Infants and Toddlers Curriculum and Teaching 8th Edition Terri Swim Solutions Manual Download

30
Infants and Toddlers Curriculum and Teaching

8th Edition Swim 113360787X 9781133607878
Download full solution manual at:
https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-manual-for-infants-and-toddlers-curriculum-
and-teaching-8th-edition-swim-113360787x-9781133607878/
Download full test bank at:

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teaching-8th-edition-swim-113360787x-9781133607878/
PART 2
ESTABLISHING A POSITIVE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
The four chapters in this section integrate the skills, principles, and theories learned in Part I into practical
applications for care. These strategies include communicating with children, families, and colleagues;
guiding the behavior of young children; preparing positive indoor and outdoor environments; and designing
and implementing curricula for infants and toddlers.
Part II provides the professional early childhood educator with the tools necessary to assess individual
children using Developmental Profiles, establish goals for growth using Developmental Prescriptions, as
well as design and structure specific experiences and activities for each child and the group as a whole. In
addition, you will learn positive communication strategies to use when creating partnerships with family
members. Only through collaboration with families can you promote the optimal growth and development of
very young children.
Infants and toddlers help to develop their own curriculum by engaging energetically in activities that
contribute to their growth. Through sensitivity to each child’s unique characteristics, family strengths, cultural
traditions, and community resources, a positive learning environment for individual children can be established
and maintained.
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

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Building Relationships with and

Guiding the Behaviors of
Infants and Toddlers
NAEYC Standards
The following NAEYC standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation are addressed in this chapter:
Standard 1: Promoting Child Development and Learning
Standard 4: Using Developmentally Effective Approaches
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
■ Describe reasons for creating a caring community of learners.
■ Reflect on your own image of the child.
■ Apply strategies for communicating with very young children about emotions.
■ Understand methods for helping children gain self-regulation skills.
Chapter Overview
In order to thrive in all areas of development, children require strong, positive relationships with adults. The
ways in which you interact with very young children need to be a focus of attention. A variety of strategies
must be selected to help children acquire skills for interacting with others. This chapter examines important
topics regarding building relationships with infants and toddlers, including: the Reggio Emilia philosophy
and how it was created, methods of effectively communicating with infants and toddlers about emotions, and
strategies for respectfully guiding children’s behavior toward greater self-regulation.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
II. Reggio Emilia Approach to Infant-Toddler Education
• History
• Philosophy
• Image of the Child
• Inserimento
III. A Developmental View of Discipline
• Mental Models
IV. Strategies for Respectfully Guiding Children’s Behavior
• Labeling Expressed Emotions
• Teaching Emotional Regulation
• Setting Limits
• Establishing Consequences
• Providing Choices
• Redirecting Actions
• Solving Problems
V. Case Study: Enrique
ANTICIPATED STUDENT QUESTIONS

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What is the difference between feelings and emotional reactions?

Feelings are the emotions that a person feels, such as happiness, anger, sadness, and fear. Emotional
reactions are the ways that you react when you experience an emotion, such as lashing out or withdrawing.
Everyone has feelings from the time they are born, but emotional reactions are learned.
Isn’t discipline the same thing as punishment?

Punishment is the practice of controlling a child’s behavior through retaliation. Generally there is no natural
or logical link between the behavior and the punishment, so the child does not understand the reason why the
behavior was unacceptable. Discipline involves teaching appropriate behaviors and setting limits on
inappropriate behaviors. Consequences for inappropriate behaviors should be natural and/or logical.
Why isn't spanking covered in the discipline section?

It is not acceptable behavior for a caregiver to strike a child. Recall from Chapter 5 that the Code of Ethical
Conduct states that “Above all, we shall not harm children” (NAEYC, 2005, p. 3). Spanking a child causes
both physical and emotional harm.
Why is it important to label feelings with infants who are not yet able to speak?
By labeling emotions you help the infant to become familiar with emotional terminology. As the child gets
older, he or she will be able to start connecting those words to the way that they and others feel.
QUESTIONS TO GENERATE DISCUSSION

1. What are the steps necessary to create a caring community of learners?
2. How can you help children express and identify their emotions?
3. What is your philosophy and strategies for discipline in the classroom?
4. How might you provide “reasonable challenges” to assist in the development of self-regulation
skills? Why does the definition of a “reasonable challenge” need to vary for each child?
5. Which guidance strategy do you feel most comfortable using with infants and toddlers? Why?
Which strategy are you most uncomfortable using? Why? You will probably find the need to
use that strategy with some children, so how will you learn to use it given your feelings towards
it?
EXPERIENCES TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION

1. Write an agenda for a parent-caregiver conference initiated by the caregiver to discuss the child’s
toilet training.
2. Describe two situations in which caregivers interact with each other. Identify the interpersonal
skills needed.
3. Have students conduct an internet search to find and read magazine articles targeted toward
improving the guidance skills of either parents or teachers. Have them pair-share what they
learned from the articles, discussing how the information either supported or contradicted
information in the text. Since many of the articles will not be specific to the infant-toddler age,
ask them to discuss how they need to modify the information to apply it to very young children in
a developmentally appropriate manner.
Have students journal about an experience in which they experienced a strong emotion. Ask them
to provide as many details as possible about the incident (who, what, when, where) as well as
how others responded to their emotions. What else would they have wanted (or preferred)
someone to do?

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5. Have students journal their responses to selected items from “Questions and Experiences for
Reflection” at the end of the chapter.
VIDEO ANAYSIS
Reggio Emilia programs. This video highlights important aspects of the teachers’ approach to early
education in the municipal infant, toddler, and preschools of Reggio Emilia, Italy. As you watch the video,
“The Reggio Emilia Approach,” on the Education CourseMate website, compare information in the video
with that in the text. Then, answer the following questions:
1. In what ways was the importance of relationships highlighted in this video?
2. How does video add new information to that provided in the text?
3. What questions would you have for an infant-toddler educator in Reggio Emilia? Why?
Guidance of Very Young Children. Teachers have a number of guidance strategies at their disposal.
Selecting which one to use in a given situation can be challenging, especially if you want to teach social and
emotional skills and not merely control a child’s behavior. As you watch the video, “Guidance for Young
Children: Teacher Techniques for Encouraging Positive Social Behaviors,” on the Education CourseMate
website, answer the following questions:
1. How did the video’s discussion of rules for safety and having clear expectations compare and
contrast with the information in this text?
2. In what situations would you use problem solving with infants and toddlers? Why? How would
you carry out that strategy?
3. What strategies were discussed in the video but not in this text? How might those strategies not fit
with the developmental view of guidance provided in this chapter?
EXPERIENCES FOR THE FIELD
1. Observe an adult interacting with a mobile infant or toddler. Collect four anecdotal records on the
communication strategies used by the adult and how the child responded to them.
2. Interact with a child that you know well. Try out one new guidance strategy and explain how you felt
doing it, how the child responded, and how others around you responded. How might your past interactions
with this child have influenced the effectiveness of this strategy? How, then, should teachers think about
success when trying a new strategy?
CASE STUDY—SAMPLE RESPONSES

Case Study: Enrique
“Should I call her mother again?” Enrique, a toddler teacher, asks his co-teacher as Regina struggles
to free herself from his gentle hold. Regina has just bit the same peer for the second time today.
“Yes, I think you should. We could use some information.” While Regina is 27 months old, this is
her first time attending child care.
Enrique calls to share how happy he is to have to Regina in his classroom. He asks Ms. Gonzalez
what strategies they use when she is upset. She provides him several things to try.
Ms. Gonzalez arrives about 30 minutes earlier than normal for pickup looking frazzled and upset.
Enrique greets her and tells her that her suggestion to sing quietly worked wonders. He also asks if she
came early because of the phone call. They discuss how the call was not intended to upset her but rather

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was to gather more information to help Regina.

They move closer to Regina who is working by herself at a table lining up clowns. Enrique and Ms.
Gonzalez take a few moments to watch her work. Regina methodically lines the clowns around the
perimeter of a piece of construction paper. She seems not to notice the other activities around her. The
other children have divided themselves into two groups, working with blocks and pouring water through
waterwheels.
Enrique asks Ms. Gonzalez what she is noticing. She replies by asking, “Does she usually play
alone?”
“No. She typically works in the same area as other children. This is expected because as children get
older, they usually begin to play in small groups. Regina’s interactions with the other children sometimes
result in her biting them, like today. I am wondering if you can tell me how she interacts with you and
your husband at home.”
“We usually interact with her. If we ask her a question, she will nod yes or no. She is very quiet and
does not seem to have many wants. But, if she does want something, she will point at the object.”
“I’m wondering if she is biting because she does not have the language to tell her classmates what
she wants. I’m also wondering what I can do to best help her. Can we both take some time to think about
Regina and meet early next week to talk further?
“That would be nice. Is it okay if my husband comes also?” inquires Ms. Gonzalez.
“Of course. Let me know what times work best for your schedules. And, thank you so much for
taking the extra time to speak with me today. The more we work together, the better we can support
Regina’s needs.”
How did Enrique’s approach serve to value the relationships among Mr. and Ms. Gonzalez, Regina,
and himself?
Answers will vary.
Describe what you believe is Enrique’s image of the child. What information from the case did you use
when drawing this conclusion?
Enrique has a positive view of Regina even in the face of her challenging behaviors. He engaged with Ms.
Gonzalez in order to obtain more information about Regina’s language and communication skills at home.
He genuinely wants to work with Regina’s family to help her with the biting issue.
What strategies would you suggest Enrique use to support Regina’s acquisition of socially accepted
behaviors? Why?
Answers will vary. However, setting clear limits and consequences for biting will serve to protect Regina
and the other children. In addition, Regina needs to be provided language when she interacts with the other
children. Enrique can, for example, explain what Regina is doing and what she might want by saying,
“Regina is playing with the pouring water. She is watching the wheel spin. She wants to pour. You can pour
when she is finished.”
MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING: CASE STUDY

Helping Jared separate*
Jared was screaming and kicking me as I held him, trying to be gentle. When his mother waved goodbye,
tears came to her eyes. She had already been at the center for 10 minutes trying to get Jared to calm down.
Finally I gently peeled Jared off of her legs so she could go to work. She turned away quickly, and we
watched her walk down the path.
After a few more minutes of struggling, Jared gradually started to relax. He was still crying hard, so I held
him and took him over to the library corner.
We sat down in the beanbag chair, I gave his nose a quick wipe, and I opened a book that I know Jared
loves. By the end of the book, his cries were down to a whimper. One more nose wipe, and I asked Jared if
he wanted to read another book. He nodded yes and picked one out. By the end of this book, the tears had
stopped.
I got up and put Jared on his feet. I needed to check on a few of the other children. As much as I wanted, I
couldn’t cuddle with Jared all morning. There are 10 toddlers in our room with my assistant teacher, Carly,
and me.

35
Jared joined us two months ago. During the first few weeks, his mom couldn’t leave him at all. Sometimes I
think she was more upset about the separation than Jared was. But her work obligations demanded that she
leave, so for the last couple of weeks we have gone through this screaming and crying each morning.
Last week, however, began an additional problem to be dealt with after his mother left. He won’t take off his
coat. For some reason wearing his coat helps him to separate from his mother more easily. Here are a few of
our interactions:
“Okay, Jared, let’s put your coat here in your cubby,” I said.
“No!” he replied and tears started to well up in his eyes.
“Jared, you can’t wear your coat all day—it isn’t good for you. You’ll be too hot in here.”
I’d repeated this same line every day for a week. At first, we forced Jared to take his coat off, but he cried
and whimpered the whole day. The last few days we’ve let him keep it on, but it just doesn’t seem right to
me. Won’t he be cold when we go outside later? Will this make him sick?
“Come on, Jared, please hang up your coat. You can put it on again when you go outside in a little while.”
“No!” Jared wasn’t giving in. I decided it wasn’t worth the fight.
Seeing Jared, some of the other children wanted to wear their coats inside. I told them no. I guess they will
just have to understand that Jared needs his coat right now. In the meantime, I’m exhausted, and I’d only
been at work for an hour. This daily ritual of helping Jared to separate from his mom was wearing me out. At
first I thought I could handle it for a few days or so, but now it’s been a few weeks and I can’t tell if it is any
better.
Jared, his mother, and I are all emotionally drained. There must be a better way. What can we do?
Answer the following reflection/application questions:

Explain whether or not you think that Kim is being respectful of Jared and why.
Why are separation difficulties typical for infants and toddlers?
What would you suggest that Kim tries next? In other words, how should she use her knowledge of Jared’s
separation anxiety to inform her curriculum and interactions with him?
Assume for a moment that Jared begins to behave aggressively when he is emotionally distressed. What
would you do to guide him in gaining self-regulation (emotional and behavioral) skills?
*This case was modified based on one in: Rand, M. K. (2000). Giving it some thought: Cases for early
childhood practice. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

36
Supportive Communication with

Families and Colleagues
NAEYC Standards
Standard 2: Building Family and Community Relationships
Standard 6: Becoming a Professional
Learning Objectives
■ Develop procedures for informal and formal communication with families.
■ Analyze the working relationships and responsibilities of the staff with whom the caregiver is
working.
■ Analyze your own skills when communicating with family members and colleagues.
■ Understand the active listening process.
Chapter Overview
Communication is an essential component of successful caregiving. The caregiver needs to communicate not
only with the child, but also with the parents and fellow caregivers to ensure that the child’s needs are being
met consistently and at the appropriate level. To ensure effective communication, caregivers need to utilize
active listening skills, to learn how to express needs and frustrations, and to provide feedback as appropriate.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
II. Skills for Effective Communication
• Rapport Building
• I Statements versus You Statements
• Active Listening: The “How” in Communication
III. Communicating with Families
• Teacher Beliefs
• Using Active Listening with Families
• Partnering with Families
• Family Education
• Supporting Partnerships between Families
• Family-Caregiver Conferences
• Home Visits
IV. Family Situations Requiring Additional Support
• Grandparents as Parents
• At-Risk Families and Children
• Teenage Parents
V. Communicating with Colleagues
• Listening to Colleagues
• Collaborating with Colleagues
• Supporting Colleagues
• Making Decisions
VI. Case Study: Angelica

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Why is there such a focus on parent-caregiver communication? Wouldn’t that just happen naturally
anyway?
Possibly, but not necessarily. Consider the situation from the parent’s point of view. The typical interaction
takes place while the parent is either hurrying to work or trying to get home after a hard day. The primary
concerns of the parent are getting to where he or she is headed, making sure the child is safe before leaving,
or looking forward to being reunited with the child. The issue is not whether the parent is interested in the
caregiver’s perspective, but rather that it may not be in the forefront of the parent’s mind at that moment. It
is most likely that if the parent cares enough to ensure the child is getting quality care during the day, then he
or she wants to be involved (or, at the very least, aware of what’s happening with the child when he or she is
not there).
Why is it the job of the caregiver to provide support for a parent (either teen or adult)?
The caregiver is there to ensure that the child is being cared for and that the elements of his or her
development are being consistently encouraged. Typically, the caregiver is only directly involved in the
child’s life during the day while the parent is working. If the parent is not providing the same level of
support and care that the caregiver is, then the child is negatively affected. As the caregiver, he or she will
naturally not want anything to negatively impact the child’s development and will want to work with the
parent to ensure that he or she is aware of the child’s needs and is fully able to provide what is needed.

1. Engage students in a “Reflective Write” concerning their greatest fear or concern when it comes
to working with families. What will you do to overcome that fear and build positive relationships
with them?
2. What do you think are family members’ greatest fears when having their infants and toddlers
cared for by non-relatives? What can you do to help them overcome that fear and build positive
relationships with you?
3. Discuss what challenges the students anticipate encountering when communicating with the
families of young children and what they will do to confront these challenges.
4. Identify situations in which you would need to provide extra support for a child due to family
circumstances.

1. Debate the premise: Resolved: A family child care home is better for infants than center-based
care.
2. Jigsaw Activity: Use articles from the January 2006 issue of Young Children that are focused on
“Supporting and Involving Families in Meaningful Ways.”
• Divide the class into equally numbered groups, such as five groups of five students or four of
four.
• Each group gets an article to analyze and to become experts on the content.
• Require the students to read the articles before coming to class to minimize downtime due to
different speeds of reading.
• Have the students convene in their groups and decide on the most important parts of the article.
• Regroup the students into mixed groups to share the most important parts of the articles.

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3. Reading: Have the students select at least one article that is cited in the Spotlight on Research
box. Have each student outline the three most important points in her/his article. Have a
discussion about prolonged separations and generate a list of important points as a whole group.
4. Develop a list of typical concerns that teachers and family members might have and would lead
to a family-caregiver conference, for example, biting, withdrawing from group experiences, potty
training, warning flags regarding special rights. Assign the concern to either a family member or
an infant-toddler teacher. Pair up students and ask them to conduct a mock family-caregiver
conference, initiated by the person with the concern. After the mock conferences are completed,
debrief by exploring each person’s experience in and comfort-level with the conference.
Generate a list of “take-aways” that they should remember when conducting future conferences.
5. Have students journal their reactions while reading the chapter or their responses to selected
items from “Questions and Experiences for Reflection” at the end of the chapter.
VIDEO ANALYSIS
Using Technology to Communicate. As technology continues to expand, teachers have new ways for
communicating with family members. As you watch the video, “TEACHER PERSPECTIVES –
Communicating with Parents Using Technology,” on the Education CourseMate website, answer the
following questions:
1. Why is it important to communicate with families on a regular basis?
2. Which strategies from the video do you think will be useful to you as an infant-toddler teacher?
3. What other strategies for communicating with families do you want to use?
Relationships with families. Teachers and family members should form ongoing partnerships as a way to
best meet the developmental and learning needs of young children. The preschool teacher in this video
describes some of the ways in which she builds those relationships and has open communication with family
members. As you watch the video, “Communicating with Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood
Setting,” on the Education CourseMate website, answer the following questions:
1. Is communication with family members more or less important during the infant-toddler years
as compared to the preschool years? Justify your answer.
2. How did Mona's conferences relate to the format described in this text?
3. What other strategies for involving families in the life of the school can you generate? Why is
it important to have a variety of options to offer families?

1. Actively listen to a dialogue between a family member and the caregiver when a child
arrives in the morning. Record what you hear and then categorize them in the
following chart.
Family Member Caregiver

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Information
Questions
Affirmation
Other
2. Interview a teacher in an Early Head Start or a Head Start program about a home visit she has
completed. Determine this teacher’s purposes and procedures for the visit.

Angelica, just over two years of age, is relatively new to Sasha’s class of mixed-age infants and toddlers.
She joined the class for part-time care (three days a week) about three months ago after she was formally
adopted by her aunt (her biological mother’s sister) and uncle. Angelica is now the youngest of three
children. She is obviously adored by her parents and siblings. Sasha is concerned because she is having
difficulty forming a close attachment with Angelica in the child care setting.
Angelica has missed more than two-thirds of the days that she was scheduled to be at child care due to her
illness, sickle cell anemia or SCA. This is an inherited disorder that profoundly affects the structure and
functioning of red blood cells for African Americans (Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 2006). Angelica’s disorder
was identified at birth, yet is progressing at a rapid rate; she seems to be experiencing frequent and serious
complications. Angelica misses school when she has to get partial-exchange blood transfusions. These
treatments tend to cause her to throw up. In the last three months, she has needed eight such transfusions.
After the last treatment, she had to be admitted to the hospital overnight because of dehydration. Angelica
had experienced only three partial-exchange transfusions before being adopted.
When Angelica enrolled in her class, Sasha began to find out more about SCA and how she could best meet
the toddler’s needs. Her first source of information was Angelica’s parents, of course, but they are just
learning about this disorder as well. Next, she searched the World Wide Web, but found conflicting
information and not much about partial-exchange blood transfusions and their side effects. She did discover
that minimizing stress, fatigue, and exposure to cold temperatures can assist those with a history of SCA
crises. So, while she has gained some information, Sasha is still nervous about working with Angelica.
1. Given Angelica’s family history, should Sasha be concerned about forming a close attachment
with her? Why or why not?
Being adopted means that Angelica has been separated from her biological mother and father. By definition,
this means that she, even at her young age, has experienced a disruption in her attachments. Sasha should
place particular attention on being attuned and communicating clearly and appropriately with Angelica.
Angelica needs to understand that she is a valued member of the classroom as well as that her needs –
biological and emotional – will be met. In a new family and in ever-changing medical environments,
Angelica needs to form as many positive attachments with caring adults as possible. This may also reduce
Angelica’s stress and improve her overall health.
2. Plan a family-caregiver conference using the information provided previously.

Answers will vary, but should follow the suggested outline in Chapter 7.
3. What strategies would you suggest that Sasha use to help develop a strong attachment when
Angelica is able to come to school?

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Engage Angelica in “getting to know you activities” that express interest in who she is and what she likes to
do. Spend time with Angelica one-on-one; interact with her during free choice times. Listen to Angelica’s
comments and interactions with peers. Respond to her needs appropriately and continue to maintain a
repertoire with her new parents.
MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING: CASE STUDY

Building reciprocal relationships through responsiveness
Margarita is a teacher in a family-grouping of eight infants and toddlers. She has been with the children
basically all of their lives. She is the primary caregiver of four children, including Frances. Frances is the 29-
month-old, only child of a young, single mother. His mother works very hard, holding down two part-time
jobs in order to support them. Frances’s mother, Amanda, completed high school and one year at the local
technical college before becoming pregnant. She has a relatively strong support network comprised of her
mother, brother, and sister. These people are often available to provide emotional support and parenting
advice. The latter is the current source of negotiation for Margarita, Frances, and Amanda.
Frances has a powerful attachment to a bean bag doll. He takes it where ever he goes in the classroom. While
this was acceptable and even supported by Margarita and Amanda, this has recently changed. On Monday of
this week, Amanda carried in Frances who was sobbing uncontrollably and repeating over and over, “dolly,
dolly.” Margarita immediately went to greet them and to ask what had happened to his dolly. As Frances
continued to cry, Amanda reported with anger in her voice that “dolly went away because I can’t have a son
who is a sissy.” The following conversation ensued:
MARGARITA: Tell me more.

AMANDA: After a long conversation with my mom and brother, I decided to
take away the doll and he has not had it since Saturday night.
MARGARITA: I wonder how Frances is feeling about this decision.
I don’t know. He has just been crying. See, I knew my brother
AMANDA:
was right
when he said he was becoming a sissy. I don’t know how he is
feeling. He
is only two.
MARGARITA: What should we do to help Frances calm down?
AMANDA: I don’t know. I just keep telling him to “buck up” and quit crying.
MARGARITA: Does that seem to help him calm down?
No, he just hits me when I tell him to quit crying. He is so mean
AMANDA:
and rot
ten these days. Oh, now, I’m going to be late to work because of
him. See
you later. (She leaves without telling Frances goodbye.)
Use the following questions to respond to this case:
1. Why is responsiveness necessary in building reciprocal relationships with families?
2. What would you suggest that Margarita say or do next to help Amanda be mindful and respectful of
Frances’ point of view? Why?
3. How might your suggestions help both Amanda and Frances with the loss of the doll?
Have students respond to the following scenario explaining what questions they would like to ask Jamie as a
way to engage her in conversation: You are a teacher in a multiage infant-toddler classroom (birth-three). You and
your co-teacher have eight children in the room. You have been with the children anywhere from three months to
almost three years. Jamie’s mother is concerned that the needs of her child are not being met. You hypothesize that the
issue is: “How can they (the teachers) keep my four-month-old child safe when there are toddlers moving all around
her?”
Have students respond to the following scenario with how they would approach Nicole about what was
overheard: You work as a co-teacher in an infant room with Nicole. Both of you have Associate Degrees in Early

41
Childhood Education, but from different institutions. On Tuesday, you overheard her tell a parent that she “understood
why they might want to switch to her as the primary caregiver . . . that you two have very different styles of meeting
the needs of the children.” You feel that the message was clear that she is better than you.

42
The Indoor and Outdoor Environment

NAEYC Standards
Standard 1: Promoting Child Development and Learning
Learning Objectives
■ Identify components of high-quality and developmentally appropriate indoor and outdoor
learning environments from the teacher’s perspective.
■ Identify components of high-quality and developmentally appropriate indoor and outdoor
learning environments from the child’s perspective.
■ Identify components of high-quality indoor and outdoor learning environments from society’s
perspective.
■ Understand criteria for selecting materials.
■ Evaluate policies and procedures for protecting the health and safety of very young children.
Chapter Overview
The arrangement of the child care space and the play yard affects child development, curriculum, and
management. Equipment and materials must meet criteria for appropriateness when used in the child care
setting, and caregivers must be aware of current safety standards and regulations. Equipment should also be
safely modified as needed to ensure age appropriateness.
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction to Principles of Environmental Designs
II. The Teacher’s Perspective
• Learning Centers
• Use of Space
• Calm, Safe Learning Environment
• Basic Needs
III. The Child’s Perspective
• Transparency
• Flexibility
• Relationships
• Identity
• Movement
• Documentation
• Senses
• Representation
• Independence
• Discovery
IV. Society’s Perspective
• Environmental Changes for the Classroom
• Curricular Changes
• Partnerships and Advocacy
V. Ongoing Reflection on the Physical Environment

43
VI. Selecting Equipment and Materials

• Age-Appropriate Materials
• Homemade Materials
VII. Protecting the Children’s Health and Safety
• Emergency Procedures
• Immunization Schedule
• Signs and Symptoms of Possible Severe Illness
• First Aid
• Universal Precautions
• Playground Safety
VIII. Case Study: Ena

Why are we discussing the layout of child care space? Wouldn’t that have already been done in the
center I work for?
The child care design is never complete. Changes will be made regularly for a variety of reasons, including
facilitating child management, stimulating curiosity, introducing new areas, adjusting for older or younger
children, and so on. Whether you run your own center or work for someone else, at some point you will be
involved in designing the care space.
Why is HIV discussed? Isn’t that a sexually transmitted disease?
HIV is transmitted through sexual intercourse because infection is almost always caused by the exchange of
bodily fluids. However, most young children contract it during childbirth. Young children are not fully in
control of their bodies yet and get many scrapes and cuts. The caregiver must be mindful of potential
infection when handling blood, vomit, nasal discharge, and any other bodily fluids to which they might be
exposed.
How does the physical setting affect a child’s development?
The four types of development are physical, cognitive/language, emotional, and social. All four areas of
development are impacted by the design of the physical environment. For example, regarding physical
development, the child must be able to move about freely and exercise in order to build muscle strength,
control, and dexterity. A child’s emotional growth is affected if he or she is unable to complete a task
because of an inability to conquer a physical barrier beyond his or her stage of development; inferiority,
depression, and sadness are the likely results. One way the physical setting affects social growth is that
children must be in contact with others their own age. If they are isolated, their social growth will be
stymied. Cognitive growth is somewhat the opposite. If the physical setting doesn’t provide any challenges
or obstacles, the child will not be using his or her problem-solving skills, leading to potential problems in the
future.

1. What criteria would you use to design and evaluate the effectiveness of a learning environment?
Why?
2. The text argues that teachers should “create spaces that parallel those found in home
environments” (p. 187). Why is that particularly important for infant and toddler providers? How
can caregivers determine whether a piece of equipment or material is useful in the program?
3. To begin a discussion on safety, have students engage in a “Reflective Write” using the following
prompt: What are the safety factors caregivers must consider in selecting toys and equipment for
infants and toddlers? Have them discuss their answers in small groups. Join together as a whole

44
group and ask, “Once safety factors are appropriately dealt with, how do they move beyond
safety concerns to maximize children’s learning opportunities with the toys and equipment?”
4. How does a teacher make the outdoor learning environment is “an integral part of the program”? In
other words, how does she insure that learning and development are supported both indoors and
outdoors?

1. Observe a child care center.
• Draw a diagram of the space.
• Observe the children in the space for 30 minutes. Keep records.
• Consider and communicate how choices made in room arrangement affect development,
curriculum, and management.
• What changes could be made to the environment to reflect ideas in the section, “Society’s
Perspective”?
2. Observe an outdoor play area.

• Draw a diagram of the space.
• Observe the children in the space for 30 minutes. Keep records.
• Consider and communicate how choices made in playground arrangement affect development,
curriculum, and management.
3. Reading: Provide Swim, T. J., & Freeman, R. (2004). Viewpoint. A time to reflect: The use of
food in early childhood classrooms, Young Children, 59(6), 18–24.
• Assign the students one of three viewpoints: never use food as a learning material, it is
sometimes acceptable to use food as a learning material, and there are no problems with using
food as learning materials. Instruct the students to read the article at home and prepare to
debate their assigned viewpoint during the next class meeting.
4. Reading: Have students gather two photos of spaces that inspire them either personally or
professionally. Have them read Friedman, S. (2005, May) Environments that inspire on the
NAEYC website. Then respond to the following questions:
• Were these environments inspiring for you? Why or why not? What characteristics did the
environments in the article and your photos share in common? What was different?
• While examples were provided for toddlers, none were given for infants. How would you apply
the principles discussed in the article for infant classrooms?
VIDEO ANALYSIS
Creating Learning Environments. Teachers are expected to create learning environments that actively
engage children and promote optimal development. As you watch the video, “Infants and Toddlers:
Creating an Optimal Learning Environment” on the Education CourseMate website, answer the following
questions:
1. What perspective (adult or child) informed the creation of the infant environ-ment? Explain
how you know this.
2. What other changes would you suggest for improving the infant environment?
3. What perspective informed the creation of the toddler environment? Explain the evidence
you used to draw your conclusion.

45
4. What other changes would you suggest for improving the toddler environment?

1. Use the Guide for Analyzing Equipment and Materials, Table 8–6, to analyze five pieces of
equipment and five materials used indoors, along with five pieces of equipment and five materials used
outdoors in a child care setting.
2. Observe two children playing with materials. Write down the actions of each child as he or she interacts
with the objects. Are the objects age and individually appropriate? Why?
3. Observe in a toddler room with a specific focus on seeing rough and tumble play. When the toddlers
begin to get physical with each other, how do the adults respond? What message is being sent about the
appropriateness of such behaviors?
4. Obtain permission to “read the walls” in two different programs for infants and toddlers. Record
what you see. What messages do you think that walls are sending about the children who inhabit that space?
What might it say about the adult’s educational values? In your analysis connect back to concepts such as
the image of child, identity development for young children, and documentation of learning.
Case Study: Ena

Ena Robson, who was seven-and-a-half months old, had an unusual first day in the group family child
care center. One of the helpers got sick in the middle of the day, and another provider was called on to take
her place. The first provider had been ready to begin an assessment of Ena, but her replacement was not
told of this, so she did not conduct one.
Ena was small, frail, and odd-looking. Her skull was box-shaped, her eyes were set far apart, and her
mouth seemed to be in an unusual position when you looked straight at her. She had only a wisp of hair,
she was mostly inactive, and her eyes appeared to be slow in reacting to visual changes. On her first day
Ena was dressed in a tattered but clean outfit with strawberry patches and a hat.
Since the regular provider was sick again the next day, the director took care of Ena and noted her
appearance after checking her medical records. She performed a developmental assessment with the
following results.
Physical, cognitive, and language skills were at the four-month level. Her social and emotional skills
were at the six-month level. Since there was a significant delay in three areas (two months with a seven-
and-a-half-month-old), the director decided that a conference was needed soon so that appropriate referrals
for further evaluation could be made.
A conference was arranged with Ena’s mother to obtain permission in writing for the referrals. Mrs.
Robson arrived with Ena’s grandmother, who was a trained nurse’s aide, early in the morning for the
conference. The director had reviewed the medical and family records in advance and found no unusual
medical or family history. Della, Ena’s mother, was tall but appeared to have been sick because she needed
help walking, had deep circles under her eyes, and had a rather gray color to her skin. Della explained that
Ena had experienced many fevers off and on but that she was well at present. The director began asking
questions from an interview form, and after a short time Della became visibly stressed. Her voice changed,
her arms and hands waved when she spoke, and she refused to answer questions about the pregnancy and
Ena’s birth. When the director rephrased the question to ask if Ena was a full-term baby, Mrs. Robson
became agitated and Ena’s grandmother answered in a calm voice that it would probably be best if they
stopped the conference but that she would like to set up an evening appointment. A home visit was
scheduled for that evening in Ena’s home, and her grandmother said she would speak to Della in the
meantime.

46
The apartment where Della and Ena lived was small and sparsely furnished. The grandmother and a
registered nurse were administering an intravenous injection to Mrs. Robson when the director arrived.
When Mrs. Robson saw the director, she began to cry, and Ena’s grandmother sadly explained that both
Della and Ena had AIDS. The director maintained a professional demeanor and actively listened to the
grandmother as she discussed her sadness, anger, and disappointment. It was obvious that both Della and
her mother were very fearful that the director would not allow Ena to stay in the child care setting. The
director learned that Della’s disease was progressing rapidly in spite of medications, and that Ena would
start on medication the next day. Both Della and her mother asked the director to please keep Ena.
The director assured them that they would keep Ena in the child care center as long as she was not
running a fever or showing other disease complications. She assured the family that all of her staff used
universal precaution techniques, and they were all aware that blood was the only transmitter of the disease.
She reassured the family that her staff would hold, feed, and play with Ena in both the indoor and outdoor
environments. They discussed the importance of administering the medication on a regular basis at the
same time of day. As long as Ena was without disease symptoms, the director assured them that Ena was
welcome to attend the center. Both Della and her mother were relieved to hear that the staff would keep the
illness confidential, since that was permitted by law.
The result of the home visit was that no further referrals were made at that time. The director and
teacher decided that Ena might need more time to adjust to her new routine before another assessment
could be made. In the meantime, Ena was cared for in both indoor and outdoor environments at the child
care center, just like the other children. The staff provided her with more rest and activities to enhance her
physical, cognitive, and language skill areas, and Ena showed improvement in her growth and
development.
Discuss your feelings about working with a child like Ena, who has AIDS. How do you feel you would
handle such a responsibility?
Answers will vary.
What tools did the director use to deal with this situation? List them.
She used active listening and rapport building. In addition, she engaged in conversations as a way to gather
information from the family members and to provide reassuring information about her and the staff ’s role in
caring for Ena.
What information should the caregivers use when selecting equipment or materials for Ena?
They should focus on her current levels of development and build engaging learning experiences from there.
In addition, they should scaffold social and emotional development by providing, for example, a secure
relationship between Ena and her primary caregiver.
What other steps or help might the director have provided to this family?
Answers will vary, but assist students with considering community resources that could be beneficial to
families who have a young child with HIV/AIDS.
MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

Have students draw their ideal classroom and explain and defend their decisions. Analyze their work based
on the principles of environmental design discussed in the text.
Direct the students to complete a Venn diagram that demonstrates the similarities and differences between
the teacher’s perspective and the child’s perspective of environmental designs.
Provide a drawing of a classroom environment and have the students analyze it based on the principles of
environmental design discussed in the text.
Provide the following scenario and question: Ida is just learning to walk. She is persistent in mastering this
task. Today she was toddling toward the couch when she lost her balance and fell on a stacking cup. She
immediately began to cry, her mouth was bleeding, and a red area developed on her cheek. What steps
should her teacher take to address her injuries and why?

47

48
Designing the Curriculum

NAEYC Standards
Standard 1: P romoting Child Development and Learning
Standard 5. Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum
Learning Objectives
■ Identify major influences on the curriculum.
■ Examine the caregiver’s role in curriculum development.
■ Distinguish two components of curriculum for infants and toddlers.
■ Create individualized curricula for a group of infants and toddlers.
■ Write daily or weekly (integrated) lesson plans.
Chapter Overview
The child’s curriculum involves planning, organizing, and implementing experiences designed to match the
individual child’s development. The infant and toddler curriculum includes all of the child’s experiences in
the child care setting and is ongoing—evolving as the child grows and develops. Caregivers make decisions
about curriculum within the context of cultural expectations, the setting, and the child and implement them
to promote the child’s sense of security.
Chapter Outline
I. Infant-Toddler Curriculum
II. Influences on the Curriculum
• Influences from Cultural Expectations
• Influences from the Care Setting
• Influences from the Child
III. Routine Care Times
• Flexible Schedule
IV. Planned Learning Experiences
• Daily Plans
• Weekly Plans
• Feedback
V. Case Study: Lukaz

Why should cultural diversity be integrated into a child’s curriculum?
The world is becoming increasingly more diverse as cultures intermingle, especially in the United States. A
large problem associated with this is the issue of bias. No child is born with biases; they are learned
behaviors. They are either taught directly by telling a child that another type of person is bad or less
important, or learned by lack of communication. Ignoring differences or people of different backgrounds can
lead the child to believe that certain types of people are not worthy of consideration. When children are
introduced to other cultures during development, they learn that there is value in people and practices
different from what they see at home, and they are less likely to develop prejudices later in life.

49
How does television affect cultural expectations?

Television programs typically focus on extremes, both good and bad. Overexposure to either can raise or
lower cultural expectations to an unhealthy level. The typical sitcom family, for instance, includes a happily
married, employed, educated couple with several wonderful children that always strive to please them. In
reality, a parent’s situation could be quite different, leading the parent to feel that he or she is not what he or
she is supposed to be. The opposite side of that would be "lowest common denominator" programs that focus
on lowbrow humor and/or lack moral sensibility. In this case, a viewer might come to think that things such
as relationships, education, and parenting skills are unimportant. Either way, a person’s cultural expectations
can be influenced.
Why shouldn’t toilet learning be a long, drawn-out process?

Some families report that toilet learning is extremely difficult and frustrating and “takes forever.” This
generally occurs when adults try to potty train the child before he or she is ready. Before learning can begin,
the toddler must be able to determine when they are going to urinate or have a bowel movement, and have
sufficient muscular development and control to control urination and movements. Once the child is ready for
toilet learning, the process should take relatively little time as the child will likely have the desire to master
this new skill, and will have multiple opportunities for practice. Appropriate and adequate adult support also
helps the process move along successfully.

1. Why is flexibility in schedules more important in an infant and toddler program when compared
to programs for older children?
2. How can the child, the family, and the caregiver all be involved in curriculum planning? At the
end of the discussion, have the students complete a “Reflective Write” on this topic.
3. Explain your experiences with curriculum planning. How does this information presented in the
chapter regarding the Reggio Emilia perspective contradict or add to your existing viewpoints
about curriculum planning?
4. How does a teacher come to value the importance of routine care times, especially for promoting
positive caregiver-child relationships?
5. What are the benefits of doing project work with very young children?
1. Read: Williamson, S. (2006). Challenge or strength? Caring for infants and toddlers in mixed-age
group in family child care. Young Children, 61(4), 40–44.
• What do you think will be the challenges of caring for a mixed-age, family-style group of
infants and toddlers?
• What strategies would you need to employ to move beyond those challenges?
• Why would you want to invest your time and energy into overcoming those challenges?
2. Involve the whole class in the process of curriculum development for a specific or hypothetical
child care program. Provide data on several children so that the students are challenges to meet
the unique needs of each child. Focus on using the developmental data as impetus for the
learning experiences. Share plans through oral presentations.
3. Discuss the parts to a weekly plan. Develop one example in class.
4. Have students create a web for a project which could assist young children in investigating a
topic of interest as well as learning to care for one aspect of their immediate environment.

50
VIDEO ANALYSIS
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. New guidelines were created to further reduce the occurrence of SIDS. As
you watch the video, “Reducing SIDS through Pacifier Use” on the Education CourseMate website, answer
the following questions:
1. Why might pacifiers help in the prevention of SIDS?
2. What would you say to or ask a family member who is highly concerned about the possibility of
her/his child dying from SIDS?
Curriculum Planning. Infant-toddler teachers must plan daily and weekly curriculum that is responsive to the
interests and abilities of the children as well challenges them to the next level of skill development. The
infant-toddler teachers in this video describe their approach to curriculum development. After you watch the
video, “Curriculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood
Setting” on the Education CourseMate website, answer the five viewing questions available on that site
(questions are repeated here for your convenience).
1. In this video, the Center Director, Doreen, states that quality care is dependent on
developmentally appropriate practice (DAP). How does the Center Director define DAP?
2. Ke, the lead teacher, tells us that her teaching team meets regularly to discuss DAP and related
curriculum development. Describe the dialogue that takes place during Ke's team meeting that
suggests the team is responding to the developmental needs of at least one child.
3. Doreen states that "play is a child's work." What does Doreen mean by this statement? And, what
evidence is there in this video to suggest that the teaching team works quite hard at providing play-
based activity centers in which children learn a tremendous amount? (Give at least three examples.)
4. Ke also asserts that although the teaching team may have carefully laid out a set of activities for
the children, it may be the case that the children are not interested in those activities on a given day.
If this happens, she suggests, that teaching team must "take their cues" from the children. What do
you think it means to "take your cues from the children?" How do you think an experienced ECE
teacher might handle the children's disinterest?
5. Please open the artifact titled "Infant/Toddler Curriculum Goals." The goals on this curriculum
checklist are in four developmental areas: socio-emotional, cognitive, language, and physical. Can
you find examples in the video of activities that will likely promote development in each of the four
areas?

1. Interview a teacher in a family child care program. Inquire how she responds to cultural diversity.
For example, how does she use the home language of the children? How does she modify curriculum to
respond to the cultural beliefs of families?

51
2. Observe toddlers on a playground. Use a narrative method for recording your observations
(Appendix A). Think about the children’s interests and create a flexible plan for a project.
Case Study: Lukaz

April is a teacher in a birth to two year old, mixed-age classroom at a local university. Lukaz has been in
her class since he was six weeks old, so she is very familiar with him and his family. He is a healthy 18-
month- old child who has outstanding verbal skills. He speaks in full sentences and possesses an extensive
vocabulary. He has a close friend in Tyler who is almost two. The two boys are almost inseparable: they
both love to read books, build ramps, and play chase games. She has noticed lately that these two children
seem bored in the classroom and have disrupted others who were working on two different occasions. For
example, on Monday, Mackenzie was painting at the easel and Lukaz pushed her arm as he walked by.
Tyler laughed when Mackenzie started to cry. As these behaviors are not typical for either boy, April
decided to spend the next two days watching them closely and gathering some additional data.
Here are some data April gathered along with her wonderings:
1. Lukaz is in the book area. He picked up a board book, opened one page, and tossed it back
towards the basket. He said “These are for babies.” Tyler responded with, “Yeah, babies.
Let’s go.” They left the area. [April’s wonderings: When did I last add new books? and are
they ready for stories with more words or more complex art work? ]
2. In the block area, Tyler has built a simple ramp using unit blocks. Lukaz helped him line up
the plastic people at the end of the ramp. They have one car and are taking turns pushing it
down the ramp to knock over the people. [April’s wonderings: What else could challenge
them with ramps? What questions should I ask? Should I be concerned about running over
people – doesn’t seem very caring?]
3. Mackenzie, Lukaz, and Tyler are sitting at the art table working with clay. Lukaz is making a
car. He is challenged by the wheels not rolling. His voice is getting louder as he rolls a wheel
between his palms. Mackenzie tells him to “Stop.” He reaches over and pounds on her
creation. She begins to cry.
Before addressing the specifics of the case, think about planning curriculum in general. What must
be accomplished before an individualized curriculum can be developed for any child? Why?
Teachers must invest a great deal of time and effort in getting to know each child’s strengths, capabilities,
and interests regarding each area of development. This means that many hours of observation need to be
completed in order to plan an individualized, responsive curriculum.
Do you think that April’s initial conclusion that Lukaz and Tyler are bored is accurate? Why or
why not? Use the data she gathered to help provide evidence for your conclusion.
Her assessment could be accurate, especially given the cognitive/language development of the children.
For Lukaz to label a book as “for babies” means that he has acquired the skills to distinguish objects into at
least two categories (for babies and for older children). In addition, he was able to build a ramp, add
obstacles, and then select the car to roll on the board to knock down them down. This is an elaborate plan
that he created and carried out.
What curricular experiences would you plan if you were April? Provide examples of daily plans as
well as plans for an ongoing project.
Answers will vary. But April could provide other objects in the block area to try on the boards. These
objects could be used for either rolling down the boards or serve as additional obstacles. Most importantly,
April would ask good, open-ended questions to challenge Lukaz’s thinking about ramps and why the objects
are rolling down the board.
April might also want to consider having Lukaz make his own objects for knocking down. He can use a
variety of materials and test any differences. Adding this aspect might provide her with the opportunity to
assist him with regulating his frustration levels.

52
MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

Have students review their Authentic Case Study and pick one “Influence on the Curriculum” that is evident
for that child and/or family. Next, have them write a lesson that is responsive to that influence.
Have students write a lesson plan for a routine care time.
Using information gained through field observations, have students create a curriculum web based on the
children’s behaviors and verbalizations, as appropriate.

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Infants and Toddlers Curriculum and Teaching

Download full test bank at:

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Building Relationships with and

ANTICIPATED STUDENT QUESTIONS

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What is the difference between feelings and emotional reactions?

Isn’t discipline the same thing as punishment?

Why isn't spanking covered in the discipline section?

QUESTIONS TO GENERATE DISCUSSION

EXPERIENCES TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION

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EXPERIENCES FOR THE FIELD

CASE STUDY—SAMPLE RESPONSES

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was to gather more information to help Regina.

MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING: CASE STUDY

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Answer the following reflection/application questions:

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Supportive Communication with

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ANTICIPATED STUDENT QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS TO GENERATE DISCUSSION

EXPERIENCES TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION

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EXPERIENCES FOR THE FIELD

Family Member Caregiver

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CASE STUDY—SAMPLE RESPONSES

2. Plan a family-caregiver conference using the information provided previously.

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MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING: CASE STUDY

MARGARITA: Tell me more.

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The Indoor and Outdoor Environment

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VI. Selecting Equipment and Materials

ANTICIPATED STUDENT QUESTIONS

QUESTIONS TO GENERATE DISCUSSION

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EXPERIENCES TO FACILITATE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION

2. Observe an outdoor play area.

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EXPERIENCES FOR THE FIELD

CASE STUDY—SAMPLE RESPONSES

Case Study: Ena

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MONITORING STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

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Designing the Curriculum

ANTICIPATED STUDENT QUESTIONS

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How does television affect cultural expectations?

Why shouldn’t toilet learning be a long, drawn-out process?

QUESTIONS TO GENERATE DISCUSSION