visual elements. In these genres, the visual design carries
most of the argumentative weight; verbal text is used primarily for labeling, for focus-
ing the argument s claim, or for commenting on the images. In this section we describe
specifically these highly visual genres of argument.
184 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

Posters and Fliers

To persuade audiences, an arguer might create a poster designed for placement on
walls or kiosks or a flier to be passed out on street corners. Posters dramatically attract
and direct viewers attention toward one subject or issue. They often seek to rally sup-
porters, promote a strong stance on an issue, and call people to action. For example,
during World War II, posters asked Americans to invest in war bonds and urged
women to join the workforce to free men for active combat. During the Vietnam War,
famous posters used slogans such as Make Love, Not War or Girls say yes to boys
who say no to increase national resistance to the war.
The hallmark of an effective poster is the way it focuses and encodes a complex
meaning in a verbal-visual text, often with one or more striking images. These images
are often symbolic for example, using children to symbolize family and home, a soar-
ing bird to symbolize freedom, or three firefighters raising the American flag over the
World Trade Center rubble on September 11, 2001, to symbolize American heroism,
patriotism, and resistance to terrorism. These symbols derive potency from the values
they share with their target audience. Posters tend to use words sparingly, either as slo-
gans or as short, memorable directives. This terse verbal text augments the message
encoded in an eye-catching, dominant image.
As an example of a contemporary poster, consider the poster on page 145, which is a
call to stop eating red meat in order to protect the Earth. This poster uses compositional
special effects, depicting the Earth from outer space against the backdrop of the Milky
Way. The grain, color, and texture of pieces of red meat are superimposed over the conti-
nents of North and South America where viewers expect to see the familiar greens and
browns of Earth s surface. The impact of the poster is intensified by the big bite that has
been taken out of Alaska, western Canada, and the West Coast of the United States. The
substitution of meat for land and the presence of the bitten-out piece of the Earth convey
the message of immediate destruction. Framing this image of the Earth on the top and
bottom are a question and an imperative phrased in casual but confrontational language:
Think you can be a meat-eating environmentalist? Think again. The summary caption
of the poster urges readers to become vegetarians. As you can see, this poster tries to
shock and push readers toward a more radical environmentalism one without meat.
Fliers and brochures often use visual elements similar to those in posters. An im-
age might be the top and center attraction of a flier or the main focus of the front
cover of a brochure. However, unlike posters, fliers and brochures offer additional
space for verbal arguments, which often present the writer s claim supported with bul-
leted lists of reasons. Sometimes pertinent data and statistics, along with testimony
from supporters, are placed in boxes or sidebars.

Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements

Public affairs advocacy advertisements share with posters an emphasis on visual ele-
ments, but they are designed specifically for publication in newspapers and magazines
and, in their persuasive strategies, are directly analogous to product advertisements.
Public affairs advocacy ads are usually sponsored by a corporation or an advocacy
organization and often have a more time-sensitive message than do posters and a
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 185

more immediate and defined target audience. Designed as condensed arguments

aimed at influencing public opinion on civic issues, these ads are characterized by their
brevity, audience-based appeals, and succinct sound bite style. Often, in order to
sketch out their claim and reasons clearly and concisely, they employ headings and
subheadings, bulleted lists, different sizes and styles of type, and a clever, pleasing lay-
out on the page. They usually have some attention-getting slogan or headline like
MORE KIDS ARE GETTING BRAIN CANCER. WHY? or STOP THE TAX RE-
VOLT JUGGERNAUT! And they usually include a call to action, whether it be a do-
nation, a letter of protest to legislators, or an invitation to join the advocacy group.
The balance between verbal and visual elements in an advocacy advertisement
varies. Some advocacy ads are verbal only, with visual concerns focused on document
design (for example, an open letter from the president of a corporation appearing as
a full-page newspaper ad). Other advocacy ads are primarily visual, using images and
other design elements with the same shrewdness as advertisements. We have looked
closely at advocacy ads in this chapter when we examined the Ecstasy ads (Figures 9.2
and 9.3) and the Save the Children ad (Figure 9.4), These use text and images in dif-
ferent ways to present their messages.
As another example of a public affairs advocacy ad, consider the ad in Chapter 15,
page 321, that attempts to counter the influence of the pro-life movement s growing cam-
paign against abortion. As you can see, this ad is dominated by one stark image: a ques-
tion mark formed by the hook of a coat hanger. The shape of the hook draws the reader s
eye to the concentrated type centered below it. The hook carries most of the weight of
the argument. Simple, bold, and harsh, the image of the hanger, tapping readers cultural
knowledge, evokes the dangerous experience of illegal abortions performed crudely by
nonmedical people in the dark back streets of cities. The ad wants viewers to think of the
dangerous last resorts that desperate women would have to turn to if they could not
obtain abortions legally. The hanger itself creates a visual pun: As a question mark, it
conveys the ad s dilemma about what will happen if abortions are made illegal. As a coat
hanger, it provides the ad s frightening answer to the printed question desperate women
will return to back-street abortionists who use coat hangers as tools.

* * * FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Analyzing an Advocacy Ad Rhetorically

Reexamine the Earthjustice public affairs advocacy ad shown in Figure 9.5 on page175.
This ad defends the presence of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park as well as
other wilderness areas in the Rocky Mountains. In our classes, this ad has yielded rich
discussion of its ingenuity and complexity.
Working individually or in groups, conduct your own examination of this ad using
the following questions:
1. What visual features of this ad immediately attract your eyes? What principles for
effective use of type, layout, color, and image does this ad exemplify?
2. What is the core argument of this ad?
3. Why did Earthjustice use the theme of Goldilocks? How do the lizards function in
this ad? Why does the ad not have any pictures of grizzlies or bears of any kind?
4. How would you design an advocacy ad for the preservation of grizzly bears? What
visuals would you use? After discussing the Earthjustice advocacy ad, explore the
186 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

rhetorical appeals of a product advertisement such as the one that appears in Chapter
6 on page 117. The designers of this Toyota ad have made key choices in the use of
the main image, the woman with the face mask. How does this product ad work to
convey its argument? Consider questions about its use of type, layout, and image,
about the core of its argument, and about its appeals to ethos, pathos, and kairos. ***

Cartoons
An especially charged kind of visual argument is the political cartoon. Although you are
perhaps not likely to create your own political cartoons, it is useful to understand how car-
toonists use visual and verbal elements to convey their message. British cartoonist Martin
Rowson calls himself a visual journalist who employs humor to make a journalistic
point. Political cartoons are often mini-narratives, portraying an issue dramatically, com-
pactly, and humorously. They employ images and a few well-chosen words to dramatize
conflicts and problems. Using caricature, exaggeration, and distortion, cartoonists distill an
issue down to an image that boldly reveals the creator s perspective and subsequent claim
on a civic issue. The purpose of political cartoons is usually satirical, or, as cartoonist
Rowson says, about afflicting the comfortable and comforting the afflicted. Because they
are so condensed and often connected to current affairs, political cartoons are particularly
dependent on the audience s background knowledge of cultural and political events. When

FIGURE 9.14 Political cartoon protesting baseball players use of steroids

Source: By permission of Steve Benson and Creators Syndicate, Inc.
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 187

political cartoons work well, through their perceptive combination of image and words,
they flash a brilliant, clarifying light on a perspective or open a new lens on an issue, often
giving readers a shock of insight.
As an illustration, note the Benson cartoon in Figure 9.13, which first appeared
in the Arizona Republic. The kairotic moment for this piece is the national debate
about baseball players using steroids to blast more home runs or add velocity to
their fastballs. Some athletes and sports commentators have accepted the use of
steroids, seeing them as logical outcomes of other performance enhancers such as
Ritalin for concentration or Botox for beauty. Others challenge the use of perform-
ance-enhancing drugs, citing health dangers to users, unfairness to nonusers, and
loss of integrity to sports. In this wordless cartoon, Benson conjures up this contro-
versy; the hefty batter and hypodermic needle substituting for a bat imply that this
tampering with drugs and the great American tradition of baseball is abnormal, dan-
gerous, and scary.

* * * FOR CLASS DISCUSSION Analyzing a Cartoon Rhetorically

1. Cartoons can often sum up a worldview in a single image. The political cartoons
in Chapter 2 on page 28 show different perspectives on the United States
problems with illegal immigration. The cartoon in Chapter 1 on page 9 responds
to the problem of limited resources. What mini-narrative does each convey?
What is the cartoon arguing? How does the cartoon use caricature, exaggeration,
or distortion to convey its perspective?
2. Cartoons can provide insight into how the public is lining up on issues. Choose a
current issue such as the global economy, homeland security, dependence on for-
eign oil, reforming Social Security, U.S. Army recruitment, or stem cell research.
Then, using a cartoon index on the Internet such as Daryl Cagle s Professional
Cartoonists Index (http://www.cagle.com) or a Web search of your own, find sev-
eral cartoons that capture different perspectives on your issue. What is the mini-
narrative, the main claim, and the use of caricature, exaggeration, or distortion in
each? How is kairos, or timeliness, important to each cartoon? ***

Web Pages
So far we have only hinted at the influence of the World Wide Web in accelerating
the use of visual images in argument. The hypertext design of Web pages, along
with its complex mix of text and image, has changed the way many writers think of
argument. The home page of an advocacy site, for example, often has many
features of a poster argument with hypertext links to galleries of images on the one
hand, and to verbal arguments on the other. These verbal arguments themselves
often contain photographs, drawings, and graphics. The strategies discussed in
this chapter for analyzing and interpreting visual texts also apply to Web pages.
Consider, for example, the AAS Goals page for Athletes Against Steroids
(Figure 9.15; http://www.athletesagainststeroids.org/pgs/aboutaas.shtml). This
advocacy site announces its purpose in the black-and-red type in the center of the
188 PART 3 Analyzing Arguments

FIGURE 9.15 About Us page from Athletes Against Steroids Web site

Web page. The bottom half of the page briefly summarizes the problem with
steroids and then outlines the organization s objectives. The links on the left-hand
side of the page announce the range, depth, and relevance of material on steroid
use posted on this site. Under the masthead for the organization, the quotation from
President Bush s 2004 State of the Union address conveys that steroid use is a na-
tional problem needing immediate attention. Each page on this Web site follows the
same basic design with subtle variations. For example, the Steroid Side Effects
 CHAPTER 9 Analyzing Visual Arguments 189

page features a tombstone with a skull and crossbones in place of the organiza-
tional shield; the Are You Hooked on Steroids? page has an ominous close-up of
scattered pills and a steroid needle. As you examine this whole page, how do the
layout and use of color support the ethos of this site and its appeal to pathos? AAS
could have made the page much more dramatic with scary pictures, but they chose
this more understated design. Do you agree with their choice?
Because the Web is such an important tool in research, we have placed our main
discussion of Web sites in Chapter 16, pages 344 367. On these pages you will find
our explanations for reading, analyzing, and evaluating Web sites.

Constructing Your Own Visual Argument

The most common visual arguments you are likely to create are posters and fliers,
public affairs advocacy ads, and possibly Web pages. You may also decide that in
longer verbal arguments, the use of visuals or graphics could clarify your points while
adding visual variety to your paper. The following guidelines will help you apply your
understanding of visual elements to the construction of your own visual arguments.

Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments

1. Genre: Determine where this visual argument is going to appear (bulletin board,
passed out as a flier, imagined as a one-page magazine or newspaper spread, or as
a Web page).
2. Audience-based appeals: Determine who your target audience is.
* What values and background knowledge of your issue can you assume
that your audience has?
* What specifically do you want your audience to think or do after reading
your visual argument?
n If you are promoting a specific course of action (sign a petition, send money,
vote for or against a bill, attend a meeting), how can you make that request
clear and direct?
3. Core of your argument: Determine what clear claim and reasons will form the core
of your argument; decide whether this claim and these reasons will be explicitly
stated or implicit in your visuals and slogans.
* How much verbal text will you use?
* If the core of your argument will be largely implicit, how can you still make
it readily apparent and clear for your audience?
4. Visual design: What visual design and layout will grab your audience s attention
and be persuasive?
* How can font sizes and styles, layout, and color be used in this argument to
create a strong impression?
* What balance and harmony can you create between the visual and ver-
bal elements of your argument? Will your verbal elements be a slogan,
express the core of the argument, or summarize and comment on the
image(s)?