American Petroleum | Institute Programs In Learning Operating Techniques The Mechanics of Fluids Unit 3: Statics 1043WB.Program developed for API by: Content Specialist for API: Content Consultants: Committee on Training: Vice Chairman for Teaching Learning: Validation provided through the cooperation of: Howell Training Company 13831 Nothwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 E. J. Rollins Atlantic Richfield Company S. B. Snyder Atlantic Richfield Company R. W. Dorman Mobil Oil Corporation D. S. Tuer ‘The Standard Oil Company (Ohio) Imperial Oil Limited ‘Standard Oil Company of California Humble Oil and Refining Company Special Acknowledgement For the general encouragement and support given the PROFIT programed learning series by the API Executive Committee on Training and Development: J.P. Malott, Continental Oil Company, Chairman; H.D. Aggers, Thums Long Beach Company. Chairman, Committee on Vocational Training: Howard Swaim, Continental Oil Company, Chairman, AP! Sub-Committee on Programed Learning, and members of the subcommittee. This text has been validated by the Committee on Training, Division df Refining, American Petroleum Institute, 1969. PILOT Ip PROFIT © Program Press 1969 Reprinted May 1995, Duplication or modification of ths copyrighted material. or any part thereof, is ’2 volation of Federal Law. Violation of this copyright law may result in severe ‘vl penaities and criminal conviction. The Federal Bureau of investigation investigates all alegations of criminal copyright infringement.THE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS Unit 3 Statics Section 1Hydrocarbon processing involves many types of fluids. The Mechanics of Fwids is 2 programed course in four units on the principles of fiuid handling as applied to refineries and other Process industries. ‘Unit 8, Statics, is about the nature, calculation, and uses of static pressure, including: how to calculate pressure from liquid level and liquid level from bottom gage pressure; the instruments that operate on the principle of static pressure; the nature and hazards of vacuum; and the uses of static pressure in handling and transporting fluids.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in ‘thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very. differences in size. ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. ‘The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL, ‘THIMBLE SPINDLE ; RATCHET CAP, FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the____and the__ contact the object to be measured. anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: ‘Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. ‘The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand ages first, and then tum the book upside down and go through the other Pages. spindleSECTION 1 PRESSURE AND HEAD ‘THE NATURE OF STATIC PRESSURE 1, All fluid is under pressure from the height and density of fluid above it. This pressure is called (static/dynamic) pressure. static 2. All fluids exert static pressure. For example, the ocean exerts static everything it touches. 8. As you go down in the ocean, the pressure (inereases/ decreases) . increases 4. Static pressure increases going (up/down) a standing down column of fluid and is always greatest at the (top/bottom) bottom of a fluid. 5. The basic source of static pressure is the force of gravity. Static pressure is caused by the force of —___ gravity acting on the mass of a fluid. 6. The atmosphere is held to the earth by gravity. ATMOSPHERE Gravity acting on the molecules in the air causes atmos- pheric___. pressure a Think about atmospheric pressure. As you move to a higher elevation, the pressure of the atmosphere. decreases8. Atmospheric pressure (increases/decreases) 2s you go toward sea level. 9. One reason for the lower air pressure at high elevation is that the air has a lower density at high elevations. This lower density means that the air is exerting force on every square inch it touches. 10. As the density of a fluid decreases, the fluid exerts (more/ less) PSI on everything it touches. 11. One reason for the lower air pressure at high elevations, then, is the decreased of the air at higher elevations. 12, An even more important reason for the lower atmos- pheric pressure at high altitudes is that there is less air above you as you go up in the atmosphere. ‘This means that the weight of the air above__, and the PSI_____as elevation increases. 18. As you go up to a higher elevation the height of the air above you the density of the air , and 14. Both of these changes act to__ static pressure. 15. As you go down from an elevated location, these same two factors act in the opposite direction. As you go from a mountain top to sea level, the density of the air (increases/decreases), and at the same time, the height of air above you (increases /decreases). 16. Both of these changes-act to static pressure. 17. Therefore, atmospheric pressure increases as elevation 18. Since liquids are practically ineompressible, changes in pressure do not have much effect on the density of a liquid. Liquid density is primarily affected by changes in (pres- sure/temperature). 19. Let’s assume that the density of the ocean is the same at all levels. ‘The pressure of the ocean still deeper. as you go 20. If the density does not change, this increase in static pres- sure must be caused by the increase in the of ocean above. increases less less density decreases decreases decreases decreases decrease, or lower increases inereases increase decreases temperature increases height, or level21, Static pressure is caused by: fluid —_______; and height fluid density 22, As the height of fluid increases, statie pressure increases 28, Static pressure also increases as the ______of density the fluid increases. 24, Fluid pressure’ is exerted in all directions. If you open this valve, liquid will_______out of flow the tank. 25. The valve is at the side of the tank. This must mean that liquid exerts on the pressure sides of the tank. 26. If a liquid did not exert pressure upward, it would tend ‘to collapse. ‘The pressure of a liquid tends to support the mass of the above it. liquid 27. At any one point, a fluid exerts _____ equally in pressure all directions. 28, This must mean that at any given level, the —____ pressure of a fluid is always the same. 29. Look at these three beakers of water. . The level of water is (the same/different) in each. the same 80. Since each beaker contains water, density (is/is not) is the same in each.81. The beakers have different shapes and they hold different volumes of water. The total weight of the water is (the same/different) in each container. 82. Now think of a 1-inch square at the bottom of each con- tainer. The weight on each of these squares is (the same/ different). 88. In other words, at each of these three points the PSI of the water is (the same/different). 84. But we know that fluid pressure is exerted equally in all directions. If the pressure at point A is 0.5 PSI, the pressure at B and C must also be PSI. 85. If the pressure were higher at A, the liquid would be flowing into the sides of the beaker. ‘Since the liquid is static or standing, the pressures at A, B, and C must be - different the same ‘the same 05 ‘equal, or the same36. Since pressure is equal at one point at the bottom of each of these containers, static pressure must be equal at all points at the bottom of the container. With the same liquid and the same level or head, static pressure is (the same/different) at the bottom of each of these containers. 87. Static pressure does not depend on the shape of a fluid’s container. Static pressure depends only on: the of fluid; and the_____of fluid. 88. Suppose you measure liquid pressure at point A in this tank. If you move the pressure gage to point B, you will get (the same/a different) pressure reading. 89. Pressures at A and B are equal because A and B are at the same in the tank. 40. Now move the pressure gage to point C. ‘The pressure reading is 41. The difference between the reading at A or B and at C is caused by the static of the liquid in the tank. the same height, or level density ‘the same level, or height higher, or greater pressure42, These oils have different densities. (Remember that in “API, higher numbers mean lower densities.) Static pressure is greatest at the bottom of (A/B/C/D). D 48. Each of these beakers contains water at 10°API. c Static pressure is: highest at the bottom of A. —— highest at the bottom of B. highest at the bottom of C. ——— highest at the bottom of D. the same in each. 6 the same in each44. Think of a gold bar lying at the bottom of the ocean. on the gold. force, or pull Gravity exerts 2 downward 45. The gold bar is also under two sources of static pressure: ; and ocean, or water atmosphere, or air the static pressure of the the static pressure of the 46. Because of the difference in densities, a given height of ocean exerts much static pressure than a more given height of air. 47. Except in the case of the atmosphere, static pressure is not measurable in gases. Normally, gas density is too exert measurable static pressure. for gases to low, or small 48. ‘The atmosphere exerts measurable static pressure because the of the gases in the atmosphere is so height great. 49. Hydro means water. Static pressure is sometimes called hydrostatic pressure. Static pressure is generally a more important factor in the handling of (liquids/gases) . liquids Static Head 50. Head is a common term for liquid level or height. ‘The water in this tank has a of 30 feet. head 51. Liquid head is usually measured in units of feet 752. A column of water 1 foot high and 1 inch square weighs 0.433 pounds. 0.433 POUNDS ‘Therefore, the pressure caused by a 1-foot head of water is PSI. 58. If the water were 2 feet high, the static pressure at the bottom would be PSI. 54, The static pressure at the bottom of a column of water is the in feet times PSI. 55. A 100-foot head of water has a static bottom pressure of PSIG. 56. Suppose the head is 20 feet of water. The static pressure at the bottom is PSI. 57. A 34foot head of water causes a static pressure of 14.7 PSI, ‘Thus atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a head of fest of water. 58. These liquids have different densities, bo | 7 MERCURY WATER — GASOLINE In these three columns, the mercury would exert. than 0.433 PSI of static pressure. 8 0.488 0.866 head, or height; 0.433 43.8 8.66 more59. 60, 61. 65. 66. 67. 68. ‘The gasoline would exert _______ than 0.488 PST of static pressure. The ratio of the density of liquid to the density of water is the specific gravity of the liquid. The specific gravity of mercury is (more/less) than 1. ‘The specific gravity of gasoline is _______ than 1 ‘The specific gravity of mercury is 13.546. For each PSI of pressure caused by a head of water, an equal head of mercury causes PSI of static pressure. A loot head of water causes a static pressure of 0.488 PSI. 18.546 x 0.488 = 5.87 A foot head of mercury causes a static pressure of PSIG. A 10-foot head of mercury causes a static pressure of PSIG. Because mercury is so dense, its static head is often measured in inches; 30 inches is 2.5 feet. A 2.5-foot head of mercury causes a static pressure of 5.87 times 2.5, or: PSI. At 80 inches, then, the static pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury is about _______ PSI. ‘The static pressure of a 30-inch column of mercury is equivalent to that of a _____-foot head of water. A 1-inch column of mercury causes a static pressure of about 0.49 PSI. He X 0.488 x 18.546 = 0.49 Suppose you want to convert 2.08 inches of mercury to PSI. 2.08 in, Hg. x 0.49 = 0.995 PSI ‘The relationship between head and pressure, then, is the basis of converting measurements in inches of mercury to units of. less more 13.546, or 13.5 5.87 38.7 14.675 147 3469. This chart shows some liquid specific gravities. LiquD ‘SPECIFIC GRAVITY 60°API gasoline O74 30°API crude oil 0.88 20°API crude oil 0.93 Water 1.00 Asphalt 1.08 ‘The specific gravity of 60°API gasoline is 70. Suppose you want to find the pressure caused by 2 100- foot head of 60°API gasoline. ‘You know that 2 100-foot head of water creates a pres- sure of 100 x 0.488, or of 48.3 PSI. A 100-foot head of gasoline creates (more/less) than 43.8 PSI at the bottom of its tank. 71. A 100-foot head of gasoline will create about three- fourths, or 0.74 times, as much pressure as a 100-foot head of water. A.100-foot head of gasoline causes 43.3 PSI times 0.74, or: about PSI. 72. You can calculate the pressure at the bottom of any tank of liquid by: first multiplying the and then multiplying this number by the of the liquid. in feet by 0.483; 73. The specific gravity of 30°API crude oil is 0.88. 0.88 x 0.488 = 0.381 A I-foot head of 30°API crude oil causes a static pres- sure of ____ PSI. 74. A 100-foot head of 80°API crude oil causes a static pres- sure of _____ PSI. 10 O74 less 82.042, or 32 head, or height specific gravity 0.381 38.175. The specific gravity of 20°API crude oil is 0.98. Calculate the static pressure in a tank with a 50-foot head of 20°API crude oil. The pressure is about PSI. 20.1845, or 20.1 76. This tank contains 60% sulfurie acid, with a specific gravity of 1.5, ‘The liquid head is feet. 3 ‘77. To find the PSI at the bottom, multiply x 8 x . 0.438; 1.5 78. The PSI at the bottom of the tank is: PSI. 1.9485, or 1.95 79. The specific gravity of 10°API crude oil is 1.0. Since 10°API oils and water have the same densities, they create the same static with the same pressures heads. 80. A liquid with an API gravity of less than 10°API creates more static pressure than an equal head of water. 30°API crude oil has a (higher/lower) density than water, lower and creates (more/less) static pressure per foot of head. less rb81. To find the static pressure at the bottom of any column of liquid: first find or calculate the —___ of the liquid; multiply by 3 multiply by the liquid in feet; the result is the static pressure in units of 82, To find the static pressure at the bottom of a column of mercury, you can caleulate the pressure in units of feet of mercury by dividing the inches high by 12. Or you can multiply the inches high by 442, or 0.4, which is the static pressure at the bottom of 2 1. column of mercury. 88. Complete this equation for finding liquid static pressure in units of PSI. PSI = x x Pressure Head 84. There are two sources of pressure in this vented tank. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE re ares ee | static PRESSURE| | Sed One source is the static pressure of the liquid in the tank and the other source is the pressure of the on the liquid. 85. In a vented tank, static pressure is gage pressure. This is because the gage does not measure the pressure of the on the liquid. 86. Static gas pressure acting on the liquid surface is called pressure head. Pressure head is the pressure of any a liquid surface. on 12 specific gravity 0.483 head, or height PSI inch head; 0.438 specific gravity atmosphere atmosphere87. Atmospheric pressure is a form of static pressure. It may also be referred to as a form of __ pressure head. 88. In a closed vessel, gas pressure may be maintained above the liquid. st ‘The pressure head in this vessel is at point (A/B). A 89. Look at this closed vessel. Pressure head is PSIG. 10 90. If the static pressure of the liquid is 5 PSI, the pressure gage at the bottom should read PSIG. 18 91. The gage pressure at the bottom of any closed vessel is equal to the pressure plus static head, or liquid head the : pressure head 92. The gage pressure at the bottom of a vented vessel is equal to head pressure. static 98. The absolute pressure at the bottom of any container is gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure. In a closed container, the absolute pressure is: liquid head; static head; pressure atmosphere plus any plus the existing pressure of the 1894. If liquid static head is 5 PSI, what is the absolute pres- sure at the bottom of this container? PSIA 39.7 95. Look at this vessel. The top gage reads_________ PSIG. 13. 96. The bottom gage reads_____ PSIG. 22 97. Pressure due to static liquid head must be —___ 9 PSI. 98. In a closed vessel, bottom gage pressure ig___ static, or liquid head plus_______ head. pressure 4‘MEASUREMENT Manometers 99. Let’s look again at the principle of the manometer. PRESSURE HEAD STATIC HEAD STATIC HEAD Each leg of the manometer has a static head and a head. 100. The level of mercury in each leg is the head. 101. The pressure above the mercury is the. head. 102. The manometer is based on the principle that fluids flow until pressures are equal. ‘The mercury flows between the two legs until pressure is at the bottom of the manometer. 108. When pressures are equal, fluids do not 104. Suppose the pressure head increases in one leg of a manometer. The static head in that leg must (inerease/decrease) until pressure equalizes at the bottom. 105. If the pressure head decreases, the static head in that leg must to equalize the pressure across the bottom of the manometer. 16 pressure static Pressure equal, or balanced, or the same flow decrease increase106. There are several types of manometers. This manometer is called an open manometer. GAS PRESSURE > One end of the open manometer is to the atmosphere. 107. In the open manometer, one pressure head is process pressure or vessel pressure. ‘The other pressure head is the pressure of the 108. This manometer is a closed manometer. PRESSURE a> VACUUM There is a above the mercury in the right leg. 109. In other words, there is no pressure head at one end of (an open/a closed) manometer. 110. A closed manometer is actually a form of barometer. It measures the (absolute/gage) pressure in a vessel. 16 open, or vented atmosphere vacuum a closed absolute111. The open manometer measures (absolute/gage) pressure. 112, This is a differential U-tube manometer. PROCESS PRESSURE 1 PROCESS PRESSURE 2 —_ va It measures the. between two process pressures. 113. The differential manometer does not tell how much pres- sure is at either point of measurement. ‘The differential manometer tells the tween two pressures, be. 114. The difference between vessel pressure and atmospheric pressure is measured with an manometer. 115. Absolute pressure may be measured with a manometer. 116. Identify these manometers. A manometer ata gage difference difference ‘open closed A. differential116. (Continued) B,_____ manometer B. open ¢, manometer C. closed 117. Not all manometers use mercury as a liquid. Water, alcohol, or other liquids can be used in a manometer 118. Regardless of the liquid used, manometer readings can be converted to PSI with the equation Pressure = head in feet x 0.488 x specific gravit ‘Suppose the liquid is water and the difference in level is 2 feet. ‘The pressure difference measured by the manometer is: PSL 0.866 18119. Suppose the liquid is mercury and the difference in level is 0.5 foot (6 inches) The pressure difference is 0.5 x 0.483 x 135, or: about PSI. 2.9, or 3 120. By using mercury instead of water, a smaller difference in ________can indicate a larger pressure difference. level, or head 121. Therefore, water or other light liquids are used when relatively (small/large) pressure differences are to be small measured. 122. When larger pressure differences are being measured, a manometer is used. mercury 123. On the other hand, suppose the mercury in a closed ma- nometer were 10 feet high; the manometer would be measuring an absolute pressure of 58.5 PSI. ‘To measure a pressure difference of 58.5 PSI would re- quire an open manometer that was more than ___ 10 feet high. 124. A 10-foot high manometer is not practical. ‘Manometers are primarily used for (high-pressure/low- Pressure) service. low-pressure 125. For measuring pressure in atmospheric storage tanks and for vacuum operations, a mercury ______ may be manometer used. 126. For high-pressure vessels and flow lines, mechanical are used to measure pressure. gages 127. The gage is not normally as accurate as the manometer. For measuring small differences with great accuracy, a is used. manometer 128. The mechanical gage always measures the difference between process pressure and the pressure of the . atmosphere 19129. The manometer can be used to measure: the difference between process pressure and (open manometer) ; the difference between process pressure and (closed manometer) ; the difference between _____ process pressures (differential manometer). 130. But for measuring pressure differences much above 25 PSI, a mechanical is required. Gage Glasses and Level Indicators 181. A gage glass is a form of manometer. This glass is indicating the of liquid in a vessel. 132. Think of the liquid in the vessel as one leg of a manometer. The pressure head on each leg is (the same/different) . 20 atmospheric vacuum two gage level the same133. The glass contains the same liquid as the tank or vessel. So, the static head in the gage glass gives a direct read- ing of the of liquid in the tank. 184. Suppose the level in the vessel rises above the top of the gage glass. The glass will be (flooded/empty). 185. The glass will be empty if the level in the vessel is than the bottom of the gage glass. 186. If the glass is either flooded or empty, it (shows/does not show) the exact level in the tank. 187. There is a practical limit to gage glass length. Gage glasses generally (run/do not run) the full length of the tank or vessel. 188. Gage glasses generally cover (the total range/the operat- ing range) of liquid levels in vessels. 139. The gage glass is a form of direct level measurement. ‘The is read directly from the glass. 140. There are several other types of direct liquid level meters. SHEAVE In this meter, a_____rides on the liquid surface. 141. The float is connected to a liquid level indicator. The ______ is read from the scale of the indicator. 142. Electricity, light, or sound waves can be used as probes for liquid level. Electrode probes or light or sound waves are sent through the ____ being measured. 148. Then the results of the probe are sent to a meter. ‘The meter shows the in the tank. 21 level flooded lower, or less does not show do not run the operating range level float level liquid levelCalculating Level in Tanks and Vessels 144. 145. 146. 47. 148. 149, Another way of determi ferential means. ing level is by indirect, or in- 9” HG. MANOMETER In this tank, an open is being used to find level. ‘The manometer is at the (highest/lowest) possible liquid level in the tank. Suppose the liquid is water, and the pressure difference across the manometer is 9 inches high. 147 _ 9in. Hg. x Go = 9 x 049 = 4.41 A pressure difference of 9 in. Hg. is equivalent to a gage pressure of about PSL One foot of water causes a static pressure of 0.438 PSI. To cause a static pressure of 4.4 PSIG would require a static head of about feet of water. If we put this into the equation for water, Pressure = head x 0.433, we have: 4.4 = head x 0.433. Now we are solving for (pressure/head). To solve this problem, we divide the pressure by 0.483. In other words, for 2 given static pressure of water, pressure head : manometer lowest 44 10 head 0.433150. Suppose the bottom pressure at a vented tank of water is 43.3 PSIG. 438 oas3 = 100 ‘The head of water is feet. 100 151. Again, we divide the pressure by to fina 0.438 head of water. 1152. The oil in this tank has a specific gravity of 0.8. The gage pressure at the bottom of the tank is 6 PSIG. 158. For an oil with a specific gravity of 0.8, pressure at the bottom of 2 I-foot column is 0.488 x 0.8, or 0.3464. eee oaaea = 178 To create a pressure of 6 PSIG, the head of this ofl must be about feet. 173 154. To solve this problem, we multiplied the specific gravity of the oil times 0.483, ‘Then we (multiplied/divided) this number into the pres- divided sure at the bottom of the tank. 155. The result is the of the liquid in feet. head, or height 156. If you know the head and the specific gravity of a liquid, you can find the pressure at the bottom of the container. On the other hand, if you know the pressure and the specific gravity, you can find the ____ of the head Tiguid. 157. Compare these two equations. Pressure = head x 0.433 X sp. ger. Pressure Ta3 Xx sp. er Head = In the first equation, we are solving to find the of the liquid. pressure 28158. In the second equation, we are solving to find the of liquid. 159. To solve for head, we _____ the pressure by the specific gravity times 0.438. 160. A solution of 50% caustic has a specific gravity of 1.2. __Jo 10 Psic ‘The bottom pressure is PSIG. 161. The specific gravity (1.2) times 0.488 is: about 162. Now divide this into the bottom pressure (10 PSIG). ‘The level in the tank is about. feet. 163. It is often necessary to know the level of liquid in a vessel. Liquid level is the same as the static liquid. ofa 164. In a vented tank, bottom gage pressure is equivalent to the static pressure caused by liquid head. So, a gage reading at the bottom of a vented tank can be converted directly into a measurement or reading. 24 head divide 10 0.5196, or 0.52 19.2 head head, or level165. There is a pressure head in this closed vessel. HO 204 PSIG Bottom gage pressure is PSIG. 204 166. ‘The pressure head at the top of the vessel is 200 PSIG. 167. Pressure due to static liquid head must be —__ 4 PSI. 168. Assume a specific gravity of 0.6. 7 4 ‘ The level is saggy z or: about ____ feet. 164 169. Pressure at the top of this drum is 10 PSIG. 10 PSIG Pressure due to liquid static head must be. 2 PSI. 25170. Suppose the drum contains fui gravity of 0.8. The static pressure per foot of head for this oil 171. Divide this into 2 PSI to find the level. ‘The oil level in the drum is: about feet. 172. The specific gravity of butane is 0.6. ‘The pressure caused by the head of butane is PSI. 26 irnace oil with a specific 0.3464, or 0.846 5.78 26178. The butane level in the sphere is: about ____ feet. 174. When the liquid level cannot be read directly with a glass gage or meter, it can be caleulated by static pressure. In an open vessel, a bottom gage or an open manometer reading can be converted directly into a reading for the vessel. 175. To do this, use the formula: Pressure = head x 0.488 x sp. gr. pressure 0488-X sp. er. ——Head = 176. In closed vessels, you must first account for the pressure head in the vessel. In calculating level for a closed vessel, the pressure measurement to use is: the bottom ‘gage pressure. the difference between bottom gage and top gage pressure. 177. Then use this pressure difference in solving the basic hydrostatic pressure equation. Solve the equation for (pressure /head). 178. Write the equation for head. ‘ Head = ¢ yx Ce Finding Level in a Fluidized Bed 179. In a fluidized bed, particles of catalyst are suspended in gas. Because of the difference in catalyst size and weight, the specific gravity of the fluid in a fluidized bed from vessel to vessel. 27 10 evel the difference between bottom gage and top gage pressure head _pressure Ua88 x sp. oF. changes, or varies181. 182. 188. 184, 185. 186. ‘The upper pressure tap shows The lower pressure tap shows ‘The taps are 8 feet apart. ‘The static pressure per foot of head must be: ——1 Psic. ¥ PSIG. In any hydrostatics problem, the number 0.483 x sp. gr. represents the static pressure per foot of head for the fiuid being measured. For this problem, then, the number %, or 0.88, represents the number 0.483 times ‘You do not need to know specific gravity to find the level in a fluidized bed. ‘You can find the static pressure per foot of directly. To find the static pressure per foot of head, measure the Pressure at two points in the bed and measure the dis- tance between these taps. Divide the pressure difference by the distance between the taps to find the. per foot of ‘Then use the equation: pressure Head = 0335 x sp. an Instead of 0.488 x sp. gr., use the value you have found for —__________ per of head. 28 1 12 % PSIG specific gravity head static pressure static pressure; foot187. After you have found the static pressure per foot of head, take 2 top and bottom gage reading. ‘The static pressure of the fluid in this bed is PSI. 188. Since the static pressure per foot of head is 0.88 PSI, the formula now reads: G The level in the bed is: Head 18 189. In practice, the actual level will be about 2 feet more than this calculated level in the bed because there is 2 “splash zone” of low-density fluid near the top of the bed. Since the calculated level is 18 feet, the actual level in this bed is about. 20 190. Let’s review the steps for finding the level in a fluidized bed. First, measure the ‘at two points in the bed. Pressure191. To avoid measuring the splash zone, these pressure taps should be as (high/low) in the bed as is feasible. 192. Then measure the between the two taps. 193. Calculate the static pressure per foot of head by dividing the difference between the two taps by the between the two taps. 194, To account for pressure head, subtract the top gage pres- sure from the gage pressure. 195, Use the formula: (_____) 7 ) = TSE ap 196. Divide the static pressure per foot of head into the difference from top to bottom. 197. The result is the (actual/calculated) level for the bed. 198. Add feet to account for the splash zone. 199. This fluidized bed has three pressure taps. Find the level. 8 PSIG © 12 PSIG acumece 13.5 PSIG. The static pressure per foot of head is 1.5 divided by or: PSIG. 200. The pressure difference between the top and bottom of the bed is PSIG. 30 low distance pressure distance bottom Head; pressure pressure caleulated 2 0.75 55201. Substitute 0.75 and 5.5 in the formula for head. & ) a 202. Find the calculated level in the bed. feet 208. The actual level in this bed is about____ feet. 204. Find the level in this bed. 4 FEET ‘The static pressure per foot of head is: PSIG. 205. The calculated level is: about ____ feet. 206. The actual level is about ______feet. BL 075 73 93 0.45 156 116REVIEW 207. Write the formula for finding liquid hydrostatic pressure. 208. Write the formula for calculating head, when you know the static pressure. 209. What is the static pressure of the liquid in this vessel? © 200 Psic 2 207 PSIG PSIG 210. In this vessel, what is the static pressure per foot of head? PSI Now tum the page, [tum the book over, and go 32 Pressure = head x 0.438 x Sp. gr. pressure Head = 033 x sp. ar 7 0.33Section 2 The Uses of Static PressureSECTION 2 THE USES OF STATIC PRESSURE NPSH (NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD) 1. Pressure is required at the suction of a pump. Pressure is required to move liquid into the. 2. A pump (can/eannot) operate if suction pressure is ab- solute zero. 8. Suction head is the pressure available to move liquid into a pump, calculated as 4. This pump is moving water. Available suction head is 10 feet. ‘The static pressure caused by this head of water is PSIG. 5, The absolute suction pressure at the pump is PSIA. 6. Suppose that, on the intake, the pressure inside the pump body is 6 PSI Vacuum. ‘This is equivalent to an absolute pressure of PSIA. 7. If suction tank pressure is 19.03 PSIA and pump intake pressure is 8.7 PSIA, liquid (will/will not) flow from the suction tank into the pump. 8 To move liquid into the pump, suction tank pressure must be ‘than pump intake pressure. 38 pump cannot head 4.38 19.08, or 19 87 will greater, or more, or higher9. The suction head at this pump is zero. ‘The pump intake and the liquid are at the same 10. Suppose again that the pump’s intake pressure is 6 PSI Vacuum, or 8.7 PSIA. If suction tank pressure is 14.7 PSIA, suction tank pres- sure is 6 PSI (more/less) than pump intake pressure. 11. In this example, the difference between suction tank pres- sure and pump intake pressure comes from: the static head of liquid. ——— the pressure head of the atmosphere. 12, Sometimes liquid must be lifted to the intake of a pump. This is called a (suction head/suction lift) system. 18. The vertical distance between the pump and the liquid level is called suction head if the liquid level is above the pump and suction lift if the liquid level is below the pump. This drawing shows a (suction head/suction lift) system. 14, The suction head at this pump is distance (A/B). 15. Ina suction head system, liquid static pressure (adds to/ subtracts from) the pressure head of the atmosphere. 84 level, or elevation more the pressure head of the atmosphere suetion lift suction head adds to16. Both static head and atmospheric pressure move liquid into the pump in a________system. suction head 17. This drawing shows a suction lift system. ateicacana cme EST Eee t ‘The suction lift at this pump is distance (A/B). B 18. In the piping between the pump and the liquid level, the static head is distance (A/B). B 19. Ina suction lift system, the static head in the piping must be overcome to move liquid into the pump. ‘The source of positive pressure in a suction lift system is the pressure head of the —_________ on the liquid atmosphere in the tank. 20, In other words, in a suction lift system, the static head of the liquid in the piping (adds tosubtracts from) the subtracts from available suction pressure. 21, Ina suetion lift system, atmospheric pressure head must be than the static head of liquid in the more, or greater piping. 22. This drawing shows a barometer containing water. WATER ‘When the liquid is water, atmospheric pressure can lift a column___ feet high. 34 3523. 24, 28. 29. 30. 81. 32. In other words, at 34 feet, the static pressure at the bot- tom of a column of balances the pressure of the This means that the theoretical limit for a suction lift system is feet, if the liquid is water. For oil, the theoretical limit is higher. This is because oil has a__________ density than water. Atmospheric pressure can raise a higher column if the liquid is (oil/water). In practice, suction lift systems must always be less than 34 feet. ‘A pump (does/does not) create a perfect vacuum above the liquid. ‘And, in a pumping system, some pressure is always lost in moving the liquid. Pressure in the pump and friction losses ‘the possible suction lift in a pumping system. For a centrifugal pump, the practical limit for suction lift is 15 feet of water. The limit is slightly more than 15 feet if the specific gravity of the pumping liquid is __________ than 1. If the liquid is water, the practical limit for a suction ligt at a centrifugal pump is feet. In calculating suction lift, 15 feet represents the value, Pressure, in the basic formula for finding liquid head. To solve for a liquid other than water, you need to divide 15 feet by the ___ _____of the pump- ing liquid. Assume that a centrifugal pump must lift liquid with a specific gravity of 0.8. 16 ag = 1875 If the specific gravity is 0.8, the practical limit for a suction lift at a centrifugal pump is ______ feet. With a positive displacement pump, the maximum prac- tical suction lift is 22 feet of water. ‘The practical limit for a centrifugal pump’s suction lift is feet of water. 36 water atmosphere 84 lower oil does not decrease less 15 specific gravity 18.75 1584, The practical limit for a positive displacement pump’s suction lift is_____ feet of water. 35. The (centrifugal/positive displacement) pump can oper- ate with a higher suction lift. 36. Suppose the specific gravity of the pumping liquid is 1.1. ‘The maximum suction lift with a positive displacement pump is: about. ____ feet. 87. Different pumps have different maximum suetion lift. ‘Manufacturers specify the maximum for a particular pump. 38. This specification is usually in terms of feet of water. You (can/cannot) convert this specification into units of feet of any other liquid. 39. To convert feet of water to feet of liquid X, divide by the of liquid X. 40. For deep well pumping, the pump is usually submerged in the liguid. ‘The submersible pump is operating in a (suction lift/ suction head) system. 41. The pump adds the _____ needed to move liquid out of the well. 37 22 positive displacement suction specific gravity suction head pressure, or energy42. Compare again the suction head and suction lift system. SUCTION HEAD SUCTION LIFT Static liquid pressure helps move liquid into the pump in the suction system. head 43. Liquid hydrostatic pressure must be overcome in the suc- tion ___system. ligt 44, The suction pressure at a pump, then, is equal to atmos- pheric pressure: (plus/minus) suetion head, or plus (plus/minus) suetion lift. minus 45. Look at the suction system at this pump. Available suction head is _____ feet of gasoline, 5 46. Use this formula you saw before to figure the suction pressure due to liquid head. Pressure = head x 0.433 x sp.gr. Suction pressure due to liquid head is about —__ 16 PSIG. 3848. 49. 50. 51. 54. 56. . Absolute suetion pressure available is PSIA. ‘Suppose the pump were operating with 5 feet of suction lift. Then the static pressure of the gasoline head is from the pressure of the atmosphere. Operating with a 5-foot suction lift, from a vented tank or open vessel, 2 pump moving gasoline has an available suction pressure of 14.7 — 16 = 131 PSIA, or of —_____ PSI Vacuum. One of the lightest fractions in gasoline blends is normally butane. At 100°F, the vapor pressure of butane is 51.6 PSIA. This means that at 100°F, butane will______if suction pressure drops below 51.6 PSIA, or 36.9 PSIG. Suppose the pump is moving butane. ‘The suction pressure must be____ than 36.9 PSIG to avoid vaporization. Assume a specific gravity of 0.74. To avoid vaporization, the suction head at the pump would need to be more than feet of butane, ‘Suction head can be increased by moving the pump to a lower elevation, or by increasing the of the suction tank. Or, you can pump from a pressurized vessel. A high pressure head on the liquid increases the suction available at the pump. In any pumping system, then, suction head equals: static liquid head; (plus/minus) pressure head; (plus/minus) suetion lift; (plus/minus) the vapor pressure of the pumping li- quid at existing temperature. The end result of these calculations is called Net Positive Suction Head, abbreviated NPSH. NPSH is the positive suction pressure at a pump after the suction lift and the —___ of the pumping liquid have been subtracted. 39 16.3 subtracted 16 vaporize more, or higher 1153 elevation head, or pressure plus minus minus ‘vapor pressure87. 61. 62. 63. 65. 66. 67. 68. For example: Static head + pressure head = 100 PSIA suction lift = 0 PSIA vapor pressure at pump temperature = 80 PSA ‘Net Positive Suction Head is PSIA. As vapor pressure increases, NPSH (increases/de- creases). Suction lift (increases/decreases) NPSH. Static suction head and pressure head NPSH. With the same pumping system, you would expect a higher NPSH if the pump is moving (gasoline/lubricat- ing oil). Suppose vapor pressure is more than 14.7 PSLA. ‘The pump (can/cannot) operate in a suction lift system. In a suction lift system, liquid pressure is always —_______ than atmospheric pressure by the time the liquid reaches the pump. ‘Suppose the vapor pressure is 9.7 PSIA. The atmospheric pressure available for suction lift is PSIA. ‘You could calculate the suetion lift possible, if you knew the specific gravity of the pumping liquid. In solving for suetion lift, you are actually solving the problem for liquid : In this problem, the NPSH becomes the pressure for a given head. Pressure Head = 9755 x sp. an To solve for suction lift, use the value for atmospheric pressure minus vapor pressure as the _____ figure in the equation. The solution for head will then give the amount of possible with this liquid at pump temperature. Some pumps require more NPSH than others. ‘This is the NPSH (available/required). 40 70 decreases decreases increase lubricating oil cannot less. head pressure suction lift required69. The pump manufacturer specifies the NPSH required. NPSH required is the absolute suction pressure needed for the pump after the. and any suction _____have been subtracted from the positive head. 70. Suppose NPSH required is 20 PSLA. ‘The pump (is/is not) designed to operate at suction lift. 71. For the same pump, assume a pumping liquid vapor pres- sure of 10 PSIA. ‘Minimum suction pressure at the pump is PSIA, or___ PSIG. 78. The source of this suction can be static head or head. 73. For proper pump operation, NPSH available must always be equal to or than NPSH required. 74. You can increase NPSH available by: increasing liquid _________, or by increasing ________ head. 75. An increase in the density of the liquid being pumped increases suction head, or decreases suction lift. In a suction head system, an increase in liquid density means an_________ in NPSH available. 76. In a suction lift system, an increase in liquid density means a______ in NPSH available. 77. In any pumping system, NPSH available decreases as the vapor pressure of the pumping liquid . VACUUM CONSIDERATIONS 78. Fluid in a vessel exerts pressure on the wall of the vessel. At the same time, the atmosphere exerts on the outside of the vessel. a vapor pressure litt is not 30 15.3 pressure more, or greater head, or level pressure increase decrease increases pressure79. Suppose pressure in the vessel increases. The strain on the walls of the vessel 80. If pressure gets too high, the vessel may rupture. Ruptures are caused by excessive pressure (inside/out- side) a vessel. 81. Now let’s start to remove fluid from the vessel. Pressure in the vessel 82. When vessel pressure balances atmospheric pressure, there (is/is no) strain on the vessel wall. 88. Suppose we continue to remove fluid from the vessel. pi Ne > A partial _______ begins to form in the vessel. 84. Now pressure is greater (inside/outside) the vessel. 85. As the vacuum increases, the strain on the vessel wall increases inside decreases is no vacuum outside inereases86. Which of these two fractionating towers would be more likely to withstand operating under vacuum conditions? Tower (A/B) 87. Both pressure vessels and ______ vessels must be built to withstand pressure differences across their walls. 88. The least strength of construction is required for: vacuum vessels. atmospheric vessels. pressure vessels. 89. An atmospheric storage tank (is/is not) designed to with- stand pressure or vacuum conditions. Vents 90. An atmospheric vessel is usually vented, ‘The vent allows high-pressure gases to escape into the 91. The vent also allows _______ to enter the vessel if a vacuum begins to form. 92. The vent, then, is used to equalize _____ across an atmospheric storage vessel or process unit. 4B vacuum, atmospheric vessels is not atmosphere, or air air pressure98. The vent in this tank is closed. a _ foe : ae a A pump is removing ___from the tank. liquid 94. Air (can/eannot) enter the tank to replace the liquid. cannot 95. The tank is in danger of (rupture/collapse). collapse 96. A tank roof has an area of 100,200 square inches. 100,200 sq. in. x 0.2 PSI = 20,040 pounds A pressure difference of 0.2 PSI on a tank roof equals a force of _______ pounds, or about 10 tons. 20,040 97. Look at these two gages, which represent pressures in two atmospheric storage tanks. Tank (A/B) is in danger of collapsing. A 98. Even a small ______can collapse an atmospheric vacuum, storage tank. 99. A vessel must be vented unless it pressure or vacuum. Atmospheric pressure will tend to force air or fluid into any partial —____ vacuum is designed to withstand Ejectors 100. An ejector is a machine used to produce a vacuum. ‘The purpose of an ejector is to remove —__ gas, or air “from a vessel or line. 4101. A draft tube is a form of ejector. HIGH- VELOCITY GAS LOW-VELOCITY GAS A stream of high-velocity _______is fed past the gas draft tube. 102. The momentum of the high-velocity stream creates a current or draft that pulls. ‘out of the air, or gas draft tube. 108. This stream adds energy to the low-velocity gas coming Out of the =e ee drait tube 104. This drawing shows a jet steam ejector. STEAM INLET INLET SUCTION CHAMBER THROAT | DISCHARGE A stream of high-velocity is fed into the steam top of the ejector. 105. The steam entrains low-velocity _______ from the air, or gas suction chamber. 106. The steam and air mixture flow at high velocity through a narrow throat. From the discharge, the mixture is diffused into the atmosphere 45107. One use of ejectors is in condensing vapors from vacuum tower operations. An ejector pulls a vapor-air mixture from the —__ vacuum, tower. 108. The fluid enters a barometric condenser, where it is mixed with cooling water. | COOLING WATER AIR-VAPOR. FIRST-STAGE. | EJECTOR SECOND-STAGE EJECTOR BAROMETRIC CONDENSER BAROMETRIC LEG: (34 FEET) HOT WELL: COOLING melee WATER OUT Condensate leaves the condenser through the barometric leg 109. The barometric leg extends $4 feet below the condenser. This height of water in the leg will maintain 2 vacuum in the condenser above it. 110. The hot well is designed to reseal the barometric leg and the vent if there is a loss of in the con- vacuum denser. 111. Barometric leg seals are used with condensers and ejec- tors that operate with high vacuum. ‘The barometric leg ________ the vacuum from the seals atmosphere. 112. When the liquid leaving the leg is water, the leg must be at least _____feet high to provide an effec- 34 tive vacuum seal. 46PRESSURE LIFT TRANSFERS 113. Can the acid in this “egg” move up the piping? (Yes/No) No 114. Can it move up now? COMPRESSED i (Yes/No) Yes 115. Sometimes a pressure lift transfer is the best way to move fluid. Air or other compressed gas can be used as part of a transfer system. pressure lift 116. The air increases the pressure head above the liquid. This pressure head can then be used to move, or lift, or force liquid to a higher elevation. 117. Pressure lift transfers are expensive. “For most purposes, a liquid. is used to move pump a7118. But suppose the liquid is highly corrosive. ‘Then, a compressor can be installed to move liquid by increasing the head above the liquid. 119. The gas used in a pressure lift transfer is normally air or steam. These gases are more available and less than most gases. 120. However, mixing air with hydrocarbon vapors can create a flammable mixture. For this reason, air (is/is not) used when the liquid to be moved is a hydrocarbon. 121. Steam is considered an inert gas because the oxygen in steam is not normally available for : 122. You would be more likely to use air as a pressure lift for: butane. ——caustie, or acid. DISTILLATION TOWER HYDRAULICS 128. A fractionating tower contains boiling liquid. Since pressure is lowest at the top of the tower, the vapors (rise/fall) through the trays. 48 expensive combustion, or burning caustic, or acid rise124, 125, 126. 127. 128. 129. As the vapors rise, the liquid falls. DOWNCOMER The static head in each tray forees liquid into the Liquid flows from each downcomer across the and then into the next. In the tower that is operating normally, the downeomer is half full of liquid and the liquid flows at a steady rate. For flow to remain steady, the static head on each down- comer should (rise/fall/remain the same). A constant flow of liquid depends on keeping a constant static in the downcomer and on the trays. While the liquid is falling, the vapors are rising. As the vapors rise, the pressure and temperature at each ‘tray must be greater than the pressure and temperature at the tray (above/below) i Suppose the trays are 2 feet apart, and liquid specific gravity is 0.8. The static pressure for this head of liquid would be: about PSI. 49 downcomer tray downcomer remain the same head above 0.69, or 0.7130. Now suppose the pressure difference between these trays is more than 0.7 PSI. 300 PSI STATIC PRESSURE=0,7 PSI In this tower, the pressure difference between trays is PSI. 2 181. But the liquid static pressure is only 0.7 PSI. Liquid static pressure (can/eannot) overcome the pres- cannot sure difference between trays. 132. When this happens, the downflow of the liquid in the tower stops and a section of the tower becomes flooded. I In this tower, the tray pressure at Pl balances the static pressure of the liquid from P7 to. PL 188. In other words, the static head needed to balance tray pressures is (greater/less) than the distance between two greater trays. 50134. When this happens, a section of the tower is 185. To prevent flooding, the pressure difference between trays must be (greater than/less than) the static pres- sure between trays. 136. You can caleulate the static pressure for the distance between trays. In the normally operating tower, this statie pressure will be_______ than the pressure difference between trays. 187. If the pressure difference between trays is more than the static pressure for that distance, that section of the tower is 188. You can measure the pressure difference between trays in a tower. An unusually (large/small) pressure difference means a section that is flooding. 139. Look at this tower. 303 PSIG SPECIFIC GRAVITY=0.8 ‘Maximum static pressure between trays is: about PSI. BL flooded less than flooded large140. The average pressure difference across the three trays between gages A and B is_____ PSI. ua 141. This section of the tower (is/is not) flooded. is 142, Between gages B and C, the average pressure difference across the four trays is 1.0 PSI. This section of the tower (is / is not ) flooded. is not 148. To locate a flooded tray section: measure the difference between tower pressure sections; caleulate the. for the static pressure distance between trays; the tower is flooded if the pressure difference is —____— than the calculated static pressure for more, or greater the head between trays. SIPHONS AND LOOP SEALS 144. Suppose you fill a bent tube with liquid and invert it into two vessels. ‘The pressure head of the _________will tend to atmosphere, or air keep liquid in the tube. 145. The static head of liquid in each leg tends to move the liquid (up/down). down 146. The net pressure on each side is atmospheric pressure (plus/minus) the static head in that leg. minus 52uz. 4s. 149. 150. 151. 152, 153. 154. 155. When each leg is the same length, the static head is the same at each side. ‘Therefore, the difference between atmospheric pressure and static head is the same at each side, when the legs are of (equal/unequal) length. For liquid to flow, pressures must be (the same/different) . When each static head is the same, liquid (flows/does not flow) ‘Now one vessel is moved down. ‘The static head is greater in leg (A/B) ‘This means that the net positive pressure is greater at side Liquid will flow from______to____ until the pressures equalize. ‘This is the operating principle of a siphon. In a siphon, the two static heads must be (the same/ different). ‘The siphoning liquid flows from the leg with the (higher/ lower) static head to the leg with the (higher/lower) static head. With the siphon filled with liquid, liquid flows from the (short leg/long leg) of the siphon to the (short leg/long. leg) of the siphon until pressures equalize. 53. equal different does not flow different lower; higher short leg long leg156. Look at this adjustable siphon for adjusting flow rate without the use of control valves which could be cor- roded by the liquid. CONSTANT LEVEL| LOOP SEAL RETURN [ine Sepyeest acto our ‘As the wheel moves to the right, the siphon is (raised/ lowered); as it moves to the left, the siphon is ___. raised; lowered 157. The flow rate is increased when the siphon is (raised/ lowered). lowered 158. The siphon is prevented from emptying in case of pump or power failure by the on the ends. loops 159. This drawing shows a loop seal. VAPOR 1 VAPOR 2 LIQUID The loop seals off from a piping. vapor, or gas160. This sewer trap is 2 loop seal. GRATE OVERFLOW TO SEWER When liquid reaches the overflow level, it moves inte the overflow and on into the. 161. The loop seal is used to prevent (vapor/liquid) from leaving the sewer through the overfiow. GRAVITY FLOW 162. Liquids flow because of pressure differences. When pressures are the same, liquids do not __. 163. Compare these two tanks of water. ‘The static head is greater at (A/B). 164. Static pressure is greater at the bottom of (A/B). 165. Therefore, the water flows from until the pressures equalize. to 166. These tanks contain 30°API crude oil. ‘The level in each tank is (the same/different). 35 vapor > bb167. Oil (flows/does not flow) between the two tanks. 168. The oil does not flow because there is no pressure ‘between the tanks. 169. Liquids fow when there is a 170. Here tank A is elevated. In this system, liquid will flow from to until the pressures equalize. 171. With liguids of the same density, gravity flow continues until the liquids reach the same 172. With liquids of unequal density, gravity flow continues until hydrostatic balanced across the system. 173. When liquid must be moved to a higher level or elevation, gravity (can/eannot) be used to move the liquid. REVIEW 174. Net Positive Suetion Head is: head; plug eseeeere ee head: minus suction —_____; minus the of the liquid at pump temperature. 175. Barometric leg seals prevent _________ from enter- ing a vacuum, 56 does not flow difference pressure difference wp level, or head pressure cannot static, or suction pressure lift vapor pressure176. Liquip —— has a high vapor pressure. highly corrosive. 177. To prevent flooding in a fractionating tower, the pressure difference between trays must be than the maximum statie pressure between trays. 178. A siphon permits flow: to any elevation. to a lower elevation only. 179. Gravity flow can be used to move liquids: from elevations; or elevations to from points of of THE END static pressure to points static pressure. aT is highly corrosive less, or lower to a lower elevation only higher; lower higher lowerTHE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS UNIT 3: STATICS Section 1 Pressure and Head. ‘The Nature of Static Pressure . Static Head Pressure Head Measurement . ‘Manometers Gage Glasses and Level Indicators . Calculating Level in Tanks and Vessels Finding Level in a Fluidized Bed Review .. Section 2 The Uses of Static Pressure . NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) ‘Vacuum Considerations Vents. Ejectors . Pressure Lift Transfers . Distillation Tower Hydraulics Siphons and Loop Seals . Gravity Flow . Review .. SSSSSEBRSE‘Developed and Distributes By @ Resource Development Corporation TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEARNING. 19831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 (713) 460-4460, (800) 527-1851