Desae22 SG

EDUCATION IS THE GREATEST EQUALISER
IOL
Assessment and Evaluation
Study Guide compiled by:

Mrs F. Barnard
Revised by:
Mrs L. Niemandt
2015
Published by the Institute for Open Learning
Windhoek, Namibia
© Institute for Open Learning 2015
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without prior permission from publishers.
Date of next revision of syllabus: 2019
Institute for Open Learning
Windhoek
Telephone: +264 61 275 4700
E-mail: info@iol.na
+Website: www.iol.na
Table of contents
I Word of welcome i
II Time required ii
III Exit learning outcomes ii
IV Study support available ii
V Module assessment policy iii
VI Verbs’ thinking processes iii
VII Prescribed textbooks vi
VIII References in IOL centres vii
IX Plagiarism vii
X Icons used in this guide viii
UNIT 1 Basic assessment concepts and perspectives 1

Introduction 3
Learning outcomes 3
Learning activities 4
1.1 The three learning domains 7
1.1.1 Cognitive domain 7
1.1.2 Affective domain 9
1.1.3 Psychomotor domain 10
1.2 Different multiple intelligences 11
1.3 Difference between learning outcomes and educational objectives 17
1.3.1 What is an educational objective? 18
1.3.2 What is a learning outcome? 19
1.4 Definitions 20
1.4.1 Measurement 20
1.4.2 Tests 21
1.4.3 Examinations 21
1.5 Informal and formal assessment 21
1.5.1 Informal assessment 21
1.5.2 Formal assessment 24
1.6 Continuous assessment 25
1.7 Formative assessment and summative assessment 27
1.7.1 Formative assessment 27
1.7.2 Summative assessment 29
1.8 Coursework and its challenges 31
1.9 Self-assessment and peer assessment 32
1.9.1 Self-assessment 33
1.9.2 Peer assessment 34
1.9.3 Similarities between peer and self-assessment 35
1.10 Alternative assessment methods 36
1.11 Levels of thinking required by verbs used in assessment 39
1.12 Evaluation 40
i
1.13 Purposes of assessment and evaluation 44
1.14 Principles underpinning good assessment practices 47
1.14.1 Assessment should be relevant. 47
1.14.2 Assessment should be appropriate 48
1.14.3 Assessment should be fair 48
1.14.4 Assessment should be accurate 49
1.14.5 Assessment should provide useful information 49
1.14.6 Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and
learning cycle 49
1.14.7 Assessment should draw on a wide range of evidence 49
1.14.8 Assessment should be manageable 49
1.14.9 Assessment should be reliable 50
1.14.10 Assessment should be valid 50
1.14.11 Assessment should be transferable 50
1.14.12 Assessment should be educative 50
1.15 Summary 51
Feedback on learning activities 51
Glossary 54
UNIT 2 General and primary assessment directives of Namibia 55

Introduction 56
Learning outcomes 56
2.1 The functions of DNEA 58
2.2 The national senior-primary assessment and promotion policy 59
2.3 The national assessment and promotion policies of the senior-
secondary phase 72
2.4 Features of the end of primary (summative) education examinations 84
2.5 Relation between the Namibian primary and secondary assessment
directives and the features of competency-based assessment 85
2.6 Rules for the administration of the national examinations 88
2.7 Features of inspections of a National Examinations Centre 90
2.8 The role of assessment in achieving quality education 95
2.8.1 Purposes of assessment 95
2.8.2 Promotion policy 97
2.8.3 Non-promotional subjects 97
2.8.4 Passing percentage 98
2.8.5 Automatic promotion 102
2.8.6 Analysis and input of assessment results 104
2.8.7 Motivational role of assessment 106
2.9 Summary 107
Glossary 109
ii
UNIT 3 The aims, construction and application of assessment tools
(part 1) 110
Introduction 110
3.1 Assessment tools appropriate to assess levels/objectives of the three
learning domains 113
3.2 Comparison between cognitive taxonomies of Bloom and Marzano
and Kendall 120
3.3 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of objective
questions 127
3.3.1 True/false questions 127
3.3.2 Matching items 129
3.3.3 Multiple choice questions 131
3.4 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of semi-objective
questions 135
3.4.1 Completion questions 135
3.4.2 Short answer questions 137
3.4.3 Structured questions 139
3.5 The aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of free
response (interpretive) questions 140
3.5.1 Structured essays 140
3.5.2 Unstructured essays 143
3.5.3 Discussion/comparison/evaluation of… 144
3.6 Summary 147
Glossary 148
UNIT 4 The aims, construction and application of assessment tools

(part 2) 149
Introduction 151
4.1 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of performance-
based assessment tools 154
4.1.1 Products and processes/performances 154
4.1.2 Portfolios 156
4.1.3 Teacher observations of oral, written and behavioural
performances 163
4.2 The features of reliable observations by primary teachers 166
4.3 The format and content of the checklist/rubric as observational
assessment 169
4.3.1 Assessment of learners’ internalised values 169
4.3.2 Assessment of learners’ social relationships 172
iii
4.3.3 Assessment of learners’ emotional happiness 173
4.3.4 Assessment of learners’ special talents 176
4.4 The relationship between primary teaching-learning methods and
media with assessment methods 187
4.4.1 Labelled drawings 187
4.4.2 Concept maps 188
4.4.3 Competition among groups 189
4.4.4 Projects 190
4.4.5 Writing paragraphs 191
4.4.6 Inference pictures 192
4.5 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of oral
assessment 193
4.5.1 Aims 193
4.5.2 Construction 194
4.5.3 Advantages 194
4.5.4 Disadvantages 195
4.5.5 Types of questions 195
4.5.6 Guidelines for implementation of interviews/oral assessment 196
4.6 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of peer
assessment tools 197
4.6.1 Rubrics 197
4.6.2 Memos 203
4.6.3 Games 205
4.6.4 Role play 207
4.7 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of self-
4.7.1 Checklists 209
4.7.2 Diagrams 210
4.7.3 Questionnaires 212
4.8 Summary 213
Glossary 215
UNIT 5 The design and moderation of tests and examination papers 216
Introduction 217
5.1 The features of left and right brain oriented assessments 219
5.1.1 Left brain orientation 220
5.1.2 Right brain orientation 222
5.2 The relation between effective learning and effective assessment 224
5.2.1 Valid assessment 224
5.2.2 Reliable assessment 225
5.2.3 Effective learning and teaching 226
iv
5.3 Guidelines for planning and setting good examination papers 231
5.4 Criteria for the moderation of examination papers 234
5.5 Applying a moderation checklist 237
5.6 How to proofread examination papers 241
5.7 How to teach learners to prepare for and write test and examination
papers 244
5.7.1 Before the test/exam 244
5.7.2 During the test 246
5.7.3 After the test 246
5.7.4 Questions to consider 246
5.8 Summary 247
Glossary 248
UNIT 6 Marking and grading techniques 249

Introduction 250
6.1 Different types of grading symbols and functions of marks/grades 252
6.1.1 Norm-referenced grading 253
6.1.2 Criterion-referenced grading 254
6.1.3 Mastery learning 255
6.1.4 Pass-fail grading 256
6.1.5 Grading symbols 257
6.2 Various aspects relating to marking and the use of different
6.2.1 Purpose and features of the marking scheme 261
6.2.2 The analytic or holistic marking of essays 262
6.2.3 The analytic or holistic assessment of group work 265
6.2.4 The criteria for grading products (placard, models, drawings) 274
6.2.5 The use and grading of portfolios 277
6.2.6 The use and benefits of computer assisted marking 289
6.3 Effective marking practices 291
6.4 Marking scheme’s reflection on the allocation of marks for Bloom’s
higher level verbs 298
6.4.1 A taxonomy of lower to higher order reflection 299
6.4.2 The reflective learner 299
6.4.3. The reflective teacher 301
6.4.4. The reflective principal 302
6.5 Effective recording practices of senior-primary assessment results 307
6.4.1 Assessment of learning 307
6.4.2 Assessment for learning 308
6.4.3 Recording the results of assessments 309
6.4.4 Access to assessment results 310
v
6.5 Summary 311
Glossary 312
UNIT 7 Feedback on and reporting of assessment results 313

Introduction 314
7.1 The role of feedback to learners after assessment 316
7.2 The nature of feedback 318
7.2.1 The development of self-assessment of learning 319
7.2.2 Teacher and peer dialogue around learning 320
7.2.3 Clarifying good performance 321
7.2.4 Opportunities to close the gap 322
7.2.5 Quality information about a learner’s learning 324
7.2.6 Motivational beliefs and self-esteem 325
7.2.7 Analysis of information that can help shape teaching 326
7.3 The importance of reports regarding learning progress, the nature of
these reports and opportunities for using them 328
7.3.1 Importance of reporting 328
7.3.2 Opportunities for reporting 330
7.3.3 Nature of reports 332
7.4 Report card remarks that can ‘build up’ the learners and release their
dreams 334
7.5 The report card and the criteria for acceptable praise and feedback
on report cards 338
7.5.1 Feedback on report cards 338
7.5.2 Sample report cards 341
7.5.3 Upper primary term report 342
7.6 Summary 344
Glossary 345
UNIT 8 Statistical analysis and interpretation of assessment results 346

Introduction 347
8.1 The meaning of basic statistical concepts and symbols 349
8.1.1 Statistical concepts 350
8.1.2 Statistical symbols 357
8.2 Features and use of methods of organising test results/marks 360
8.2.1 Unorganised score distribution tables 360
8.2.2 Rank order scales 363
8.2.3 Simple frequency distribution tables 364
vi
8.2.4 Grouped frequency distribution tables 366
8.3 The value of descriptive statistics for analysis and interpretation of
assessment scores 370
8.3.1 Measures of central tendency 370
8.3.2 Measures of spread and dispersion 379
8.3.3 Measures of relative position 385
8.4 The degree of difficulty of test items 390
8.4.1 Item analysis for norm-referencing 390
8.4.2 Item analysis for diagnosing instruction and assessments 391
8.5 The differentiation/discriminating value of test items 392
8.6 Deduction from analysis of examination results 396
8.7 The importance for schools to analyse examination results 400
8.8 Summary 402
Glossary 403
UNIT 9 Instruments and elements of learning, instruction and parent

feedback 404
Introduction 405
9.1 Self-reflection instruments 407
9.1.1 How does reflection take place? 408
9.1.2 Instruments for teachers 410
9.1.3 Instruments for learners 421
9.2 Self-evaluation instruments 423
9.3 Questionnaires and feedback 430
9.3.1 Question structure 430
9.3.2 Guidelines for writing questions 433
9.3.3 A checklist for reviewing questionnaire items 435
9.3.4 Questionnaires for learners 435
9.3.5 Questionnaires for parents 438
9.4 Implementing feedback obtained from parents 444
9.4.1 Closed-loop feedback process 444
9.4.2 Ensuring satisfaction 447
9.4.3 A different mind-set 447
9.5 The role of national school audits as an assessment system to
promote quality education 447
9.6 Summary 449
Glossary 451
vii
References 452
Addendum 1 459
viii
I Word of welcome
Welcome to the study of assessment and evaluation!
Assessment and evaluation play a very large and vital role in education. It is most
likely that you will learn about assessment and assessment techniques throughout
your teaching career. You will quite possibly never know everything there is to know
regarding this aspect of teaching.
Being able to assess learners effectively and appropriately and being able to
evaluate your own teaching is a skill that develops with experience. The moment
you design your first assessment activity will be the moment you start developing
that skill.
Evaluating each assessment activity and teaching strategy is just as important as

assessment. You will have to evaluate your own teaching and your level of success
in everything you do in your teaching career.
Do not hesitate to ask for help and guidance from senior teachers. Sharing ideas
will help to extend your pool of knowledge. Interaction with colleagues is just as
important as interaction with learners.
Assessment is a creative process. Wherever you go, be on the look-out for ideas
for assessment activities, whether early in the morning while you are getting ready
for school, visiting friends, or going to the shops. Magazines and TV programmes
are good sources for ideas about assessment activities. A lot of thinking goes into
designing effective assessment activities.
I hope you find great pleasure and enjoyment in learning about assessment and
designing your own assessment activities.
Think left and think right and think low and think high. Oh, the thinks you can think
up if only you try!
Anonymous
Mrs. F. Barnard
i
II Time required
This module carries 10 credits which will take about 100 hours of notional learning
to complete. Commit yourself to your studies. Make sure you allow enough time to
work through the module and hand in your assignment on time.
III Exit learning outcomes
The comprehensive Exit Learning Outcome for this module is to debate theories
and practices of assessment and evaluation of learning activities and results, aims,
construction and application of assessment tools, to evaluate the moderation of
tests and examination papers, discuss marking and grading techniques, interpret
assessment results statistically and evaluate feedback instruments, and reporting
assessment results to parents.
Upon completion of this module you should be able to:
 Clarify basic assessment concepts and perspectives.

 Examine the general and primary assessment directives of Namibia.
 Discuss the aims, construction and application of assessment tools (Part 1).
 Analyse the aims, construction and application of assessment tools (Part 2).
 Evaluate the design and moderation of tests and examination papers.
 Examine marking and grading techniques.
 Discuss feedback on and reporting of assessment results.
 Analyse and interpret assessment results statistically.
 Evaluate some instruments and elements of learning, instruction and parent
feedback.
IV Study support available
Once you have received all your study materials the following is important:
 Take some time to familiarise yourself with this study guide.

 Make a note on your calendar as to when the assignment is due.
 As this is not the only module you are doing, you need to manage your time
and spend a certain amount of time reading and studying, which is needed to
complete this module successfully. Allocate time to do ALL the activities.
Remember revision also takes time and you have to revise your work
constantly in preparation for the exams.
 Read the outcomes of the module to get to know what each module is all
about and what it is that you will learn.
ii
 Do ALL the exercises and activities expected of you to complete the module.
Do not cheat on the activities. Check your answers after completion of the
activities. If your answers are wrong, study your work again and do the
activity again. Make sure you understand the part of the work you are
studying very well before you continue with the next part.
 There are key words at the beginning of each section. These key words will
give an indication of what is important and will guide you in the
assignments. Bulleted points were not included in the key words block.
 If you have any problems feel free to contact the lecturer at any time.
 If it is not possible to hand in your assignment on the due date, you must
contact the lecturer well in advance to make some arrangements.
 Do everything in your power to attend face-to-face contact sessions.
 Make use of IOL sources in the resource centre.
 Feedback given on the assignments should be regarded as support and will
help in preparing you for the exam.
V Module assessment policy
You are expected to submit one assignment of 120 marks for this module.
 A pass mark of 50% is required to gain admission to the examinations.

 A 60% pass is required for practical work and such work could account for
50% of the continuous assessment mark.
 The examination paper will have the same format as the assignment, will
count 120 marks, and will last two and a half hours. A pass mark of 50% is
required in the examination.
 A final pass mark of 50% is required. This is calculated as follows: 60% of
the examination mark AND 40% of the assignment/continuous assessment
mark.
 The setting and marking of examination papers are moderated.
VI Verbs’ thinking processes
ACTION VERBS: Meanings and thinking levels of verbs for teaching and
assessment.
The following table of verbs found in tests and examinations provides examples of
the thinking involved in each verb.
iii
Table 1: Meanings of / thinking required by verbs
VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED
Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

components/ patterns or relationships. Show why they are
Analyse
important and how components are related and what theories
they reflect.
A numerical answer from given figures or information is

Calculate required – the process or method leading to the answer must
be shown.
Describe something and discuss briefly by giving the positive

Comment
and negative points.
Indicate similarities / resemblances and differences of

phenomena regarding particular criteria. Draw a conclusion
about the similarities and differences, emphasising the
Compare
similarities. Very often a table format is used to compare
phenomena. A description of one phenomenon after the other
is not a comparison.
Show how things are different or opposite regarding particular

Contrast criteria. Look only for differences, not for similarities too, as in
the case for ‘compare’.
Give a reasoned judgement of something after careful

weighing of facts, information or perspectives. Provide
Criticise
positive and negative points – do not only emphasise the
negative side. Draw a conclusion.
Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law,

Deduce principle or context, to come to a conclusion after reasoning
about it.
Give the precise, brief meaning of something, often referring

Define to etymological roots of concepts. Indicate what features are
included and excluded.
Demonstrate Perform the necessary operations; show by example.
Provide detailed features of an issue or stages of a process in

Describe
a logical sequence, using numbers and headings and proper
iv
sentences. It is not necessary to discuss the subject by
referring to arguments for and against.
Determine Use the information given to work out the answer.
Give a clear description and then argue about features by

Discuss pointing out positive and negative features, arriving at a
conclusion.
Describe two phenomena / things according to relevant

Distinguish
criteria. Point out clearly the differences between the two sets.
/differentiate
Same as contrast.
Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

Estimate dimensions; the impact of something or the numerical
calculation of something.
Determine the value / worth / quality / success of something

Evaluate
according to certain criteria.
Describe something and indicate relationships between

Explain things, making clear the why (reasons) and how (examples)
of features.
Find A general term that means calculate, determine or measure.
Identify Recognise and name / list features.
Illustrate Describe by giving examples or making drawings.
Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or

Interpret
impact of it or explain the meaning of graphic information.
Identify detailed features of something / problem

Investigate
systematically and discuss them according to a given
/examine
directive, drawing a conclusion.
List / state Present a list of names, facts, objects, etc. in a certain order.
Give an overview of and indicate the main features of

Outline
something in a concise and systematic manner.
v
Make a logical deduction either from your own knowledge or
Predict from the information given and suggest what may happen,
based on the available information.
Indicate and describe the relationship / connections between

Relate
variables.
Give a brief account of the essence of a matter through the

Summarise main ideas – no details or examples – focusing on
connections and meaning.
(Adapted from: Study methods, UCT; Quia verb definitions 2004; CUE action
verbs 2004; Definitions of behavioural verbs 2004).
You will recognise that the verbs above cover mainly the different levels of Bloom’s
cognitive taxonomy. You should also realise that the highest level verbs encompass
the meaning of the lower verbs, for example, to evaluate something involves
knowledge, understanding and analysis of ideas to be able to judge / evaluate
according to criteria. Verbs associated with the affective and psychomotor domains
of learning include the following:
Affective verbs: look, show, discuss, appreciate, evaluate, value, display, and
practice.
Psychomotor verbs: draw a mind map, write a job application letter, design an
overhead transparency, collect materials to do an experiment, interview someone in
an occupation of your choice, find printed materials on the topic of…, demonstrate
how to do…, role play how you would thank someone for a party.
In my more than 25 years of lecturing I have discovered that, in many cases,

learners could have performed much better if only they were taught to observe the
verb in test or examination questions. The verb holds the key to better performance
because the verb indicates the level of thinking and, therefore, the way of
structuring an answer. It is thus also very important for teachers to choose the
verb used in a question very carefully as verbs reflect the degree of difficulty to be
met. One also needs to teach topics on the same verb level that you intend to
assess learners. Syllabi clearly state the verbs for particular topics.
Marking schemes should also be in accordance with the level of thinking / difficulty
required by verbs, e.g. the answer to a ‘discuss question of 12 marks’ should be
allocated marks for the facts (e.g. 7) and marks for the discuss part (say 5). Marks
for the higher level verbs can be from 20% to 50%, depending on the grade of the
learners.
vi
VII Prescribed textbooks
There are no prescribed books for this module, but learners are encouraged to do
some wider research on their own as any additional and applicable information will
be credited in the assignment and examination.
VIII References in IOL centres
You can visit the IOL centre where applicable and ask for help and support with
regard to extra information to be used in the preparation of assignments and
examinations.
Reference books in IOL centres
McMillan, J. H. 2011. Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for

effective standards-based instruction. 5th edition. Cape Town: Pearson. ISBN
978 0 13 216072 8
Dreyer, J. (ed). 2008. The educator as assessor. Pretoria: Van Schaik. ISBN
978 0 627 0273 6 $175
Pinto, E. & Dison, L. no date. Effective assessment: A step-by-step guide for
teachers. Heineman. ISBN 9780796210302
Hammons, J. O., & Barnsley, J. R. 1992. Everything you need to know about
developing a grading plan for your course (well, almost). Journal on Excellence
in College Teaching, 3: 51-68.
(http://www.ualr.edu/pace/UDCD/files/everything.pdf)
IX Plagiarism
ASSIGNMENTS ARE INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND NOT GROUP ACTIVITIES

(UNLESS EXPLICITLY INDICATED AS GROUP ACTIVITIES).
Copying text from other learners or from other sources (for instance, the study
guide, prescribed material or directly from the internet) is not allowed – only brief
quotations are allowed and then only if indicated as such.
You should reformulate existing text and use your own words to explain what you
have read. It is not acceptable to retype existing text and just acknowledge the
source in a footnote or in the bibliography – you should be able to relate the idea or
concept, without repeating the original author to the letter.
vii
The aim of the assignments is not the reproduction of existing material but to
ascertain whether you have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your own
interpretation and/or critique to the texts, and offer a creative solution to existing
problems.
Be warned: learners who submit copied text will obtain a mark of zero for the
assignment and disciplinary steps may be taken by IOL. It is also unacceptable to
do somebody else’s work, to lend your work to them or to make your work available
to them to copy – be careful and do not make your work available to anyone!
X Icons used in this guide
This icon indicates learning activities that you must do. Use a
separate exercise book for this purpose and use it throughout
the year – especially when you start doing revision for the
examination.
This icon indicates learning outcomes for a specific unit.
This icon indicates feedback on learning activities. Feedback

tells you what you should have done in the activity, or what is
done in the activity, or where you can find more information
on the activity.
You are encouraged to read many different books and

magazines about child education to find out more with regard
to upper-primary education.
viii
UNIT 1
Basic assessment concepts and perspectives
Introduction 3
Learning outcomes 3
1.1 The three learning domains 7

1.1.1 Cognitive domain 7
1.1.2 Affective domain 9
1.1.3 Psychomotor domain 10
1.2 Different multiple intelligences 11
1.3 Difference between learning outcomes and educational objectives 17
1.3.1 What is an educational objective? 18
1.3.2 What is a learning outcome? 19
1.4 Definitions 20
1.4.1 Measurement 20
1.4.2 Tests 21
1.4.3 Examinations 21
1.5 Informal and formal assessment 21
1.5.1 Informal assessment 21
1.5.2 Formal assessment 24
1.6 Continuous assessment 25
1.7 Formative assessment and summative assessment 27
1.7.1 Formative assessment 27
1.7.2 Summative assessment 29
1.8 Coursework and its challenges 31
1.9 Self-assessment and peer assessment 32
1.9.1 Self-assessment 33
1.9.2 Peer assessment 34
1.9.3 Similarities between peer and self-assessment 35
1.10 Alternative assessment methods 36
1.11 Levels of thinking required by verbs used in assessment 39
1.12 Evaluation 40
1.13 Purposes of assessment and evaluation 44
1.14 Principles underpinning good assessment practices 47
1.14.1 Assessment should be relevant. 47
1.14.2 Assessment should be appropriate 48
1.14.3 Assessment should be fair 48
1.14.4 Assessment should be accurate 49
1
1.14.5 Assessment should provide useful information 49
1.14.6 Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and
learning cycle 49
1.14.7 Assessment should draw on a wide range of evidence 49
1.14.8 Assessment should be manageable 49
1.14.9 Assessment should be reliable 50
1.14.10 Assessment should be valid 50
1.14.11 Assessment should be transferable 50
1.14.12 Assessment should be educative 50
1.15 Summary 51
Glossary 54
2
Introduction
In this unit you will learn more about Bloom’s Taxonomy and the learning domains
described by him, as well as the different multiple intelligences described by Gardner.
The use of particular verbs is vital for effective assessment and as such this needs to
be examined in this unit. All learning and assessment activities are linked to learning
outcomes, but when planning learning and assessment activities, one has to keep the
educational objectives in mind as well and, therefore, you will learn the difference
between learning outcomes and educational objectives. When discussing
assessment, words like measurement, test, examinations, formal and informal
assessment, formative and summative assessment, self- and peer assessment as
well as continuous and alternative assessments are often used. You will learn what
each of these means and when and how to use them. Coursework will be discussed
with some focus on the relating challenges. The purposes and principles underpinning
assessment will be analysed. The importance of evaluation and the types of
evaluation will also be studied in this unit.
Learning outcomes
After you have completed studying this unit you should be able to:
 Describe the three learning domains and the verbs suitable for assessing the levels of
each domain.
 Explain the different multiple intelligences that could be assessed and relate them to the
three learning domains.
 Differentiate between learning outcomes and educational objectives.
 Define measurement, tests and examinations.
 Clarify informal and formal assessment and techniques for doing them.
 Define continuous assessment and explain the advantages of it.
 Differentiate between formative and summative continuous assessment and explain the
features and benefits of each.
 Explain coursework (projects) and its challenges.
 Compare self-assessment and peer assessment and their advantages and
disadvantages.
 Explain alternative assessment methods.
 Analyse the levels of thinking required by the verbs used in assessments.
 Define evaluation and describe the types of evaluation.
 Analyse the purposes of assessment and evaluation.
 Discuss the principles underpinning good assessment practices.
3
Learning activities
Be on the look-out for learning activities that follow the theoretical information. At
the end of the unit you will receive feedback on the activity. Please complete all the
activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback. It is good
preparation for the examination.
Learning activity 1
Read through sections 1.1 (learning domains) and 1.2. (multiple

intelligences). Read the first 2 paragraphs of 1.1 and 1.2 again. List the
differences between learning domains and multiple intelligences.
Learning activity 2
For every intelligence listed below, write down at least 5 verbs (or as many
as you can identify), as given in the learning domains in 1.1 that would be
most appropriate to use when assessing something relating to each type of
intelligence.
Learning activity 3
List in a table format the similarities and differences between an

educational objective and a learning outcome.
Learning activity 4
Using a table format, write down the similarities and differences between
measurements, tests and exams.
Learning activity 5
Using a table format, write down the differences between informal and
formal assessments.
Learning activity 6
Read all the definitions given on continuous assessment (also those in the
handbooks) and write your own definition of continuous assessment. Write
it in your own words so that it makes sense to you.
4
Learning activity 7
List three differences and three similarities between formative assessment

and summative assessment.
Learning activity 8
Which of the challenges of coursework are relevant to the area in which you
work? Give reasons why they would be relevant to your area and give
reasons why the others would not be relevant to your area.
Learning activity 9
Write the differences and similarities between self- and peer assessments in
a table format.
Learning activity 10
Your principal asks you to explain to the teachers at a parent meeting why
alternative assessment methods should be used. Write down what you will
say to them.
Following are the beginning of assessment tasks:
i. Explain how to …
ii. Illustrate how to …
iii. Draw up a list …
iv. Design a pamphlet …
v. Write a paragraph …
vi. Write in your own words …
vii. Solve the following problems …
viii. Plan an event …
ix. Distinguish between …
x. Select the correct answer …
Say under which level of Bloom’s taxonomy each task falls.
1 Explain the differences between evaluation and assessment.
2 The principal wants to find out the following:
5
a. If the pre-primary learners have the required numeracy
knowledge.
b. If the pre-primary learners receive the type of education that will

prepare them for primary school.
c. If the in-service training on new language teaching methods that

pre-primary teachers have received and which they have been
implementing for three months have had any impact.
He wants you to advise him regarding what evaluation tool to use for each
type of information he requires. Describe what you would suggest, giving
reasons in each case for using the particular evaluation tool you have
chosen.
Describe the purpose of assessment using the following headings:
i. Collect data.
ii. Interpret data.
iii. Analyse the data.
iv. Report the results.
v. Plan new learning activities.
Match column A with column B
Column A Column B
a. Appropriate i. All criteria have been met and the performance to
the required standard can be repeated in future.
b. Fair ii. The assessment is easily arranged, cost-effective,
and does not interfere with learning.
c. Manageable iii. The learner is able to perform the assessment
outcomes at the time of the assessment.
d. Valid iv. The learner must understand the assessment
method and be able to identify it.
e. Current v. The assessment method is suited to the outcomes.
f. Authentic vi. What learners learn must have purpose to them and
they must be able to apply what they have learnt.
6
g. Sufficient vii. The evidence matches the requirements in the
outcomes.
h. Reliable viii. The evidence is attributable to the candidate
being assessed.
i. Transferable ix. Assessment does not present barriers to
achievements.
j. Relevant x. If another teacher uses the same method in the
same circumstances the results will be the same.
1.1 The three learning domains
Learning domains were described by Bloom, referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy,

in which he identifies three overlapping parts or, as he called it, domains. The
premise is that in each of the three domains the categories are ordered in
degree of difficulty. An important principle of Bloom's Taxonomy is that each
category (or 'level') must be mastered before progressing to the next. As such,
the categories within each domain are levels of learning development and
these levels increase in difficulty.
These overlapping domains are sometimes referred to as categories of

learning outcomes and are critical to consider as you plan your lessons. By
analysing the type of learning domain or outcome that you want, you can
determine which activities and assessments can be used. The learner should
benefit from the development of knowledge and intellect (cognitive domain),
attitude and beliefs (affective domain), and the ability to put physical and bodily
skills into effect, that is, to act (psychomotor domain).
The three learning domains are the following:
1.1.1 Cognitive domain
This domain refers to intellectual capability and skills. The six categories
of the cognitive domain are knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, and they describe the increasing
difficulty in thinking skills expected from the learners as the knowledge
and content becomes more difficult. This domain is the primary learning
domain because thinking skills are required in both of the following
domains.
Below is a table containing verbs that can be used in assessment

activities for each category.
7
Category Connotation Verbs
Knowledge Recalls List, recall, draw, arrange,

information enumerate, name, recite,
reproduce, collect, examine,
order, recognise, select,
count, find, outline, recollect,
show, define, identify, present,
record, state, describe, label,
point, recount, tabulate, draw,
quote, relate, tell, duplicate,
match, recall, repeat, write
Comprehension Understands Describe, report, recognise,

the information associate, decode, explain,
indicate, restate, change,
defend, express, infer, rewrite,
clarify, extend, interpret,
review, classify, differentiate,
extrapolate, locate, select,
compute, discriminate,
generalise, paraphrase,
specify, construct, discuss,
give examples, Predict, solve,
contrast, distinguish, identify,
recognise, summarise,
convert, estimate, illustrate,
report, translate
Application Applies the Choose, find, show, add,

knowledge to a compute, experiment,
new situation operate, select, apply,
construct, find, organise,
show, assess, demonstrate,
graph, plot, simulate,
calculate, develop, illustrate,
practise, sketch, change,
discover, interpret, predict,
solve, choose, divide,
interview, prepare, subtract,
classify, dramatise,
manipulate, produce, transfer,
collect, employ, map, relate,
translate, complete, examine,
modify, schedule, use
8
Analysis Separates Contrast, detect, separate,

information into analyse, connect,
parts for better differentiate, group, point out,
understanding appraise, contrast, discover,
identify, question, arrange,
criticise, discriminate,
illustrate, relate, break down,
debate, distinguish, infer,
recognise, calculate, deduce,
divide, inspect, separate,
categorise, detect, draw,
conclusions, investigate,
simplify, classify, determine,
examine, order, subdivide,
compare, develop,
experiment, outline, test
Evaluation Judges the Assess, argue, rate, appraise,

value of consider, discriminate,
information monitor, score, ascertain,
contrast, estimate, predict,
select, argue, convince,
explain, persuade,
standardise, assess, criticise,
evaluate, rank, summarise,
attach, critique, grade, rate,
support, award, decide,
interpret, recommend, test,
choose, defend, judge, relate,
validate, compare, detect,
justify, resolve, value,
conclude, determine,
measure, revise, verify
Create Builds a Combine, create, plan, argue,

pattern from construct, generalise, order,
diverse reconstruct, arrange, create,
elements generate, organise, relate,
assemble, design, group,
originate, reorganise,
categorise, develop, integrate,
plan, revise, collect, devise,
invent, prepare, rewrite,
combine, establish, make,
prescribe, set up, compile,
explain, manage, propose,
9
summarise, compose,
formulate, modify, rearrange
1.1.2 Affective domain
The affective learning domain addresses a learner's emotions and

feelings towards learning experiences. It is based upon behavioural
aspects and may be labelled as beliefs. A learner's attitudes, interest,
attention, awareness, and values are demonstrated by affective
behaviours.
The affective domain is critical for learning but is often not specifically
addressed. This domain deals with attitudes, motivation and willingness
to participate, whilst valuing what is being learned and ultimately
incorporating the values of a discipline into a way of life.
The stages in this domain are not as sequential as the cognitive domain
but can be described as receiving, responding, valuing, organising and
internalising values.
Below is a table with verbs that can be used in assessment activities:

Behaviour that is Acknowledge, combine,
controlled by a display, justify, relate,
value system. act, complete, dispute,
Internalising
Willing to change listen, report, adhere,
values
one’s behaviour, conform, embrace, order,
lifestyle, or way of resolve, ask, co-operate,
life. follow, organise, respond,
accept, defend, hold,
Organising values participate, share,
into order of answer, demonstrate (a
priority. belief in or an
Organising
appreciation of), initiate,
Willing to be an practise, show, assist,
advocate. integrate, share, support,
attempt, differentiate, join,
Valuing The value a praise, synthesise,
person attaches to challenge, discuss, judge,
10
something. Willing question, value, appraise,
to be involved. practice, discuss
Taking an active
part in learning;
Responding participating.
Willing to
participate.
Being aware and

Receiving
willing to listen.
1.1.3 Psychomotor domain
The psychomotor domain focuses on performing a sequence of motor

activities to a specified level of accuracy, smoothness, rapidity, or force.
This domain functions on the manual and physical areas and the
learners are expected to acquire a skill and to do something. The
learner will produce a product. Underlying the motor activity is cognitive
understanding. The learner must have knowledge and understanding of
the content before he/she can demonstrate a skill in the psychomotor
domain. If you are unsure whether you are assessing a psychomotor or
cognitive activity, ask yourself the following questions:
Is speed a factor?
Is equipment other than four walls of a classroom and a computer
necessary?
Are you going to assess the activity in some way other than a
paper/pencil test?
If you answer "yes" to any one of these three questions, you are
assessing in the psychomotor domain.
The stages in this domain are also not as sequential as the cognitive
domain, but can be described as origination, adaptation, complex overt
response, mechanism, guided response, set and perception.
Below is a table with verbs that can be used in assessment activities.

A learner's ability Adapt, choreograph,
to create new dismantle, handle, organise,
Origination
movement adjust, combine, display,
patterns. heat, perform, administer,
11
A learner's ability construct, dissect,
to modify motor manipulate, present, alter,
Adaptation
skills to fit a new copy, drive, identify, refine,
situation. arrange, design, estimate,
measure, shorten, assemble,
Complex The intermediate deliver, examine, execute,
overt stage of learning a sketch, balance, detect,
response complex skill. execute, mime, stretch, bend,
demonstrate, fix, mimic,
The ability to react, build, differentiate (by
Mechanism perform a complex touch), grasp, mix, test,
motor skill. calibrate, deconstruct, grind,
operate, use, build, detect,
The early stage of refine.
Guided learning a complex
response skill which includes
imitation.
A learner's
Set
readiness to act.
The ability to use

sensory cues to
Perception
guide physical
activity.
1.2 Different multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner is a psychologist and professor at Harvard University's

Graduate School of Education. Based on his study of many people from many
different walks of life in everyday circumstances and professions, Gardner
developed the theory of multiple intelligences. He performed interviews with
and brain research on hundreds of people, including stroke victims, prodigies,
autistic individuals, and so-called "idiot savants."
Gardner defined the first seven intelligences in Frames of Mind in 1983. He

added the last two in Intelligence Reframed in 1999.
He became dissatisfied with IQ tests because he held the view that only two
intelligences seem to be valued at school. He realised, however, that there are
more intelligences than just the two generally recognised at school level.
Learners with low scores in linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences
were seen as unintelligent, but he felt that this did not reflect the truth. “I
believe that we should get away altogether from tests and correlations among
tests, and look instead at more naturalistic sources of information about how
12
people around the world develop skills important to their way of life” (Gardner
1993:7). “We believe that individuals may differ in the particular intelligence
profiles with which they are born, and that certainly they differ in the profiles
they end up with. I think of the intelligences as raw, biological potentials”
(Gardner 1993: 9).
Theory behind the model
Gardner's MI Theory challenged traditional beliefs in the fields of education

and cognitive science. According to a traditional definition, intelligence is a
uniform cognitive capacity people are born with. This capacity can be easily
measured by short-answer tests. According to Gardner, intelligence is:
The ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a

culture.
A set of skills that make it possible for a person to solve problems in life.
The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves
gathering new knowledge.
In addition, Gardner claims that:
All human beings possess all intelligences in varying amounts.

Each person has a different intellectual composition.
We can improve education by addressing the multiple intelligences of our
learners.
These intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either
work independently or together.
These intelligences may define the human species.
Multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened or ignored and
weakened.
Each individual has nine intelligences (and maybe more to be discovered).
According to the MI Theory, identifying each learner’s intelligences has strong

ramifications in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified, then
teachers can accommodate different children more successfully according to
their orientation to learning. Teachers in traditional classrooms primarily teach
to the verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical intelligences.
The nine intelligences of MI Theory are:
Skills and career

Intelligence
preferences
Verbal-linguistic Skills - Listening, speaking,
1.
intelligence writing, teaching.
13
Well-developed verbal skills Careers - Poet, journalist,
and sensitivity to the writer, teacher, lawyer,
sounds, meanings and politician, translator.
rhythms of words.
Mathematical-logical Skills - Problem solving

intelligence (logical & math), performing
experiments.
2. Ability to think conceptually
and abstractly, and capacity Careers - Scientists,
to discern logical or engineers, accountants,
numerical patterns. mathematicians.
Musical intelligence Skills - Singing, playing

instruments, composing
Ability to produce and music.
3. appreciate rhythm, pitch
and timber. Careers - Musician, disc
jockey, singer, composer.
Visual-spatial intelligence Skills - Puzzle building,

painting, constructing,
Capacity to think in images fixing, and designing
and pictures, to visualise objects.
4. accurately and abstractly.
Careers - Sculptor, artist,
inventor, architect,
mechanic, engineer.
Bodily- Skills - Dancing, sports,

kinaesthetic intelligence hands on experiments,
acting.
5. Ability to control one's body
movements and to handle Careers - Athlete, PE
objects skilfully. teacher, dancer, actor, fire-
fighter.
Interpersonal intelligence Skills - Seeing from other

perspectives, empathy,
Capacity to detect and counselling, co-operating.
6. respond appropriately to the
moods, motivations and Careers - Counsellor,
desires of others. salesperson, politician,
business person, minister.
14
Intrapersonal intelligence Skills - Recognise one’s
S/W, reflective, aware of
Capacity to be self-aware inner feelings.
7. and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs and Careers - Researchers,
thinking processes. theorists, philosophers.
Naturalist intelligence Skills - Recognise one’s

connection to nature, apply
Ability to recognise and science theory to life.
8. categorise plants, animals
and other objects in nature. Careers – Scientist,
naturalist, landscape
architect.
Existential intelligence Skills – Reflective and

deep thinking, design
Sensitivity and capacity to abstract theories.
9. tackle deep questions about
human existence, such as Careers – Scientist,
the meaning of life, why we philosopher, theologian.
die, and how we got here.
Source - http://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/MI%20Table.htm
An educational system based on national standards and efficient, relatively

cheap, universal multiple choice testing is central to the traditional concept of
intelligence. In practice, a learner's score on an I.Q.2 test or WISC3 ranks his
or her strengths and weaknesses. It qualifies learners for special services
(such as programmes for the gifted or for those with learning disabilities). An
unfortunate use of IQ tests in schools is that it often results in labelling
learners.
Many educators, researchers, learners and parents have long rejected multiple
choice testing as a measure of intelligence. Multiple intelligence theory has
served as a rallying point for a reconsideration of the educational practice of
the last century.
Traditional view of Intelligence Multiple Intelligences Theory
Intelligence can be measured by Assessment of an individual's

short-answer tests: multiple intelligences can foster
Stanford-Binet intelligence learning and problem-solving
quotient. styles. Short answer tests are not
15
Wechsler intelligence scale for used because they do not
Children (WISCIV). measure disciplinary mastery or
Woodcock Johnson test of deep understanding. They only
cognitive ability. measure rote memorisation skills
Scholastic Aptitude Test. and one's ability to do well on
short answer tests. Some states
have developed tests that value
process over the final answer,
such as PAM (Performance
Assessment in Math) and PAL
(Performance Assessment in
Language).
Human beings have all of the
People are born with a fixed
intelligences, but each person has
amount of intelligence.
a unique combination or profile.
We can all improve each of the
Intelligence level does not change intelligences, though some people
over a lifetime. will improve more readily in one
intelligence area than in others.
There are many more types of
Intelligence consists of ability in
intelligence that reflect different
logic and language.
ways of interacting with the world.
M.I. pedagogy implies that
In traditional practice, teachers teachers teach and assess
teach the same material to differently based on individual
everyone. intellectual strengths and
weaknesses.
Teachers structure learning
activities around an issue or
question and connect subjects.
Teachers teach a topic or
Teachers develop strategies that
"subject."
allow for learners to demonstrate
multiple ways of understanding
and value their uniqueness.
Source - http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index_sub1.html
There are numerous ways to express oneself and probably even more ways to
gain knowledge and understand the universe. Individuals, the theory of multiple
intelligences advocates, are capable of deep understanding and mastery in the
most profound areas of human experience. Even long before the theory
emerged and was named in 1983 by Gardner, numerous teachers fostered the
intelligences of their learners.
16
As a teacher you have a chance to reflect on your class and imagine your
learners as individuals who have fully realised and developed their
intelligences.
Countless educators have incorporated multiple intelligence theory into their

work.
The multiple intelligences approach encourages teachers to regard intellectual

ability more broadly. Teachers are able to see that visual arts, music and
dance can be just as valuable to learners' understanding of the world they live
in as traditional academic subjects. Numerous teachers and administrators
have applied aspects of multiple intelligence theory in their classrooms and
schools.
Through the serious and in-depth study of just a few subjects rather than a
minimal amount of attention to many subjects, Howard Gardner believes that
learners will develop a passion for exploring truly profound ideas.
The benefits of using the multiple intelligences approach relate to the three
learning domains in the following ways:
As a teacher you may come to regard intellectual ability more broadly. Drawing
a picture, composing or listening to music, watching a performance, these
activities can be a vital door to learning as important as writing and
mathematics. Studies show that many learners who perform poorly on
traditional tests are turned on to learning when classroom experiences
incorporate artistic, athletic, and musical activities.
As a teacher you will provide opportunities for authentic learning based on your
learners' needs, interests and talents. The multiple intelligence classroom acts
like the "real" world: the author and the illustrator of a book are equally valuable
creators. Learners become more active, involved learners.
Parent and community involvement in the school may increase. This happens
as learners demonstrate work before panels and audiences. Activities involving
apprenticeship learning bring members of the community into the learning
process.
Learners will be able to demonstrate and share their strengths. Building

strengths gives a learner the motivation to be a "specialist." This can, in turn,
lead to increased self-esteem.
When teachers "teach for understanding," their learners accumulate positive

educational experiences and the capability for creating solutions to problems in
life.
17
Learners begin to understand how they are intelligent. In Gardner's view,
learning is both a social and psychological process. When learners understand
the balance of their own multiple intelligences they begin to manage their own
learning to value their individual strengths.
Teachers understand how learners are intelligent as well as how intelligent

they are. Knowing which learners have the potential for strong interpersonal
intelligence, for example, will help you create opportunities where the strength
can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence theory is not intended
to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their learners.
Learners approach understanding from different angles.
Learners that exhibit comprehension through demonstrations come to have an
authentic understanding of achievement. The accomplishment of the lawyer is
in winning her case through research and persuasive argument, more than in
having passed the bar exam.
Learners become balanced individuals who can function as members of their

culture.
Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory can be used for curriculum

development, planning instruction, selection of course activities, and related
assessment strategies. Instruction which is designed to help learners develop
their strengths can also trigger their confidence to develop areas in which they
are not as strong. Learners’ multiple learning preferences can be addressed
when instruction includes a range of meaningful and appropriate methods,
activities, and assessments.
1.3 Difference between learning outcomes and educational

objectives
Education is a process that aims to bring about change in human behaviour.

Every individual should have access to education in order to develop his/her
potential and abilities to the optimum. In quality education every task should be
done for a particular purpose. This is easy to achieve when the objectives and
goals are known and clear. It is thus important that the purposes and objectives
are clearly stated.
Ammons (1962) defines objectives as the most critical criteria for guiding all
other activities. They must be specific, measurable, and observable
(http://www.education.com/definition/educational-objectives/).
18
A learning outcome can be defined as what a learner is expected to be able to
DO as a result of a learning activity. The word “do” suggests what skill,
knowledge or behaviour a learner is able to demonstrate as a consequence of
a learning activity. What is important is that there must be a doing in the do of a
learning outcome (https://deanoflearners.byu.edu/content/what-are-learning-
outcomes).
Let us explore educational objectives and learning outcomes further.
1.3.1 What is an educational objective?
Educational objectives are much broader than learning outcomes. They

are in effect policy statements that give direction to the education
system and provide a foundation on which to build the education
system.
Educational objectives consist of different types of objectives.

Institutional or general objectives are sets of statements identifying
major skills that trainee teachers as well as learners should possess
after completion of the educational process. Departmental or
intermediate objectives are sets of statements identifying the skills to be
acquired by all learners who are taught within a particular school or
division. These skills have to be consistent with the institutional
objectives.
These statements express specifically and in measurable terms that

which will develop cognitive or psychomotor skills that the learners
should be able to do as a result of instruction.
The purpose of educational objectives is to:
Prepare teaching and/or learning programmes.

Facilitate course planning.
Facilitate learning.
Facilitate evaluation.
Help in curriculum design.
Help select approach of instruction.
The overall educational objective set by the Namibian Ministry of

Education is that learning content should be concentrating on the
relevance of its application within a knowledge-based economy as
envisaged by Namibia's VISION 2030. Basic competencies which all
learners should have achieved at the end of each phase of formal basic
education are institutional objectives. Another institutional objective is
19
aimed at enabling the successful and irreversible acquisition of literacy
and numeracy skills in the mother tongue of learners.
An example of an educational objective:
Learners express themselves well orally, read appropriate texts and

write reasonably correctly for their everyday purposes, in their mother
tongue (or, where the mother tongue is not possible, in their local, most
spoken language).
1.3.2 What is a learning outcome?
Learning outcomes are statements of what a learner is expected to

know, understand and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a
process of learning. They describe the knowledge, skills and
competencies a learner should master in the learning process.
Learning outcomes are specific in describing what the learner will be

able to do. The content, delivery and assessment of all learning
activities are determined by the outcomes. Statements are made
regarding what the learner will be able to do or demonstrate as a result
of the learning. Learning outcomes are learner-centred. This means that
the focus is on what the learner will know and understand and thus
defines the content, learning activities and assessment activities.
The purpose of learning outcomes is to:
 Give learners a clear understanding of what is expected of

them.
 Give the teacher a clear indication of the content and which
learning activities, as well as which assessment activities,
should be used.
 Influence the learning domain and level of learning required.
Requirements of a learning outcome
Learning outcomes should generally start with a statement of

expectation such as “On successful completion of this section the
learner will be able to”.
They should:
 Always begin with an action verb (see 1.1 for examples of

action verbs).
 Use one action verb for each learning outcome.
20
 Describe knowledge, a skill or an attitude that is observable
or measurable.
 Focus on what you expect the learner to be able to
demonstrate or do on completion of the lesson or
instruction.
 Be specific.
 Be written in clear and short sentences.
An example of a learning outcome:
On successful completion of this lesson the learner will be able to count from 1
to 50.
1.4 Definitions
1.4.1 Measurement
Measurement is a collection of quantitative data. Quantitative data is

information about quantity. This is when you are trying to determine the
amount or extent of some quality. In measurement, a quantity is
compared with a standard unit. It can be represented by some number.
It refers to the set of procedures and the principles for how to use the
procedures in educational tests and assessment. Some of the basic
principles of measurement in educational evaluations would be raw
scores, percentile ranks, derived scores, standard scores, etc.
A good measurement should be both accurate and precise. Accuracy is

determined by the care taken by the person making the measurement
and the quality of the instrument. Precision, on the other hand, is
determined by the design of the instrument. The choice of the
instrument used should be appropriate to the desired precision of the
results.
Measurement provides feedback which is essential for growth. A

teacher has to know how the learners perform, how their actions impact
on others, how their environment is changing and even when the
classroom environment changes, as well as getting feedback about their
own teaching styles. Information gained by measurement gives an
opportunity to adapt and to grow.
Errors are always possible when doing measuring, even if you use
carefully selected measuring tools. You may make small errors in using
the tool or reading the measurement. These kinds of errors are random
errors. To reduce random errors, take measurements several times.
21
1.4.2 Tests
A test (and exam) is an assessment that measures a learner’s

knowledge and skills. The word ‘test’ means ‘investigation’. A test may
be in the form of an oral or can be written or performed on a computer or
it can even require a learner to perform some activities in order to
demonstrate mastery of the learnt skill. Tests can have many styles and
forms. Tests require learners to rely upon memory to respond to specific
items. A test can also require proficiency in tools such as a calculator to
be able to perform a test.
A test (and exam) differs from a measurement because it is generally

qualitative. The presence or absence of acquired knowledge or skills are
tested. Some types of tests are short quizzes, multiple choice tests, or a
weekly spelling test.
Tests may be administered formally or informally. All tests can be

graded, but usually the scores of formal tests are used to interpret
learner progress. Tests are usually on a certain topic or a section of
work. Tests are usually administered at a time deemed fit by the
teacher.
1.4.3 Examinations
An exam is a method to determine a learner’s ability to complete certain

tasks or demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of content. The
word exam implies that something will be ‘checked’. Although there are
many similarities between examinations and tests, exams focus on more
work, usually an entire semester’s work. As learners develop and
become more independent, examination results generally contribute
towards a larger percentage of the year's work and scores than tests.
Exams are always taken at a fixed time determined by the school or
department.
1.5 Informal and formal assessment
1.5.1 Informal assessment
An informal assessment is a method of measuring an individual's

performance by casually watching their behaviour or using other
informal techniques. Often the learner is unaware that he/she is being
assessed. Informal assessments are not interested in facts, figures or
numbers but are concerned with content and performance. This type of
assessment wants to find out what learners know or how well they can
22
perform a certain task such as reading. Informal assessments are used
to inform instruction.
Techniques for informal assessment
Method Purpose Guidelines Example
Observation Enables Plan for Interpersonal

teachers to observation skills:
identify and be clear
Learner learners’ about the Active listening.
watching behaviours, purposes of
learners in a document the Staying on task.
systematic performance, observation.
way and make Asking
decisions. questions.
Contributing
ideas.
Anecdotal Provides Record only During free

record insight into a what is play
particular observed or
behaviour and heard; should Where did he
a basis for deal with the play?
Gives a brief planning a facts and
written specific should
description of teaching include the What did he do?
learner strategy. setting (e.g.
behaviour at where the
What did he
one time. behaviour
say?
occurs) and
what was
said and With whom did
done. he play?
With what did

he play?
Running Helps obtain Maintain Name of

record more detailed objectivity learner.
insight into and try to
Focuses on a behaviour include as Day of the
sequence of over a period much detail week.
events that of time. as possible.
Reading.
23
occurs over (Record the
time. learner’s
behaviour
during reading
every day for a
fixed period of
time).
Event Helps identify Identify a Record of

sampling behaviours target events. for
during a behaviour to example:
Focuses on a particular be observed
particular event over during  Behaviour
behaviour time. particular at
during a times. lunchtime.
particular  Behaviour
event. in a
reading
group.
 Fighting
during
transition
activities.
Time Helps identify Observe only Does a learner

sampling when a during the walk around in
particular child time period class:
Record demonstrates specified.
particular a particular Five minutes?
events or behaviour;
behaviours at helps answer Ten minutes?
specific time the question,
intervals "Does the
child do
something all
the time or just
at certain
times and
events?"
Rating scale Enables Make sure 1 = Disruptive

teachers to that key 2=
Contains a record data descriptor Uncooperative
list of when they are and the 3 = Neutral
descriptors observed. rating scale 4 = Cooperative
are 5 = Enthusiastic
appropriate
24
for a set of for what is
behaviours. being
observed.
Checklist Enables Make sure Counts from 1 to

teachers to that the 10.
A list of observe and checklist
behaviours easily check includes Hops on one
identifying off what behaviours foot.
children's children know that are
skills and and are able to important for
knowledge. do. the
programme
and for
learning.
Work Provides a Make sure A piece of

Sample concrete that the work writing.
example of sample
Collection of learning; can demonstrates An art project.
learner's show growth what children
work that and know and are
demonstrates achievement able to do.
what they over time. Let children
know and are help select
able to do. the items
they want to
use as
examples of
their learning.
Portfolio Provides Make sure Can be test

documentation the portfolio scores, writing
Collection of of a learner's is not a work samples,
learner’s work achievement dumpster but recordings.
samples and in specific a thoughtful
other areas over collection of
products. time. materials that
document
learning over
time.
Interview Allows learner Ask Explain

to talk freely questions at behaviour, work
Engaging but each all levels of samples, or
learners in learner must Bloom's particular
discussion taxonomy in answers to
25
through get a chance order to gain specific
questions, to talk, insight into questions,
learner’s
learning,
1.5.2 Formal assessment
Formal assessments usually take the form of a standardised test or the

grading of a presentation or a section of reading. An interpretation is
made about the performance of the learner against a set of expected
standards. Standard scores or averages can be calculated. The
assessment used needs to match the purpose of assessing. Formal
tests should be used to assess overall achievement, to compare a
learner's performance with other learners of the same age or grade, or
to identify comparable strengths and weaknesses with peers.
Techniques for formal assessment
Method Purpose
Cognitive ability.
Meaning of words.
Numerical ability.
Test
Reasoning ability.
Reading ability – testing
comprehension.
Skills.
Counting.
Test Following instructions.
Physical fitness.
Spelling test.
Knowledge.
Skills.
Multiple-choice test
Attitudes.
Abilities.
Application of knowledge.
Essays Attitude.
Values.
Short-answer or Knowledge.
problem-solving
26
Knowledge.
Oral presentations Skills.
Abilities.
1.6 Continuous assessment
Continuous assessment means that a learner will be assessed throughout the

learning process and not only at the end of learning. The progress (or lack
thereof) of every learner is recorded and monitored and the teacher can give
support and guidance where necessary and create opportunities for
improvement.
Alausa (2003) defines it as follows: “Continuous assessment of learners’

progress could be defined as a mechanism whereby the final grading of
learners in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning
systematically takes account of all their performances during a given period of
schooling.”
Another definition by Airasian (1991) describes continuous assessment as an

assessment approach which should depict the full range of sources and
methods teachers use to gather, interpret and synthesise information about
learners; information that is used to help teachers understand their learners,
plan and monitor instruction and establish a viable classroom culture (Alause
2003).
Baker and Stitesis are of the opinion that continuous assessment should
involve a formal assessment of learners’ affective characteristics and
motivation in which they will need to demonstrate their commitment to tasks
over time, their work-force readiness, and their competence in team or group
performance contexts (Alause 2003).
From these definitions, one could infer that continuous assessment is an

assessment approach which involves the use of a variety of assessment
instruments, assessing various components of learning, not only the thinking
processes, but including behaviours, personality traits and manual dexterity.
Continuous assessment will also take place over a period of time. Such an
approach would be more holistic, representing the learner in his/her entirety. It
will begin with the decisions that the teachers perform on the first day of school
and end with the decisions that the teachers and administrators make on the
learners regarding end-of-year grading and promotion (Alause 2003).
Advantages of continuous assessment
27
To the teacher:
 Teachers can monitor the impact of their lessons on learner understanding.

 Teachers assess the curriculum as implemented in the classroom.
 It places teachers at the centre of all performance assessment activities.
 It encourages more teacher participation in the overall assessment or
grading of the learners.
To teaching:
 It gives teachers enough time to modify their teaching style if necessary.

 Allows teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching strategies
relative to the curriculum and to change those strategies as dictated by the
needs of their learners.
 Teachers can modify their pedagogical strategies to include the
construction of remediation activities for learners who are not working at the
expected grade level.
To the learner:
 A full range of the learner’s performance is captured.

 Learner’s strengths and weaknesses are diagnosed. The teacher can see
where the gaps in learning are, but also where learning activities are not
challenging enough.
 Enrichment activities for learners who are working at or above the expected
grade level can be designed.
 The learner’s progress is assessed and there is time to correct problems.
 It is a powerful diagnostic tool that enables learners to understand the
areas in which they are having difficulty and to concentrate their efforts in
those areas.
 It supports a cycle of self-evaluation and learner-specific activities by both
learners and teachers.
 It provides information on achievement of particular levels of skills,
understanding, and knowledge rather than achievement of certain marks or
scores.
 It enables learners to monitor their achievement of grade level goals and to
visualise their progress towards those goals before it is too late to achieve
them.
To learning:
 Data is gathered over a long period of time; therefore the data is more
accurate.
 It integrates assessment and assessment results into instructional practice.
28
To the teacher-learner relationship:
 It fosters a learner-teacher relationship based on individual interactions.

 Learners learn that the teacher values their achievements and that their
assessment outcomes have an impact on the instruction that they receive.
 One-to-one communication between the teacher and the learner can
motivate learners to continue attending school and to work hard to achieve
higher levels of mastery.
 It incorporates assessment into the larger learning framework and allows
for discussion of standards for learners’ work with colleagues, parents and
learners.
1.7 Formative assessment and summative assessment
The two modes of assessment to be discussed are formative continuous

assessment and summative assessment.
1.7.1 Formative assessment
Formative continuous assessment is any assessment made during the

school year in order to improve learning and to help shape and direct
the teaching-learning process. Teachers make frequent, interactive
assessments of learner understanding.
Formative assessments are an integral part of the learning process and

include informal assessments. Formative assessments are primarily to
determine what learners have learned in order to plan further instruction.
This enables teachers to adjust their teaching to meet learner needs and
to guide them towards helping the learners to reach expected standards.
Findings of formative assessments can be used to understand what
changes need to be made to the teaching and learning process.
A variety of manageable, appropriate and fair assessment approaches

should be used. Some guidelines to be kept in mind are:
 Assessment approaches need to be varied and effective. It

should include successful approaches that have been used
before.
 Formative assessment approaches are suitable for
obtaining valid, reliable and sufficient evidence of learner
progress.
 Information is informative and useful to the teacher, parent
and learner with respect to progress and needs.
29
 Formative assessments should inform teaching practice by
identifying trends and weaknesses to be addressed with
whole groups and individual learners.
 Identification of trends and weaknesses is consistently
accurate and promotes continuous improvement in
assessment.
 It is used to motivate learners to extend their knowledge and
skills, establish sound values, and to promote healthy habits
of study.
 Assessment tasks help learners to solve problems
intelligently by using what they have learned.
 The teacher uses the information to improve teaching
methods and learning materials.
 In lower primary, assessment focuses on discovering the
child and ensuring that reading competence is achieved.
Benefits of formative assessment
Flexible
Formative assessments do not have a designated time at which to
be implemented. This flexibility allows teachers to tailor their
lessons and assessments to the needs of their learners.
Easy to implement
Because their flexibility, formative assessments are easy to
implement. They can be as large or small, in-depth or general, as
needed.
Checks for understanding

Formative assessment can take many shapes. However, in any
form, it is an assessment of understanding. Implementing many
formative assessments as the class moves through material allows
a teacher to catch and address any misconceptions the class or
individual learners may have.
Informs curriculum
Teachers can use the results of formative assessments to inform
the curriculum and the delivery of content. A teacher may choose
to spend more time on a specific area in which many learners
struggle or spend less time on an area with which most learners
are comfortable.
Assesses the teacher

Formative assessments provide opportunities for teachers to
30
evaluate their own performance. The results of the assessments
can reveal weaknesses or strengths in the delivery of instruction.
1.7.2 Summative assessment
Summative assessment is an assessment made at the end of the school

year based on the accumulation of the progress and achievements of
the learner throughout the year in a given subject, together with any
end-of-year tests or examinations. The result of summative assessment
is a single end-of-year promotion grade which documents learners’
achievements, usually over the period of a year.
Summative assessments confirm competence against the standard, and

are formal assessments. Summative assessments do not imply tests or
examinations alone, but rather the most appropriate way of gathering
the required evidence of competence.
Summative assessments are an integral part of the learning process

and are informed by an understanding of the various purposes of
summative assessment as they affect learners within and beyond the
school system. Some guidelines to keep in mind are:
 Summative assessments are planned, recorded and reported in

ways that promote the credibility of the assessment system.
 Summative assessments make use of a variety of manageable,
appropriate and fair assessment approaches that are suitable for
summative decisions.
 Summative assessment methodologies are appropriate to the
syllabus objectives being assessed. They are capable of
producing valid evidence in relation to the assessment objectives.
This includes the use of practical assessments to assess practical
skills where required.
 Summative assessments draw upon evidence from formative
assessments where appropriate and where practical, thus
promoting the value of continuous assessment.
 A range of question techniques is employed to enhance the
assessment of understanding. There is greater use of open rather
than closed questions.
 Learners are involved and guided in the on-going assessment of
their own learning.
 Involvement is meaningful and contributes to the effectiveness of
assessment.
 Summative assessment decisions are consistent with decisions
made about similar evidence from other learners. Decisions are
31
justified by valid, authentic and sufficient evidence presented by
and about learners.
 Summative assessment results are interpreted fairly and
accurately and in line with national assessment and promotion
policies. Interpretations help to assess and promote learning and
to modify instruction in order to encourage the continuous
development of learners.
 Results are interpreted in the light of previous results and
experience. Interpretations provide useful insight into learning
and foster continuous improvement of practice.
 Records of the assessment meet the quality requirements of the
school.
 The importance and implications of assessment results are
explained. Assessment records are used in ways that contribute
to continuous improvement and enhance learning.
 In lower primary, assessment is focused on basic skills – all
aspects of learning, reading and writing.
Benefits of summative assessment
 Development of a standardised (consistent) set of information

about each learner’s achievement.
 Help in the determination of key learning goals and teaching
responsibilities.
 Combine test scores and make educational decisions based on
this information.
 Create rationale for large-scale educational decision-making.
 Acknowledgement of a job well done.
1.8 Coursework and its challenges
Coursework relates to research projects of a specified amount of work

assigned to a learner to complete within a given time period, usually a term, a
semester or a year. Coursework stimulates the development of analytical
thought, research skills and presenting an argument based on evidence.
The mark assigned to the coursework forms part of the learner’s final mark.
Coursework can be done in any learning area. It is added to the final mark at
the end of the year. It includes essays, investigations, practical experiments,
art projects or even performance work. It is an excellent way for learners to
demonstrate the skills and knowledge they have gained throughout a given
time. Coursework can be done in class, but a substantial part of it is completed
32
at home. Some research and time are needed to complete a successful
project.
The teacher has to provide clear guidance on what should be included in a

coursework project. A clear indication must also be given as to how the project
will be marked. All the assessment requirements and criteria must be explained
to the learners. The teacher should allow the learner to do the work the way
they choose. Coursework takes time and effort to complete and the learner
must have ample opportunity to work on the project.
Challenges of coursework
 Time management
Coursework or projects are usually bigger assignments that make demands
on the time of the learners. Learners need to set enough time aside to work
on the project. If they are not good at time management, it will put a lot of
stress on them or they will not complete the project despite their possible
potential.
 Over-enthusiasm
Some learners become overly enthusiastic about a project and do much
more than required. If they then do not get the marks they hoped for
(because they did not stick to the criteria), it can be very disheartening. It
can make unnecessary demands on the finances of the parents (which
some parents cannot afford). Being over enthusiastic about a project can
have a negative impact on the time management of the learner.
 Parents doing the work

This is one of the biggest challenges of coursework and is very common. It
is easy to detect when a parent has done the project, but difficult to prove
and to deal with.
 Difficulty level
It is often difficult for the teacher to determine an appropriate level or
standard when designing a coursework task, especially when the teacher is
not skilled in designing a coursework assessment task.
 Plagiarism
Coursework tasks open doors for the possibility of plagiarism. It is easy for
learners to copy and paste information from the internet and present it as
their own work. Strict measures have to be in place to prevent plagiarism.
 Favours well-to-do learners

Coursework often requires a presentation of work. Some parents are not in
33
the financial position to assist their children to buy materials for the project.
 More appropriate for practical subjects

It is easier to do coursework projects in practical subjects, but with skill and
creative thinking a coursework assessment task can be given in all
subjects.
 Adds to the workload of the teacher

Coursework projects require marking and grading by the teacher. Since it is
a larger project than other assessment projects, it can add to the workload
of the teacher. Careful planning will help the teacher to manage coursework
as assessment activities.
1.9 Self- assessment and peer assessment
Self and peer assessment are about revision and improvement. They enable
learners to independently assess their own and other learners’ progress with
confidence rather than always relying on teacher judgment. When learners self
and peer assess, they are actively involved in the learning process and their
independence and motivation is improved (http://assessment.tki.org.nz/
Assessment-in-the-classroom/Assessment-for-learning-in-practice/Self-and-
peer assessment ). Assessing their own work or that of others can help
learners develop their understanding of learning objectives and success
criteria. Learners who can look at their work and judge the degree by which it
reflects explicitly stated goals or criteria can assess the quality of their work
and revise it accordingly.
The development of effective self and peer assessment takes considerable

time and effort. However, once fully embedded into teaching and learning, they
can be particularly effective in motivating learners to move forward in their
learning, thereby facilitating teaching. It is recommended that peer assessment
should be introduced first, only moving on to self-assessment when both
teachers and learners are fully comfortable with the former
(http://www.nfer.ac.uk/what-we-offer/getting-to-grips-with- assessment-
primary/sut04.pdf).
Effective self and peer assessment supports learners to identify their next
learning steps (http://assessment.tki.org.nz/Assessment-in-the-
classroom/Assessment-for-learning-in-practice/Self-and-peer assessment).
Self and peer assessment require a classroom culture or ethos where errors
are valued as learning opportunities and admitting to not understanding
something is acceptable. Learners act as critical friends, critiquing the work of
others in a way that both supports and challenges them and facilitates their
34
future success. In order for such a culture to thrive, teachers must be able to
show that they too can make mistakes. As with self and peer assessment
among learners, the development of such a culture can take time and effort.
1.9.1 Self-assessment
Self-assessment refers to the assessment of activities within and

outside the classroom that enable learners to reflect on what they have
learnt and to evaluate their learning against a set of assessment criteria.
It describes the process of a learner gaining an understanding of how
he/she learns as opposed to what he/she is learning. It guides the
learner to greater understanding of him-/herself as a learner.
Advantages of self-assessment to learners
 Learners become able to identify their own learning needs.

 They get to know their strengths and weaknesses.
 They see how they are doing.
 It makes them think.
 They get to know why and when their work is good.
 They know what to do to improve their work and/or learning.
 It helps them to remember and understand better.
 It encourages them to become responsible for their own
learning.
 Learners are able to recognise next steps in learning.
 Learners feel secure about not always being right.
 It raises self-esteem and learners become more positive, e.g. “I
can” as opposed to “I can’t”.
 Learners are actively involved in the learning process (partner,
not recipient).
 Learners become more independent and motivated.
 The learner recognises difficulties as a true sign of learning.
 They see that others have the same problems.
 They develop an enthusiasm for reflection.
 Their learning improves – they concentrate on “how” rather
than “what” they learn.
Advantages of self-assessment to the teachers
 There is a shift of responsibility from teacher to learner.

 Smoother, more efficient lessons if learners are motivated and
independent.
 Feedback helps teachers identify learner progress.
 It identifies the next step/s for a group/individual.
35
 It matches learners’ perceptions of understanding with that of
teachers – learners explain strategies and in this way the
teacher identifies their thinking process.
 More efficient lessons will allow greater challenge.
Disadvantages of self-assessment
 It puts more demands on the workload of the teacher because

it takes time for the learners to become skilled in self-
assessment. While the learners learn how self-assessment
works, the teacher has to guide them, which places more
demands on the time of the teacher.
 There is a risk of grades being inflated or unreliable.
 Learners feel ill equipped to do the assessment or do not have
enough confidence in assessing themselves.
1.9.2 Peer assessment
Peer-assessment is nearly the same as self-assessment, except that

learners are explicitly involved in helping each other identify the
standards and criteria and making judgements about each other's work
in relation to those criteria.
Advantages of peer assessment
 Brings learners in contact with learning content and helps them

to view learning as non-threatening.
 Encourages co-operation between learners.
 Encourages active learning.
 Learners receive prompt feedback often directly after the
completion of the assessment activity.
 Learners learn to respect diverse capabilities, talents and ways
of learning.
Disadvantages of peer assessment
 It takes time to explain to learners how peer assessment works

and what is expected of them.
 It takes time for the learners to become skilled in the
assessment of peers.
 There is a risk of peers giving inflated marks because of
friendships or peer pressure.
 Learners have a tendency to give everybody the same mark.
36
 Learners feel ill equipped to do the assessment, especially if
they have not done it before.
 Learners may feel reluctant to make judgements over the work
of their peers.
 It can happen that learners can discriminate against another
learner and give a lower mark.
1.9.3 Similarities between peer and self-assessment
There are two primary essential components of strategies for success

when implementing peer and self-assessment. These are:
 Learners have to be involved in the process of identifying

standards and/or criteria by which their work, and that of their
peers, will be judged.
 Learners have to be involved in the process of making
judgements about the extent to which their work and the work
of fellow learners has or has not met the identified standards
and/or criteria.
Important aspects in peer and self-assessment activities
 Learners are active

Learners are expected to look for evidence about how well
they are doing. They explore what steps to take next in order to
improve. Their understanding improves when they receive
feedback from the teacher as well as when they discover for
themselves and have insights about their own learning.
 Self-assessment is about WHAT we learn

It can take place at any time within a lesson. The learners
benefit from a clear understanding of the learning objective.
Learners can only achieve a learning goal if they understand
that goal and can assess what they need to do to achieve it.
Learners can only assess themselves when they have a
sufficiently clear picture of the targets that their learning is
meant to attain.
 Self-assessment is about learning HOW learners learn

Learners analyse how they learn. Learners should be helped
to develop the capacity and the habit of self-reflection so that
they become increasingly aware of their own learning and
become skilled in evaluating their learning. Self-assessment is
a skill that needs to be developed over time and it requires
37
time. Self-assessment is essential to learning.
 The classroom climate is important

In order for learners to learn, the fear of failure has to be taken
away. Honesty and openness have to be encouraged. There
has to be lots of support for learners to try out techniques in a
safe and secure place.
1.10 Alternative assessment methods
Classes have become increasingly multi-cultural and more inclusive in more

recent years. Often there will be learners in a class who come from different
backgrounds and different ethnic groups, different countries and also learners
with varying abilities. Learners also learn in different ways (as discussed
earlier); therefore a variety of instructional and assessment strategies must be
used to address diverse learning styles. In this way, each learner will get an
opportunity to show what he/she has learnt and have a greater chance of being
successful.
Some principles of alternative assessment
 Assumes knowledge has multiple meanings

It is impossible for everyone to agree about meaning. Each individual
brings his/her own diverse interpretation to an ever-changing situation.
 Treats learning as an active process

Learning is an integral part of living. One learns often without being
aware of it and it is not something that you can give to someone else.
Knowledge is produced rather than reproduced.
 Emphasises process and product

The process of learning is just as important as the product. What, how,
and why learners learn is significant.
 Focuses on inquiry
Learners must be exposed to real-world problem-solving skills which will
help them to observe, think, question, and test their ideas.
 Assumes the purpose of assessment is to facilitate learning

When feedback is given to learners about their learning, they are able to
progress and thus their learning is enhanced.
38
 Recognises a connection between cognitive, affective, and
conative abilities
When learners care about the activities they are engaged in, they are
more likely to invest their time and effort in it, and, as a result, they learn
more from it.
 Views assessment as subjective and value-laden

Value systems influence the decisions about what assessment
questions get answered. Values also influence what assessment
questions get asked in the first place.
 Embraces a shared model of power and control

Learners should be involved in decisions about what they learn, how
well they learn it, and how they will be assessed.
 Perceives learning as a collaborative process

Teachers and learners are co-learners. They express and test their
ideas together. In this social milieu, collaborative learning is valued.
Some examples of alternative assessment methods
Learners get a chance to apply what they have

Homework
learnt in class and it stimulates their
assignments
understanding of the content.
Teacher discusses the learner’s understanding

Learning
of the content as well as confusions about
conversations
learning material.
Demonstrations,
This is an alternative and creative way for
presentations and
learners to show their learning.
exhibitions
Group projects that are done in class give

Classroom projects information about a learner’s ability to function
in a given area.
Simulations,
Learners are encouraged to show the
docudramas and role
connections between concepts.
plays
39
This is an exciting way to test knowledge,
Quizzes especially if learners are involved in designing
the questions of the quiz.
It is a more advanced rating scale which gives

learners feedback on their progress and
Rubrics
provides detailed evaluation of a finished piece
of work.
This is a great opportunity to document

Recordings on DVD
progress, especially if done over a period of
or audio recordings
time. It is very valuable as a self-assessment
or photographs
activity.
Ask questions directly after a learning activity

Focused questioning
to stimulate understanding.
Encourage learners to think aloud. It gives

Think aloud feedback to the teacher and the learner about
the learning process.
A group of 4 – 6 learners meet together to

discuss a learning activity and what they have
Peer conferences
learnt. Feedback is given to other learners in a
non- threatening situation.
The teacher discusses the learner’s work with

Teacher-learner the learner and gives the learner the
conference opportunity to share his/her views on all
learning activities.
1.11 Levels of thinking required by verbs used in assessment
In order to design assessment criteria that meet the purposes of assessment

(1.13), you have to think about the level of thinking you expect from your
learners. The verbs you use will guide you in the level of assessment activities.
The following table will help you to understand the level of thinking required as
well as the verbs you can use to assess at the selected level.
40
LEVEL
Remembering tests knowledge; this is the most basic

level of questioning. The learner is required to memorise
REMEMBER
and recall something without necessarily understanding
it or changing it.
Understanding is the following level of questioning. It is

expected from the learner to remember and to
UNDERSTAND understand the information. The learner must put ideas
into his/her own words. Understanding does not require
the learner to relate an idea or concept to anything else.
Applying requires the learner to use knowledge and

apply it in a different context. Higher levels of thinking
are required than for the previous two levels. The learner
APPLY
must use a concept or idea in a new situation and arrive
at the correct answer. Learned material is used in a new
situation.
Higher order thinking is required by the learner when

analysing something. The learner is required to break
down structures of ideas or concepts into smaller pieces
and then to explain them. The learner must look for new
ANALYSE trends or for evidence of facts presented by the concept
being studied, or the learner is expected to identify parts
or analyse the relationship between parts. This can only
be done if the learner understands the ideas or concepts
very well.
Evaluation questions are the most difficult. The learner

must make a judgement about an idea or a concept
giving sufficient evidence and proof of his/her reasoning.
EVALUATE
The learner must argue the validity of a viewpoint or a
process based on what he/she has learnt. The learner is
expected to judge and to apply.
41
This is the most challenging of all the concepts. The
CREATE learner is expected to create something new by putting
parts of different ideas together to make a whole.
S/assessmentEvaluation/RevisedBloomsChart_bloomsverbsmatrix.pdf
1.12 Evaluation
We evaluate all the time. It is an everyday part of life; something we do all the
time!
If you have ever asked the following, then you have asked evaluation
questions:
 How did that taste?

 What would make it easier?
 What did the people conducting the interview think of me?
 What will I do differently next time?
 Did the learners enjoy it?
Evaluation is the structured interpretation and giving of meaning to predicted

impacts or actual impacts of proposals or results. It looks at original objectives,
and at what predicted or what was accomplished and how it was
accomplished. So, evaluation can be formative, that is, taking place during the
development of a concept or proposal, project or organisation, with the
intention of improving the value or effectiveness of the proposal, project, or
organisation. It can also be assumptive, drawing lessons from a completed
action or project or an organisation at a later point in time or circumstance.
Evaluation is inherently a theoretically informed approach (whether explicitly or

not), and consequently any particular definition of evaluation would have to be
tailored to its context – the theory, needs, purpose, and methodology of the
evaluation process itself. Having said this, evaluation has been defined as: A
systematic, rigorous, and meticulous application of scientific methods to assess
the design, implementation, improvement, or outcomes of a programme. It is a
resource-intensive process, frequently requiring resources, such as evaluating
expertise, labour, time, and a sizable budget.
The focus of this definition is on attaining objective knowledge and scientifically

or quantitatively measuring predetermined and external concepts.
42
"A study designed to assist some audience to assess an object's merit and
worth" (Shuffleboard). In this definition the focus is on facts as well as value-
laden judgments of the programme’s outcomes and worth.
In general, there are three reasons why evaluations are conducted: to

determine plausibility, probability, or adequacy. Resources for evaluations are
limited and determining the reason for the evaluation can save both time and
money in programme budgets.
 An adequacy assessment is conducted if stakeholders and evaluators are

only interested in whether or not the goals, set by programme developers,
were met.
 A plausibility assessment similarly determines if a programme has attained
expected goals, yet identifies changes as potential effects of programme
activities rather than external or confounding sources.
 Like both plausibility and adequacy assessments, probability evaluations
look to determine the success of a programme’s activities and outcomes.
However, unlike the two previously discussed assessments, probability
assessments use the most robust study design and randomised control
trials (RCTs) to determine the true effect of the programme activities on the
indicators of interest
All evaluations start with a purpose, which sets the direction. Without a clear
and complete statement of purpose, an evaluation risks being aimless and
lacking credibility and usefulness. Evaluations may fill a number of different
needs. The statements of purpose should make clear the following:
 Why the evaluation is being conducted and at that particular point in time.
 Who will use the information?
 What information is needed?
 How the information will be used.
The purpose and timing of an evaluation should be determined at the time of

developing an evaluation plan. The purpose statement can be further
elaborated at the time the evaluation is drafted to inform the evaluation design.
Evaluation is the process of analysing, reflecting upon, and summarising

assessment information, and making judgements and/or decisions based on
the information collected.
You as a teacher have to evaluate yourself all the time. Every part of your
teaching needs to be evaluated: your preparation, your teaching, the learning
activities, the assessment activities, the learning processes of your learners,
your reporting and your contact with your colleagues and the parents.
43
Things you might wonder about:
 How do I know the assessment results are the correct results?

 Did the assessments meet the needs of the learners?
 Were all the learners’ needs addressed or were only a few learners’ needs
addressed?
 Did I teach well?
 Will the learners think about the work?
 Are the learners thinking about their learning?
 Will the principal or subject head think this was good work?
 What am I trying to achieve?
 Is it working?
 How can I find out if it is working?
 What needs to change now?
 What needs to stay the same?
These are just some examples of evaluative questions you might ask. The
answers to these questions can be obtained through evaluation.
Evaluation is assessing and judging the value of your work and your
interactions. The main purpose is to reflect on what you are trying to achieve
and then assess the extent to which it was achieved. It determines if you
accomplished what you set out to do.
Evaluation is also comparative. Past and present are compared or similar

projects, programmes or activities are compared. Evaluation is also value
based because a value judgment is made such as “was it good enough?”
In order to do an evaluation, data needs to be collected in a systematic

manner. There are mainly two categories of data collection.
 Quantitative data collection

This has to do with numbers. Any data that will render results in
quantities is quantitative data.
 Qualitative data collection

This is descriptive and can be subjective. Data is gathered about
people’s views, experiences, feelings and beliefs.
Evaluations can have only quantitative or qualitative data collection or it can

blend the two data collection methods to render a wider variety of data.
Types of evaluation
44
There are mainly three types of evaluations. The choice of evaluation is guided
by availability of resources, the purpose of the evaluation, the extent of the
evaluation, when the evaluation will be done and who will be doing the
evaluation.
Process-based evaluation
Process-based evaluations are useful in assessing how a programme works

and the results the programme delivers.
Process-based evaluations attempt to answer some of the following questions:
 What resources, learning material and teaching strategies are required?

 How are teachers implementing and delivering the teaching strategies
trained?
 How are teachers selected and/or recruited?
 What are the strengths/weaknesses of the teaching strategies?
 What is the feedback from colleagues, learners, parents and other
members of the teaching community about the implementation of the
teaching strategies?
Outcomes-based evaluation
Outcomes-based evaluations measure any changes immediately after the

implementation of a programme. It wants to find out if the changes occurred in
response to the programme and to what extent.
Outcomes-based evaluations attempt to answer some of the following

questions:
 Which outcomes are measured, e.g. change in behaviour or change in

level of knowledge or change in awareness, etc.?
 Why was there a change?
 How will these outcomes be measured?
 How many participants must demonstrate change for the programme to
be deemed successful?
 Has this number has been reached?
Impact-based evaluation
Impact-based evaluations are complex and difficult to carry out. This

evaluation examines the long-term effects a programme has on the
participants. It can track results of a programme over a period of time.
Impact-based evaluations attempt to answer some of the following questions:
45
 What was the situation before the programme was delivered?
 How was the programme delivered?
 What was the situation after the programme was delivered?
 What happened during the programme delivery?
 What about the group that was not exposed to the programme, are they
better or worse off than the group that received the programme.
 What was the situation before the programme was implemented?
1.13 Purposes of assessment and evaluation
The most important purpose of assessment is to gather evidence of learning.

Another overarching purpose of assessment is to give teachers the information
they need to provide quality instruction. Teachers learn more about their
learners’ needs and can adjust instruction to improve learner achievement
(http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/education/k12/ assessing-
projects/overview-and-benefits/purposes.html).
One of the primary purposes of assessment is to be summative. In its

summative role, the purpose of assessment is to judge the quality and
characteristics of the learners and summarise these in a clear and widely
acceptable format (http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/
assessment/13).
Assessment also has a formative function. In this role, assessment is intimately

linked with learners’ learning processes, helping to guide them in their studies,
motivating them, providing feedback on areas of learning requiring further
work, and generally promoting the desired learning outcome
(http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/assessment/13).
Other purposes of assessment and evaluation are to:
 Inform teaching.
 Promote and encourage learning.
 Promote optimal individual growth.
 Motivate.
 Create learning opportunities.
 Give and get feedback.
 Grade.
 Assure good quality and high standards.
An additional distinction is made when studying the purpose of assessment,

namely:
46
 Assessment for learning
These assessments guide future learning activities.
 Assessment as learning
Opportunities are created whereby the teacher and learner learn from
the assessment process.
 Assessment of learning
Knowledge levels and skills are assessed.
Each of these purposes requires a different role for teachers, different

planning, and activities of varying difficulty. The most important part of
assessment is the interpretation and use of the information that is collected for
its intended purpose.
Assessment works best when its purpose is clear. Decide on the purpose of
the activity and then design the assessment activity carefully to fit that purpose.
It is the purpose that will dictate the assessment activity. The purpose of the
assessment is clarified and then the best method that serves that purpose is
selected.
In order to fulfil the purpose of assessment and evaluation, it has to be on-

going and form an integral part of the teaching and learning process. It is a
daily process.
Assessment and evaluation are a continuous cycle:
47
Collect data
Plan new
learning and Interpret the
assesment data
activities
Report the Analyse the

results data
A very important part of the assessment and evaluation process is the

adjustment teachers make to their teaching and the activities used as a result
of collecting and analysing the data. To fulfil the purpose of assessment and
evaluation, it is of the utmost importance that teachers will use the assessment
data to inform and guide their teaching.
The information gained from analysing the data has to be used to improve the
quality of future teaching, learning and assessment activities. Thus,
assessment and evaluation continuously stimulate teacher and learner growth.
Purpose of evaluation
In addition to assessment, evaluations have the following purposes:
 Measure the programme’s outcomes and impact
Did the programme achieve its objectives?

Did it reach its intended audience?
Did the programme have unexpected or unintended consequences?
Are outcomes consistent with those of similar programmes?
 Inform future programme planning and design
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a given approach?
48
What implementation problems have emerged?
Are measurement criteria appropriate and adequate?
Are unclear aspects affecting outcomes (e.g. other interventions that
may have been aimed at the same issue or target group)?
Have new ideas emerged, and can they be tested?
 Provide important internal lessons for those conducting

programmes
Were funds used properly?

Is there a return on investment?
 Ensure transparency and accountability
Particularly where outside funding has been used on an initiative,

evaluations help provide justification for the project.
Are suitable systems in place to ensure sound financial reporting,
monitoring, etc.?
Have lessons been taken on board for future initiatives?
 Provide broader lessons about good practice
What lessons can be learned from this approach?

Do the results support existing evidence?
1.14 Principles underpinning good assessment practices
Assessment information should enable teachers and learners to know what

learners can do assisted and what they can do unassisted and what they can
do when working in groups and when working alone
(http://det.wa.edu.au/professionallearning/detcms/professionallearning/professi
onal-learning-website/for-teachers/graduate-teacher/principles-of-learning-
teaching-and-assessment.en?page=2&tab=Main).
A principle is a rule of action or conduct that guides the assessment process.

Assessment principles guide the assessment practices. It guides the teacher
when learning and assessment tasks are planned.
The following are important principles of assessment.
1.14.1 Assessment should be relevant
Assessment needs to provide information about learners’ knowledge,

skills and understandings of the learning outcomes. Assessment
activities and instruments must be relevant to the life and circumstances
49
of the learner. He/she must understand it and must be able to identify
with it. It must make sense to the learner.
1.14.2 Assessment should be appropriate
Assessment needs to provide information about the particular kind of

learning. A variety of assessment methods must be used because not
all methods are capable of providing information about all kinds of
learning. For example, some kinds of learning are best assessed by
observing learners, some by having learners complete projects or make
products, and others by having learner’s complete paper and pen tasks.
Conclusions about learner achievement in an area of learning are valid

only when the assessment method we use is appropriate and measures
what it is supposed to measure.
1.14.3 Assessment should be fair
Assessment needs to provide opportunities for every learner to

demonstrate what they know, understand and can do. Assessment must
be based on a belief that all learners are on a path of development and
that every learner is capable of making progress.
Learners should have equal opportunities to demonstrate their

achievement of outcomes. Achievement of an outcome might be shown
in varied ways. Fair assessment often means assessing the one
outcome in different ways related to the characteristics and
circumstances of the learners.
Assessment should be fair to all learners and not discriminate on

grounds that are irrelevant to the achievement of the outcome. Learners
bring a diversity of cultural knowledge, experience, language proficiency
and background, and ability to the classroom. They should not be
advantaged or disadvantaged by life experiences, abilities, or gender
differences that are not relevant to the knowledge, skills and
understandings that the assessment is intended to address.
Assessment should be sensitive and responsive to differences among

learners, so that they are not accidentally placed in a better or worse
position to demonstrate their achievement of an outcome. While fair
assessment does not demand that all learners be assessed on the
same tasks, judgements about their learning and achievements should
clearly reflect the same outcomes to the same standards.
50
Learners have the right to know what is assessed, how it is assessed,
and the worth of the assessment.
1.14.4 Assessment should be accurate
Assessment needs to provide evidence that accurately reflects an

individual learner’s knowledge, skill and understanding. That is,
assessments need to be reliable or dependable in that they consistently
measure a learner’s knowledge, skill and understanding. Assessment
will be fair to all learners if it is based on reliable, accurate and
defensible measures.
1.14.5 Assessment should provide useful information
The focus of assessment is to establish where learners are in their

learning. This information can be used for both summative and formative
purposes to feed directly into the teaching and learning cycle
(assessment for learning). Assessment information that is useful for
formative purposes needs to focus in part on the depth of a learner’s
understanding, not just on the accumulation of knowledge.
1.14.6 Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and learning

cycle
Assessment needs to be an on-going, integral part of the teaching and

learning cycle. It must allow teachers and learners themselves to
monitor learning. From the teacher perspective, it provides the evidence
to guide the next steps in teaching and learning. From the learner
perspective, it provides the opportunity to reflect on and review
progress, and can provide the motivation and direction for further
learning.
1.14.7 Assessment should draw on a wide range of evidence
Assessment needs to draw on a wide range of evidence. A complete

picture of learner achievement in an area of learning depends on
evidence that is sampled from the full range of knowledge, skills and
understandings that make up the area of learning.
An assessment programme that consistently addresses only some

outcomes will provide incomplete feedback to the teacher and learner,
and can potentially distort teaching and learning.
1.14.8 Assessment should be manageable
51
Assessment needs to be efficient, manageable and convenient. It needs
to be incorporated easily into usual classroom activities and it needs to
be capable of providing information that justifies the time spent.
1.14.9 Assessment should be reliable
If another teacher were to use the same assessment instrument in the

same circumstances, the results should be the same. The assessment
method can then be regarded as reliable.
1.14.10 Assessment should be valid
Assessment should provide valid information on the actual ideas,

processes, products and values expected of learners. Judgements
about learners’ achievement on an outcome should be based on
assessment information about the outcome in its fullest sense, rather
than only on some parts of it. This does not mean that every
assessment task must encompass the full outcome. Judgements should
be based on information that fully encompasses the outcome and
includes situations that authentically represent the ways in which the
outcome will need to be used in the future.
1.14.11 Assessment should be transferable
Skills must be transferred from one context to the next. What learners
learn must have a real purpose for the learner and he/she must be able
to apply what he/she has learnt to other situations away from the school
as well.
1.14.12 Assessment should be educative
Assessment should make a positive contribution to learning and

contribute to the achievement of the learning outcomes.
Assessment activities should be educationally valuable and form an

integral part of the learning process. They should provide useful
feedback which assists learners in future learning by enabling them to
recognise inconsistencies in their thinking and gaps in their knowledge.
Assessment practices should be designed to encourage in-depth and
long-term learning and foster self-directed learning by enabling learners
to assume responsibility for their own assessment.
52
1.15 Summary
In this unit you became familiar with basic assessment concepts and
perspectives. These concepts and perspectives are essential to take into
consideration when planning assessment activities. In the next unit the general
and primary directives of Namibia will be explored.
Feedback on learning activities
Learning activity 1
Learning domains Multiple intelligences
Guided by learning outcomes. Guides learning activities.

One level needs to be mastered This is intelligence; one does not master
before commencing to the next intelligence.
level.
This is learnt. One is born with intelligence.
Learning activity 2
Find as many verbs as you can. Here are some verbs for each
intelligence to guide you and to help you to look for more:
Linguistic Write, recite, describe, paraphrase,

summarise
Logical mathematical Calculate, collect, graph, plot, divide
Musical Choreograph, perform, adapt, present,
arrange
Bodily kinaesthetic Mime, stretch, bend, grab, balance
Spatial -visual Handle, construct, design, deconstruct,
build
Interpersonal Listen, conform, embrace, resolve, ask
53
Learning activity 3
You must have at least 5 differences. Differences will include things

such as one being broad and the other specific and that one touches
on policy and the other is aimed at class activities.
Learning activity 4
There are 4 similarities and 4 differences between tests, exams and

measurements. Have you found them all?
There are 5 similarities and 5 differences between tests and exams. Have
you found them?
Learning activity 5
You have to find at least 5 differences.
Learning activity 6
Write well-structured paragraphs in full sentences. Use one idea per

paragraph and build on that idea. Do not rewrite sections from the study
guide; use your own words.
Learning activity 7
Here are some ideas to help you with your thinking:
One assessment is done during the learning activities and the other one is
done at the end of the learning activities. For one there are lots of
assessment activities and for the other one there are less assessment
activities.
Both inform learning. Both need careful planning. For both you can use
different assessment types.
Learning activity 8
If you are not currently working in a school, think of a school where you
have worked or even the school that you attended. Make sure you motivate
why each challenge is relevant or not relevant.
Learning activity 9
54
There are lots of similarities between self- and peer assessment. You must
identify at least 5 differences.
Here are some ideas of what to say to the principal. You must have at least
5 points.
Alternative assessment activities offer variety.
It takes different learning styles into account.
The learner gets a chance to demonstrate what he/she is good at.
i. Understand.
ii. Apply.
iii. Remember.
iv. Create.
v. Remember.
vi. Understand.
vii. Apply.
viii. Create.
ix. Analyse.
x. Evaluate.
a. Impact-based evaluation.
b. Outcomes-based evaluation.
c. Process evaluation.
Make sure you understand why each type of evaluation will render the
results the principal is looking for.
Apply what you have learnt. Use your own words and ideas and knowledge
that you have acquired.
a. v; b. Ix; c. Ii; d. Vii; e. Iii; f. Viii; g. I; h. X; i. Vi; j. Iv.
55
Glossary
Cognitive Thinking processes, or mental processes of perception, memory,

judgement and reasoning.
Conative Behaviour directed towards action or change. This behaviour includes

impulses, desire, choice and motivation
Data Factual information, especially information organised for analysis or used

to reason or make decisions.
56
UNIT 2
General and primary assessment directives of Namibia
Introduction 56
2.1 The functions of DNEA 58

2.2 The national senior-primary assessment and promotion policy 59
secondary phase 72
2.4 Features of the end of primary (summative) education examinations 84
2.5 Relation between the Namibian primary and secondary assessment
directives and the features of competency-based assessment 85
2.6 Rules for the administration of the national examinations 88
2.7 Features of inspections of a National Examinations Centre 90
2.8 The role of assessment in achieving quality education 95
2.8.1 Purposes of assessment 95
2.8.2 Promotion policy 97
2.8.3 Non-promotional subjects 97
2.8.4 Passing percentage 98
2.8.5 Automatic promotion 102
2.8.6 Analysis and input of assessment results 104
2.8.7 Motivational role of assessment 106
2.9 Summary 107
Glossary 109
57
Introduction
In this unit we will focus on the general and primary assessment directives of
Namibia. We will also look at promotion policies with special focus on the upper-
primary education phase. The national and promotion policies of the different primary
phases will be examined and compared. At the end of the learners’ primary
education, a summative examination is written to assess competency. The features of
this examination will be scrutinised.
The primary method of assessment is competency-based and the relation to the

assessment directives of Namibia will be shown. National examinations are written at
the end of certain phases. These examinations are administered by the Ministry of
Education. Strict rules which apply at examination centres and which apply to the
administration of these exams will be looked into.
Quality assessment is the key to quality education. The role of assessment in

achieving quality education will be studied.
Learning outcomes
 Examine the function of the DNEA.

 Clarify the nature of national senior-primary assessment and promotion policy
and relate it to the aims of the senior-primary education phase.
 Evaluate the national assessment and promotion policy of the senior secondary
phase.
 Investigate the features of the end of primary (summative) education
examinations in Namibia.
 Discuss how the Namibian primary assessment directives relate to the features of
competency-based assessment.
 Describe the rules for the administration of the national examinations.
 Describe the features of an inspection of a national examination centre.
 Discuss the role of assessment in achieving quality education, e.g. purposes of
assessment, promotion policy, non-promotional subjects, passing percentage,
automatic promotion, assessment results analysed and used as input,
motivational role of assessment, etc.
58
Learning activities
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the feedback
at the end of this unit. Please note that the feedback does not always provide
complete answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how to
approach a particular question. It is good preparation for the examination.
Try to answer the learning activities in your own words as far as possible!
Learning activity 1
Using a table format, distinguish between the functions, the objectives and the
activities of the DNEA.
Learning activity 2
In this section, the nature of the assessment and promotion of the upper-
primary phase is discussed and the aims of the upper-primary are discussed
in 2.3.3. Your principal asks you to discuss aims of the upper-primary phase
as well as the assessment and promotion policy of the primary phase with 2
intern teachers at your school. Write down what you will say to them.
Learning activity 3
Tabulate the aims of each phase as well as the differences in the assessment
of the pre-primary, lower primary and upper primary phases.
Learning activity 4
List (and number) the features of the end of primary education examinations.
Learning activity 5
Study the features of competency-based assessment as described in this

section. Read through 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 of this study guide. Write down all the
sentences in these points addressing Namibian primary assessment directives
that you think relate to competency-based assessment.
Learning activity 6
Write down the main points relating to the rules governing the administration of
the national examinations.
59
Learning activity 7
Write down the main points that are important for the inspection of a National
Examination Centre and explain what it entails.
Learning activity 8
When discussing the role of assessment in achieving quality education,

describe each of the following using your own words as far as possible:
i. Purposes of assessment (keep in mind what you have learnt in unit 1

1.13 as well).
ii. Promotion policy (keep in mind everything you have learnt in this unit
about promotion).
iii. Non-promotional subjects.
iv. Passing percentage.
v. Automatic promotion.
vi. Assessment results (keep in mind everything you have learnt in this unit
about assessment results).
vii. Motivational role of assessment.
2.1 The functions of DNEA
The main functions of the Directorate of National Examinations and

Assessment (DNEA) are:
 To provide a national assessment and certification service for the school

system.
 To assist in enhancing the quality of education.
 To monitor educational standards.
The main objectives of the DNEA are:
 To successfully administer the examination and certification functions of the

national school examinations (Junior Secondary Certificate (JSC),
International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) and the
Higher International General Certificate of Secondary Education (HIGCSE),
in addition to the semi-external end of primary (grade 7) examination.
 To progressively take over the professional and administrative functions of
the IGCSE and HIGCSE examinations from Cambridge International
Examinations (CIE) and to continuously monitor and improve the security of
examinations and the efficiency of regional examination offices, heads of
examination centres and invigilators.
60
 To provide information and statistics for the monitoring of quality and
standards in the education system in addition to ensuring equitable access
to the national examinations for full-time, part-time and impaired
candidates.
The main activities of the DNEA are:
 Localising of IGCSE and HIGCSE examinations.

 Improving the security of examinations and certificates.
 Monitoring of quality and standards in the education system.
 Ensuring equitable access to national examinations.
(http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/org/org_69283.html)
2.2 The national senior-primary assessment and promotion policy
Learners need to know the following abstracts of the revised curriculum to be

able to understand the national senior-primary assessment and promotion.
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REVISED CURRICULUM FOR BASIC

EDUCATION
Cabinet at its 3rd /25.03.14/001 meeting approved the curriculum reform for Basic
Education and the eight-year implementation of the curriculum.
The Ministry of Education wishes to inform the public that the revised curriculum
for Basic Education will be implemented as follows:
2. The revised curriculum for senior primary phase (grades 4-7) comprises of the
following subjects:
Five promotional core subjects:
English Mother Tongue, Mathematics, Natural Science and Health Education,

Social Studies.
Plus 3 promotional pre-vocational subjects gr. 5-7: Elementary Agriculture,
Design and Technology, Home Ecology (with entrepreneurial skills integrated).
Plus five (5) support subjects: Life Skills, Religious and Moral Education, Arts,
Information and Communication, Physical Education. The revised curriculum
for the senior primary phase will be implemented in 2016.
2.1 The following has been done for the preparation of the
implementation of the revised senior primary curriculum:
61
2.1.1 All the syllabuses for the senior primary phase have been
approved by the National Examinations, Assessment and
Certification Board in 2014.
2.1.2 The hand tools for the in-service teacher training for pre-vocational
subjects have been purchased. The in-service teacher training will
be carried out in 2015.
2.1.3 The specifications for procuring hand tools have been developed
and the directorates of education in the regions will procure the
tools in 2015.
2.1.4 The learning support materials (textbooks) for the revised senior
primary curriculum are being developed. The textbooks will be
evaluated, procured and distributed in 2015.
2.1.5 The in-service teacher training for the revised senior primary
curriculum is already planned, costed and will appear in the NIED
Calendar of Activities for 2015/16. It is planned that the in-service
teacher training for the implementation of the revised senior
primary curriculum will be carried out as from the first quarter of the
2015/16 financial year.
(The following information is subtracted from: MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

- THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM FOR BASIC EDUCATION - National
Institute for Educational Development (NIED))
2.2 THE AIMS OF BASIC EDUCATION FOR THE SOCIETY OF THE

FUTURE
The society of Namibia for the future is envisaged in Namibia Vision 2030,
and the main features of that society and their implications for Basic
Education are paraphrased in italics below from Namibia Vision 2030. This
is what learners must be empowered to bring into being and therefore what
informs the aims of the curriculum.
2.2.1 A caring society
Namibia is a fair, gender-responsive, caring and committed nation in

which all citizens are able to realise their full potential. Namibians
live together in harmony, sharing common values and aspirations.
Those living with disability are well integrated into the mainstream of
society. Family life is the most fundamental institution in society, and
families are available and willing to integrate orphans.
The aims of the curriculum in relation to developing a caring society

are to foster the highest moral and ethical values of reliability, co-
operation, democracy, tolerance, mutual understanding, and service
to others; to develop the learner’s social responsibility towards other
62
individuals, family life, the community and the nation as a whole; to
develop and enhance respect for and understanding and tolerance
of other peoples, religions, beliefs, cultures and ways of life; and to
promote equality of opportunity for males and females, enabling
both genders to participate equally and fully in all spheres of society
and all fields of employment.
2.2.2 A healthy society
Namibians live a healthy lifestyle with the highest level of

responsible behavioural practices that eliminate STIs, HIV infection
and alcohol and substance abuse. Preventable diseases including
Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) and HIV and AIDS, and
curable diseases are reduced to a minimum. People have a
balanced diet. People are empowered physically and mentally to
meet the continuing demands of making an effective contribution to
development processes. There is a long life expectancy.
The aims of the curriculum in relation to developing a healthy

society are to develop attitudes, practices, knowledge and activities
which promote physical and mental health; to support and stimulate
learners through childhood and youth; to promote the optimal
development of the individual learner’s potential, including those
with special learning needs; and to foster the highest moral, ethical
and spiritual values such as integrity, responsibility, equality and
reverence for life.
2.2.3 A democratic society
Namibia is a peaceful, multi-party democratic society of popular

participation, with a strong and active opposition. The basic tenets
of human rights are protected. There is true freedom of expression,
speech and association, and the people make their own decisions at
national, regional, local and community levels. People exercise their
civic responsibilities.
The aims of the curriculum in relation to developing a democratic

society are to promote moral development, awareness of one’s own
beliefs and opinions, and respect for others; to promote democratic
principles and practices at school level in the educational system; to
promote human rights, unity, liberty, justice and democracy; to
extend national unity to promote regional, African and international
understanding, co-operation and peace; to enable the learners to
contribute to the development of culture in Namibia; and to promote
wider inter-cultural understanding.
2.2.4 A productive society
63
There are high economic growth and full employment, where
manufacturing and service industries are the main sources of
income, and micro-, small, and medium-sized enterprises are
important. There is a diversified economy with manufacturing
exporting industries at the base, and a well-developed and
modernised commercial agricultural sector which is environmentally
sustainable. Economic growth and full employment with the
equitable distribution of wealth and resources eliminate poverty.
The aims of the curriculum in relation to developing a productive

society are to develop knowledge, understanding and values,
creativity, and practical skills as a solid foundation for academic or
vocational training and for a creative, meaningful and productive
adult life; to encourage perseverance, reliability, accountability, and
respect for the value and dignity of work; to enable the learners to
think scientifically, solve problems, and reflect on and apply
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes; and to develop self-reliance
and entrepreneurship in preparation for the world of work and self-
employment.
2.2.5 An environmentally sustainable society
There is no atmospheric, land and water pollution from croplands

and rangelands or mines, and minimal pollution from urban and
industrial areas. Farms and natural ecosystems are productive and
sustainable socially, economically and ecologically. There is high
quality, low-impact tourism. Average family size is small, and there
is food security.
The aims of the curriculum in relation to developing an

environmentally sustainable society are to provide the scientific
knowledge and skills, and attitudes and values needed to ensure
that the environment is respected and sustained; and to develop the
ability to make environmentally wise choices in terms of family
development, as well as in economic activities.
2.2.6 An information society
The media are mature, investigative and free. Information

technology provides improved access to information, and ICTs are
used to achieve social and economic transformation in Namibia. All
aspects of the manufacturing process, relationships with customers
and suppliers, and the manner in which products are marketed and
sold, have been transformed through changes in production and
information technology. ICTs are applied throughout society to serve
development goals.
64
The aim of the curriculum in relation to developing an information
society is to develop information literacy: skills in seeking,
evaluating, using and producing information and information
sources appropriately. The sources include traditional and local
knowledge, libraries and ICTs. Information literacy also means
knowing the potential and limitations of different sources and types
of information, including ICTs.
2.2.7 Individual development
The above statements of aims are about the intended social effect
of the curriculum resulting from the development of each and every
learner.
In addition to the above are aims of the curriculum which focus on

aspects of the development of the individual. These include
providing the foundation of a strong general education in literacy,
numeracy, science and technology, and generic competencies. As
seen in the statements of aims above, values are equally important.
Basic Education will therefore enable learners to communicate

effectively in speech and writing in English and in another language
of Namibia; use basic number and mathematical concepts and
operations, and numerical notation, and apply mathematics in
everyday life. Basic Education aims to develop a flexible, enquiring
mind, critical thinking skills, the capacity to adapt to new situations
and demands, and to learn continuously on one’s own initiative. It
will develop individual understanding, creativity, the ability to
construct alternative solutions to problems, and to make
independent, informed decisions in real-life situations.
4. PHASES AND COMPETENCIES
This chapter describes the phases of Basic Education, and what

competencies and level of competency each phase leads to.
4.1 THE PHASES OF BASIC EDUCATION
4.1.3 Upper primary, grades 5-7
The upper primary level continues on a broad base, consolidates

the foundation laid at lower primary, and develops it further. The
medium of learning (except in the national language subject) is now
English, only exceptionally supported by use of the mother
tongue/predominant local language. The division into subject
disciplines emerges more strongly in this phase. All learners take
English, the mother tongue/predominant local language,
Mathematics, Natural Science and Health Education, Social
Studies, Religious and Moral Education, Life Skills, Basic
65
Information Science, Arts, Physical Education and ICT Literacy9. In
addition, learners take one of Design and Technology, Elementary
Agriculture, or Home Ecology. Entrepreneurial Skills are integrated
in each of these.
HIV and AIDS education is intensified in this phase as learners are

better able to understand the facts, issues and attitudes. They are
still in the “Window of Hope” age range, but must be well prepared
for the transition to puberty and the changes and pressures it will
bring. ICT literacy is interwoven throughout this learning phase so
that learners acquire basic ICT literacy skills.
By the end of the phase, learners will have irreversible literacy and
numeracy, and have developed learning skills and basic knowledge
in all the key learning areas. Continuous assessment is used
throughout, and there are end-of-year examinations. Learner
achievement in selected subject areas will be monitored nationally
in grades 5 and 7, using nationally standardised assessments.
4.3 FRAMEWORK OF PHASE COMPETENCIES
4.3.3 UPPER PRIMARY PHASE: On completion of the upper primary

phase:
Languages First language
Learners have irreversible literacy. They show

competence in listening with understanding for
information and enjoyment to texts appropriate to
their level; speaking fluently and confidently
according to situation and audience; reading with
understanding children’s literature and texts about
everyday issues; sustained factual and imaginative
writing up to one page, using mostly correct
spelling and grammar.
Second language
Learners listen for information and enjoyment to

texts appropriate for non-mother tongue speakers,
express ideas, opinions and feelings adequately,
read and understand easy children’s literature and
texts about everyday issues, and write short
factual and imaginative texts in which language
errors do not confuse meaning. They use English
adequately for official purposes.
66
Mathematics Learners have an understanding of the concept of
rational numbers and carry out the basic
operations.
Learners solve everyday problems involving

numbers, measurement, and spatial relationships.
Learners collect, interpret and present simple data.
Natural sciences Learners use simple scientific models, methods

and skills to make scientific sense of the natural
environment, and of themselves biologically,
psychologically and socially. They relate the
implications of scientific understanding to their
personal and social health and the sustainable use
of all natural resources for future generations.
Social sciences Learners explain main developments from selected

episodes of Namibian and world history, and main
outlines of Namibian and African geography. They
describe development of society and its impact on
the environment. They explain beliefs other than
their own in a non-judgemental way. They identify
their own personal traits, manage time to study
effectively, and demonstrate positive social values
and skills in interactions with others.
Technologies Material technologies
Learners show creativity in investigating and

exploring product ideas and designing a product.
They choose appropriate materials, correctly use
basic hand tools and equipment, and make and
evaluate their product.
ICTs
Learners demonstrate understanding and correct

use of software applications such as Microsoft
Office and/or Open Office. They conduct basic
navigation through the Windows environment or
other operating systems.
Commerce Learners identify a demand, work out cost and sale

prices for a product which they have developed in
Design and Technology, Home Ecology or
Elementary Agriculture, and sell it in the school or
community.
67
Arts Learners explore and investigate ideas and art
media freely using creative activities; communicate
adequately for their purpose through chosen art
forms; and appreciate and interpret sensitively
what others communicate through the arts.
Physical Learners have developed co-operative activity and

education game skills, monitor their own progress and
achievements, and explain why continued physical
activity is important for health and wellness.
6.3 ASSESSMENT
A learner-centred curriculum and learner-centred teaching use a broad

range of knowledge and skills which are relevant to knowledge based
society. The basic competencies in the syllabuses state what
understanding and skills a learner must demonstrate as a result of a
teaching-learning process, and which will be assessed. However, it is
intended that the curriculum be learning-driven, not assessment- and
examination-driven. Assessments and examinations are to support
learning.
6.3.1 Continuous assessment
In order to capture the full range and levels of competence, a variety

of formal and informal continuous assessment situations is needed
to give a complete picture of the learner’s progress and
achievements in all subjects. Continuous assessment must be clear,
simple and manageable, and explicitly anchored in learner-centred
principles and practice. Teachers must elicit reliable and valid
information of the learner’s performance in the basic competencies.
The information gathered about the learners’ progress and
achievements should be used to give feedback to the learners about
their strong and weak points, where they are doing well, and why,
and where they need to try more, how, and why. The parents should
be regularly informed about the progress of their child in all subjects,
be encouraged to reward achievements, and given suggestions as
to how they can support their learning activities. The learner’s
progress and achievements in all subjects must be reported to
parents on the school report.
6.3.2 Formative and summative assessment
The two modes of assessment used are formative continuous

assessment and summative assessment. Formative continuous
assessment is any assessment made during the school year in
68
order to improve learning and to help shape and direct the teaching-
learning process.
Assessment has a formative role for learners if and when:
it is used to motivate them to extend their knowledge and skills,

establish sound values, and to promote healthy habits of study,
assessment tasks help learners to solve problems intelligently
by using what they have learned, and
the teacher uses the information to improve teaching methods
and learning materials.
Summative assessment is an assessment made at the end of the

school year based on the accumulation of the progress and
achievements of the learner throughout the year in a given subject,
together with any end-of-year tests or examinations. The result of
summative assessment is a single end-of-year promotion grade.
6.3.3 Informal and formal methods
The teacher must assess how well each learner masters the basic
competencies described in the subject syllabuses and from this gain
a picture of the all-round progress of the learner. To a large extent,
this can be done in an informal way through structured observation
of each learner’s progress in learning and practice situations while
they are investigating things, interpreting phenomena and data,
applying knowledge, communicating, making value judgements, and
in their participation in general.
In the pre-primary phase, all assessment is observational and

aimed to identify if a child has special needs and how to mobilise
resources to meet them. In the lower primary phase and in non-
promotion subjects in grades 5-12, only informal continuous
assessment is used. It is done in less structured and more
structured settings. There are no end-of-term oral or written tests or
examinations.
When it is necessary to structure assessment more formally in the

other phases, the teacher should as far as possible use the same
sort of situation as ordinary learning and practice situations to
assess the competency of the learner. The use of formal written and
oral tests can only assess a limited range of competencies and
therefore should not take up a great deal of time. Short tests in any
subject should be limited to part of a lesson and only exceptionally
use up a whole lesson. End-of-term tests should only be written in
the first lesson of the day, so that teaching and learning can
continue normally for the rest of the time.
69
In grades 10 and 12, mock examinations may be held to learn
examination skills and to identify areas of the syllabus which may
need extra attention. Mock examinations only serve a useful
purpose if they are used as a learning experience in how to
organise oneself, how to read the paper, how to interpret and
answer examination-type questions, and how to allocate time in an
examination. This involves the teacher going through the paper
systematically with the class when their answers are returned.
6.3.4 Evaluation
Information from informal and formal continuous assessment is to

be used by the teacher to know where it is necessary to adapt
methods and materials to the individual progress and needs of each
learner. At the end of each main unit of teaching, and at the end of
each term, the teacher, together with the learners, should evaluate
the process in terms of tasks completed, participation, what the
learners have learnt, and what can be done to improve the working
atmosphere and achievements of the class.
6.3.5 Criterion-referenced grades
When grades are awarded in continuous assessment, it is essential

that they reflect the learner’s actual level of achievement in the
basic competencies, and are not related to how well other learners
are achieving or to the idea that a fixed percentage of the learners
must always be awarded a grade A, B, C, and so on (norm-
referencing). In criterion-referenced assessment, each letter grade
must have a descriptor for what the learner must demonstrate in
order to be awarded the grade. Grade descriptors must be
developed for each subject for each year.
It is important that teachers in each department/section work

together to have a shared understanding of what the grade
descriptors mean, and how to apply them in continuous assessment
so that grades are awarded correctly and consistently across
subjects. Only then will the assessment results be reliable.
6.3.7 Conducting and recording assessment
Continuous assessment should be planned and programmed at the

beginning of the year, and kept as simple as possible. Marks given
for class activities, practical activities, project work, assignments,
homework, and short tests on completion of a topic may be
recorded for continuous assessment. Non-promotional subjects in
the upper primary and secondary grades should be assessed
through informal continuous assessment methods and letter grades
70
awarded directly. These grades must be reported to the parents on
the termly school report, but will not count for promotion purposes.
6.3.7.2 Senior (upper) primary
Six formal continuous assessment activities per term

should be selected, graded and recorded. Not more than
two assessments per term are to be topic tests. These
continuous assessments must be carefully planned and
marked according to a marking scheme, marking criteria
or memorandum. The criteria used to assess activities
other than tests should be given to the learner before the
assessment activity. Evidence of the work produced by
good, average and low-achieving candidates, as well as
the written assignment and marking scheme, has to be
kept at school until the end of the next year. Teachers can
choose to grade and/or record more than the required
continuous assessments if it is necessary for formative
purposes. An end-of-year summative grade will be based
only on the assessment tasks described in the syllabus.
End-of-term tests should not contribute more than thirty

percent (30%) towards the total term mark. Not more than
forty percent (40%) of the summative grade may be
based on tests, which include topic tests and end-of-term
tests.
Internal end-of-year examinations will be given in the

upper primary examination subjects, as specified in the
subject syllabuses. The purpose of these examinations is
to focus on how well learners can demonstrate their
thinking, communication, and problem-solving skills
related to the areas of the syllabus which are most
essential for continuing in the next grade. Preparing for
and conducting these examinations should not take up
more than two weeks altogether at the end of the year.
The purpose of the examination is to assess how far each
learner can demonstrate their achievement in reaching
the competencies.
A promotion mark will be awarded at the end of each year

based on the average of the continuous assessment mark
and the mark obtained in the examination. As a transition
from the lower primary phase to grade 5, continuous
assessment may count either 65% of the summative
grade in content subjects, or 50% in skills-based subjects.
In grades 6 and 7, continuous assessment counts 50% of
the summative grade in all subjects. The weighting of
71
continuous assessment and examination is specified in
each subject syllabus as follows:
Subjects Grade 5 Grades 6 and 7

CA Examination CA Examination
Skills-based 50% 50% 50% 50%
subjects
(languages)
Content 65% 35% 50% 50%

subjects (all
other
subjects)
Learner achievement in selected subject areas will be monitored nationally

in grades 5 and 7. The purpose of the achievement test is to evaluate to
what extent the system as a whole is enabling learners to achieve
optimally.
6.4 PROMOTION
Learner-centred education presupposes that all children can learn and

develop given the right circumstances, and recognises that this will vary
from person to person. Therefore, learners will progress through basic
education in as near to normal time as possible. Some learners will achieve
very highly, most will achieve adequately, and some will go through basic
education with limited achievements.
Learners benefit most by remaining with their own age group. The all-round
social and personal development of gifted learners in mainstream/inclusive
schools may be impaired if they are promoted above their age group on the
basis of academic or other excellence alone. Similarly, learners with
learning difficulties who are held back may be more harmed than helped in
their development. A learner may not master everything that is to be learnt
in a certain grade, but is more likely to develop by going on to a new grade
and acquiring what is possible there than by being kept back. Experience
and research show that average learners do progressively worse the longer
they are kept in the same grade. Preferably, no learner should be more
than two years above the appropriate age for a year grade.
The basic competencies specified in the subject syllabuses are intended to

help the teacher identify the progress and all-round development of each
learner at each stage. The great majority of learners will achieve the basic
competencies and will progress continuously through the system. Some
learners will achieve very well or exceptionally well. Learners who partly
achieve the basic competencies will also be able to progress on to the next
72
year with learning support, and information must be passed on to the
teachers of the next year grade if any are different from the current year.
In some cases where learners do not achieve the basic competencies,

repetition might be part of the solution. However, it must be emphasised
that making a learner repeat a grade will be of no benefit unless the learner
receives learning support. When learning support is organised for learners
who repeat a grade, they would not normally experience any further
backlogs within that phase.
(The following information is abstracted from : NO 4: Evaluation of

promotion policy requirements in Namibian schools By: Ms B. Sichombe,
Dr G Nambira, Mr G. Tjipueja and Ms L Kapenda, NIED - Professional and
Resource Development - Research Unit 2011)
6.5 THE NAMIBIAN PROMOTION REQUIREMENTS GUIDELINES:

PROMOTION, REPETITION, TRANSFER AND LEARNING SUPPORT
26. It was assumed earlier in the background that the promotion

requirements might contribute to the undesirable performance of learners in
Namibian schools. Hence, it is important to lay down what the promotion
requirements stipulate on promotion, repetition, transfer and learning
support.
6.5.1 The Namibian promotion requirements, repetition and transfer
27. It is anticipated learners will progress through grades 1-9

without repetition. Only in cases where the class teacher (grades 1-
4) or teaching team (grades 5-9) in consultation with the principal
and head of department is absolutely convinced that a learner would
definitely not benefit from progressing to the next grade, should a
learner repeat a grade. A promotion committee of the school should
discuss borderline cases. Parents/guardians must be kept fully
informed why it is necessary for their child to repeat a grade. What
will be done by the school to ensure that they achieve the necessary
competencies? And what can be done at home to support the
learner?
28. No learner shall repeat more than once in any of the primary
and junior secondary phases. A learner who does not comply with
the minimum promotion requirements for the second time must be
transferred to the next grade (MoE 2009:35).
6.5.2 Promotion requirements and grading at the primary level
30. It further states that a learner in grades 5, 6 and 7 should be

promoted if he or she obtained:
73
a) C grade or better in English and Mathematics.
b) D grade or better in each of the remaining 4 subjects.
Table 2 Grading grades 5 to 7
Grades Mark Grade descriptions

range
A 80+ Achieved basic competencies exceptionally
well. The learner is outstanding in all areas
of competency.
B 65-79% Achieved basic competencies well. The

learner is highly proficient in most areas of
competency, e.g. demonstrating rapid
mastery of some competencies, or being
able to apply competencies to unknown
situations or contexts, or demonstrating
new insight.
C 45-64% Achieved basic competencies well. The

learner has mastered the competencies
satisfactorily in unknown situations and
contexts.
D 30-44% Achieved the minimum number of basic

competencies to be considered competent.
The learner may not have achieved all the
competencies, or may sometimes need
help, but has sufficient competency to go
on to the next grade.
E 0-29% Not achieved the majority of basic

competencies. The learner has not been
able to reach a minimum level of
competency, even with extensive help from
the teacher, and is in need of learning
support.
31. On the transfer of learners in Namibian schools, the promotion

requirements stipulate:
A learner who does not comply with the minimum promotion

requirements for the second time must be transferred to the next
grade. It further stipulates that: A learner who has reached the age
74
of 16 years and is still in the primary phase must be transferred to
the next grade at the end of the year (Circular 6 of 2009).
6.5.5 The promotion requirements and learning support
36. Research has shown that there are many different intervention
strategies that could be given as learning support. The Namibian
promotion requirements make compensatory teaching compulsory.
All struggling learners who are held back or transferred should
receive compulsory compensatory teaching.
The promotion requirements stipulate that:
In some cases where learners do not achieve the basic

competencies, repetition might be part of the solution. However, it
must be emphasised that making a learner repeat a grade will be of
no benefit unless the learner receives compensatory teaching.
When compensatory teaching is organised for learners who repeat
a grade, they would normally not experience any further backlogs
within that phase (MoE 2007:42).
37. It further states in circular 6 of 2009 that: Learners who do not

progress to the next grade must receive counselling to help them
understand their situation and must receive learning support
focusing on the competencies which they did not achieve. A learner
who does not comply with the minimum promotion requirements for
the second time must be transferred to the next grade. Transferred
learners should receive learning support in the next grade in those
subjects in which they could not achieve the competencies required.

secondary phase
(The following information was obtained from: Ministry of Education. 2008. The
National Curriculum for Basic Education. NIED: Okahandja)
Junior secondary, grades 8-10
The junior secondary phase extends the learners’ knowledge and skills,
strengthens their values and attitudes, and prepares them for continued studies
and young adult life. This phase provides learners with the opportunity to
explore a wider range of subjects to enable them to make informed subject
choices for future career opportunities. It is more challenging and a greater
body of knowledge is mobilised to develop a higher level of understanding and
skills.
75
The curriculum becomes more diversified as learning areas are broken up into
more separate subject disciplines and a degree of choice is introduced.
The medium of learning (except in the mother tongue/predominant local

language subject) continues to be English. All learners continue to take English
and the mother tongue/predominant local language and Mathematics. The
Natural Sciences are separated into Life Science and Physical Science, and
the Social Sciences into Geography, History, Life Skills and Religious and
Moral Education. In addition, Arts in Culture, Physical Education, ICT Literacy
and Basic Information Science are offered. At this stage, learners’ ICT skills
are consolidated in order to enable them to learn independently and
collaboratively and to do research using ICTs.
The element of choice is introduced in the pre-vocational area, where learners

choose any combination of two electives from the following table, depending on
their interest and aptitude, and what is available at the school:
Table 2.3.1
Natural
Languages Technology Commerce Arts
science
A first, Agriculture Computer Accounting Visual Art
second or Studies
foreign
language Design and Keyboard and Integrated
Technology Word Processing Performing
Arts
Home Typing
Economics
Needlework Entrepreneurship
and Clothing
HIV and AIDS education takes on new significance as learners in this phase
enter the high risk age range (15-25), during which sexual relationships begin
and are continued. It must be ensured that each and every learner is fully
educated about HIV and AIDS and has the personal and social skills and
competencies to wait until full maturity before engaging in a sexual relationship
and to lead a healthy, considerate life.
Grade 10 is the first exit level from basic education and some learners will start
independent young adult life, enter non-formal education, training, low-level
entry employment or create their own employment. It is during this phase that
the learning to learn skills area must be consolidated so that learners will
76
continue in lifelong learning. Learners who have the aptitude will continue their
senior secondary education.
At the end of the junior secondary education, learners are required to write the
Junior Secondary Certificate Examination which, in combination with the CA
marks, determines the learner’s progression to senior secondary grades.
Continuous assessment and end-of-year examinations are used throughout

the phase. An external examination for the Junior Secondary Certificate is held
at the end of grade 10 in nine subjects (English, mother tongue/predominant
local language, Mathematics, Geography, History, Life Science, Physical
Science, and the two electives).
Table 2.3.2: The subjects in the junior secondary phase are organised as
follows:
Seven compulsory Two Six non-

promotional subjects optional promotional
promotional subjects
subjects
Two Five core See table 1. Arts in

languages subjects 2.3.1 Culture
  2. Physical
English 1. Mathematics Education
and 2. Life Science 3. Life Skills
another 3. Physical 4. Basic
language Science Information
4. Geography Science
5. History 5. Religious
and Moral
Education
6. ICT
Literacy
Table 2.3.3: The following languages are currently included in the

curriculum:
Mother tongue (1st

2nd language level Foreign language
language) level (pre-
(grades 1-12) level (grades 8-12)
primary to grade 12)
Afrikaans Afrikaans French
English English German
German
Ju!’hoansi
77
Khoekhoegowab
Oshikwanyama
Oshindonga
Otjiherero
Rukwangali
Rumanyo
Setswana
Silozi
Thimbukushu
Namibian sign language
Senior secondary, grades 11-12
The main purpose of the senior secondary phase is to prepare learners for
adult life, tertiary studies or direct entry to employment. Much greater demands
are made on the learners in terms of the level of cognitive, personal and social
development, both in terms of academic achievement, taking greater
responsibility for their own learning, and consolidating good work ethics and
practices. Entry to the senior secondary phase in the formal system is decided
on the number of points to be achieved, calculated on the basis of final grades
from the junior secondary phase.
The medium of learning (except in national language subjects) continues to be

English. All learners take Life Skills, Physical Education, ICT Literacy and at
least six subjects for the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate examination.
One of these must be English. As from 2012, Mathematics will also be a
compulsory subject. Learners specialise by choosing one of the options in a
field of study, and one or two supplementary subjects from those offered by the
school to make up a programme of six examination subjects.
A field of study consists of three inter-related mutually supportive subjects. The

choice of option within a field of study should be guided by which subjects they
achieved good grades in at the Junior Secondary Certificate examination. In
addition, learners take any two supplementary subjects if they follow a one-
language curriculum and any one supplementary subject if they follow a two-
language curriculum. Supplementary subjects should be chosen on the basis
of their interest and aptitude. As far as is practically possible, the mother
tongue/predominant local language should be taken.
The development priorities of Namibia Vision 2030 and ETSIP mean that there
will be a much greater demand for expertise in Mathematics, Natural Sciences
and Information and Communication Technologies. These are therefore given
prominence in the fields of study, and can also be combined as supplementary
78
subjects with fields of study that do not include any one of them. More
advanced ICTs skills are required at this phase and learners will demonstrate
confidence in using the ICTs for a range of everyday tasks. An increasing
number of learners will be directed towards Mathematics, Natural Sciences and
ICTs as qualified teachers and teaching/learning resources become available.
The combination of fields of study and supplementary subjects will give greater
depth or greater breadth, depending on whether or not the supplementary
subject is related to those in the field of study. However, in cases where there
is an overlapping of content, certain combinations of supplementary subjects
might be excluded owing to examination requirements.
At the end of grade 12, learners take the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate
examination. All subjects are available at the ordinary level of the examination
(NSSCO), and most subjects are available at the higher level (NSSCH), as
shown in the following tables:
Table 2.3.4 Languages (first and second language level)
Afrikaans Khoekhoegowab Rukwangali

Afrikaans 2nd language Namibian sign language Rumanyo
English Oshikwanyama Setswana
English 2nd language Oshindonga Silozi
German Otjiherero Thimbukushu
Table 2.3.5 Fields of study
Natural Science NSM1 Biology; Physical Science; Mathematics

and NSM2 Biology; Mathematics; Geography
Mathematics MSM3 Physical Science; Mathematics; Computer
Studies
MSM4 Agriculture; Biology; Mathematics
MSM5 Physical Science; Mathematics, Geography
Social Science SS1 Development Studies; Geography; History
SS2 Economics; Geography; History
Technology T1 Design and Technology; Mathematics;
Physical Science
T2 Home Economics; Biology; Development
Studies
T3 Fashion and Fabrics; Business Studies;
Development Studies
T4 Mathematics; Computer Studies; Design
and Technology
79
Commerce C1 Accounting; Business Studies; Mathematics
C2 Accounting; Mathematics; Computer
C3 Studies
Accounting; Economics; Mathematics
Supplementary subjects
The following subjects can be combined with a field of study. Learners who
follow a two-language curriculum take any one supplementary subject and
learners who follow a one-language curriculum take any two supplementary
subjects.
Table 2.3.6
Any language from table 2.4.3 Fashion and Fabrics

Accounting French Foreign Language
Agriculture Geography
Art and Design German Foreign Language
Biology History
Business Studies Home Economics
Computer Studies Mathematics
Design and Technology Office Administration and Keyboarding
Development Studies Applications
Economics Physical Science
The NSSC subjects in the curriculum can be organised in one of the following
ways:
A two-language curriculum
English + Three subjects from a One supplementary

specific field of study subject
Another language + +
(see 2.3.5) (see 2.3.6)
(see 2.3.4)
A one-language curriculum
Three subjects from a Two supplementary

English + +
specific field of study subject
80
(see 2.2.5) (see 2.3.6)
From January 2012, Mathematics (higher or ordinary level) will be a

compulsory subject for full-time and part-time learners and must be offered as
one of the three subjects constituting a field of study or as a supplementary
subject.
During the last phase (senior secondary phase), the learners are required to
write either the International General Certificate of Secondary Education
(IGCSE) replaced by the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate (NSSC)
Ordinary or the Higher International General Certificate of Secondary
Education (HIGCSE) replaced by the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate
(NSSC) Higher level.
Pedagogically, the curriculum in post-independence Namibia is based on the

principles of leaner-centred teaching and learning (Ministry of Education and
Culture 1993). In the Namibian context, this principle is conceptualised in such
a way that all children can learn and develop given the right circumstances,
and recognises that this will vary from person to person. Therefore, learners
will progress through basic education in as near to normal time as possible.
Some learners will achieve very highly, most will achieve adequately, and
some will go through basic education with limited achievements (Ministry of
Education 2009:42).
Broadly examined, the leaner-centred approach aims to achieve the following

tenets (Ministry of Education and Culture 1993:120):
 An enlightened understanding of humankind, its culture, its traditions, and

its history.
 A methodology that promotes learning through understanding and practice
directed towards the autonomous mastery of living conditions.
 A general reorientation of the organisation of school work with the view to
fostering the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills by all learners.
 Continuous assessment of the learning process and its results.
 Establishment of a non-confessional religious curriculum where teaching
about the roles of different religious and other philosophies of life in the
history of humankind is introduced.
 Promoting and protecting the fundamental equality of all learners and equity
in their access to, their work in, and their benefits from the learning
environment.
 Introducing and encouraging classroom practices that reflect and reinforce
both the values and practices of democracy.
81
On the basis of these tenets, the National Curriculum for Basic Education
(Ministry of Education 2009:30) clearly asserts:
The basic competencies in the syllabuses should state what understanding and
skills a learner must demonstrate as a result of a teaching-learning process,
and which will be assessed. … It is intended that the curriculum be learning-
driven, not assessment- and examination-driven. Assessments and
examinations are to support learning.
Assessment for the Junior Secondary Certificate (grades 8-10)
Backtracking this discussion to before independence, the South African

examination at the Junior Secondary phase (grade 10) was the first to be
replaced by the Namibia Junior Secondary Certificate (JSC) Examination in
1991 (Ministry of Education and Culture 1993). This transitional phase was
implemented over a three-year period, with the first examination written in
1993. It was intended that the curriculum for the Junior Secondary Certificate
should:
 Provide a common core learning experience for all Namibian youth.

 Promote a balanced curriculum.
 Improve the links between the learning in school, the local community, and
the available job opportunities.
 Introduce English as a common medium of instruction.
 Promote learning with understanding through a relevant national curriculum.
The examination results are graded according to a 7-point scale of grades A-G
and points are awarded for subject grades as follows:
A=7
B=6
C=5
D=4
E=3
F=2
G=1
In 2010, a total of 33 570 full-time grade 10 learners registered for national

examinations. Out of the 33 570 learners who wrote the grade 10 examination
that year, 17 187 qualified for admission to grade 11 in 2011.
82
This meant that 51.2% of the learners qualified for admission to grade 11
compared to 50.3% in 2009 (Ministry of Education 2010b). The Ministry of
Education in a press statement acknowledged that, “on average, since 1993,
the percentages of learners qualifying for admission have been between a
minimum of 37.2% and a maximum of 51.2 %” (Ministry of Education 2010b:3).
The caveat to this is that, “this status (state) of affairs surely calls for all of us
as a nation to embark upon a holistic transformation of our education system”
(Ministry of Education 2010b: 3).
Continuous Assessment (CA) in the Junior Secondary Certificate contributes

35% or 50% of the summative grade. The weighting of continuous assessment
and examination results is specified in each subject’s syllabus, for example,
skills-based subjects (languages, pre-vocational subjects) and content subjects
(all other subjects), see table 2.3.7.
Table 2.3.7: Weighting of CA marks in grade 8-10
Subjects Grades 8-10

Continuous Assessment Examination
(CA)
Skills-based subjects
(language, pre- 50% 50%
vocational subjects)
Content subjects (all

35% 65%
other subjects)
(Source: Ministry of Education 2009:34)
Based on table 2.3.8, in the Junior Secondary phase, grades A-G and U
(ungraded) apply; it is reasonable to argue that the results of grade 10 serve as
a yardstick to determine whether a learner should start studying a subject at
the ordinary or at the higher level in the senior secondary phase, where field
specialisation is required (see table 2.3.8).
Table 2.3.8: Grading system in the junior and secondary phase
Grades Mark Grade descriptors

range
Achieved basic competencies exceptionally well.

A 80%+ The learner is outstanding in all areas of
competency.
83
Achieved basic competencies very well. The
B 70-79% learner is highly proficient in most areas of
competency.
C 60-69% Achieved basic competencies well.
D 50-59% Achieved basic competencies satisfactorily
Achieved a sufficient number of basic

E 40-49% competencies to exceed the minimum competency
level.
Achieved the basic competencies needed to be

F 30-39% considered competent. The learner needs learning
support.
Achieved the minimum number of basic

G 20-29% competencies worthy of a grade. The learner
needs learning support.
Did not achieve the minimum level of competence.

U 0-19%
The learner needs learning support.
A scale of A-G is used for the ordinary level, and 1-4 for the higher level, with
Ungraded (U) being used at both levels, where the A and the 1 respectively are
the highest levels.
In addition to grade 10 results, CA results during grade 11 are also used as a

determinant of whether or not a learner should be entered for the examination
at the ordinary instead of the higher level, and, in the case of Mathematics and
second languages, at the Core or Extended Ordinary Level.
Assessment for the Senior Secondary Certificate (grades 11-12)
Representatives of the Cambridge International General Examinations (CIE)

were invited by the Namibian government soon after independence to assist in
the reform of the senior secondary education phase. The Higher/International
General Certificate of Secondary Examination (H/IGCSE) replaced the Cape
Education Department Matriculation examination in 1994 in grade 11. This new
system made provision for school-based assessment or course work
compulsory in some subject syllabi and optional in others. Howarth (1995)
noted that the Ministry of Education decided that, due to lack of resources and
expertise, school-based assessment should be used only for subjects for which
it is a compulsory component. In response to local, regional and internal
84
recognition, Britain designed the HIGCSE to suit Namibia’s situation (Njabili
1995). Among the challenges Namibia experienced was that, from the
beginning, South African universities would not accept IGCSE alone for
matriculation exemption (Swarts 1995), even though, as Howarth (1995:40)
points out, HIGCSE and IGCSE aimed to support modern curriculum
development, promote international understanding, encourage good teaching
practice, and set widely recognised standards.
Swarts (1995:6) argues that, from the Namibian perspective, the H/IGCSE was
found to be “pedagogically appropriate as a starting point to develop an own
Namibian Senior Secondary Certificate”. In the same vein, Howarth (1995:41)
claims that H/IGCSE was founded on the ideal that “learning and assessment
should be integrated and not divorced from each other”, as was the case with
the Cape Education system. Furthermore, in this model, learners are provided
with opportunities for their work to be assessed both at the school and
externally, in this case, in Cambridge.
This, according to the Ministry of Education and Culture (1993:124), would

allow teaching and assessment to move away from a culture of failure to the
education that “requires that we rethink the philosophy that guides our
examinations … we are moving from an approach that emphasises success
versus failure toward an orientation that focuses on encouraging and recording
achievement‟.
Another cited advantage of the H/IGCSE was that it was designed to cater for
a wide range of abilities of learners. For example, a learner could choose to sit
for either a core paper (with grades C-G) or an extended paper (with grades A-
E). No conversion from extended grade to core grades took place. The learner
was either graded or ungraded in the specific paper. This setback posed
challenges to some teachers in terms of adapting to the new system of grading
because they were used to the Cape Education system with its flexibility where
a subject could either be taken on the Higher Grade or the Standard Grade and
a fail in Higher Grade would automatically be converted to a pass in Standard
Grade.
Localisation of the Namibian Secondary Certificate
From the initial stage of the consultations with the CIE, provision was made for
the localisation of the H/IGCSE qualifications, as they would serve as a
foundation for developing the Namibia Certificate of Secondary Education. At
the National Conference on H/IGCSE, Prime Minister Nahas Angula, then the
Minister of Education and Culture, commented:
IGCSE is specifically tailored for foreign countries while GCSE is the version in
use in Great Britain. Overall it would seem to me that IGCSE is a specifically
85
tailored export model as against GCSE, which is the real thing. This requires
that we build up our own capabilities – our own examination system, and our
own assessment mechanisms … (van der Merwe 1995:181).
It should be emphasised that the Prime Minister’s sentiments concretised the

need for localisation. In 2006 the Namibian Senior Secondary Certificate
(NSSC) Ordinary and Higher level syllabi and examinations were implemented
in grade 11. These syllabi are mostly based on the CIE’s International General
Certificate of Education (IGCSE). The achievement of this initiative was hailed
as another achievement in the education and politics of the country as it was
the first time that the country would have its own examination system. The
Ministry of Education took trouble and care to develop the new syllabi and
examinations insisting that they should be of “a high quality in order to meet the
international recognition and that the standard should at least be equivalent to
or higher than that of IGCSE and HIGCSE (Ministry of Education 2007: 2).
To realise this daunting task, the Ministry “worked closely with experts from
Cambridge to carry forward the strengths of the Cambridge curriculum and
examination system to the new NSSC system and made changes where
necessary to ensure that the new NSSC curriculum and examination system
are relevant to the Namibian needs” (Ministry of Education 2007:6). In order to
maintain quality standards, Maletsky (2007) noted that, “… after localisation,
Namibia maintained links with CIE to ensure the maintenance of standards and
international recognition of the new Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate”
(www.namibian.com.na//index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news5D=34478&n
o_cache=1).
Prior to implementation, new syllabi were subjected to tight quality assurance

tests before they were approved by the National Examination, Assessment and
Certification Board (NEACB).
There are ten changes worth pointing out that were introduced during the
localisation process of the syllabi and curriculum:
 Literature, which was a syllabus separate from IGCSE First Language

English and First Language German syllabi, was integrated into these two
ordinary level syllabi.
 Both the IGCSE and HIGCSE Mathematics syllabi were upgraded to
include more topics at ordinary level, and to study important topics in
greater depth and with a higher level of application in the new higher level
syllabus.
 The Development Studies syllabus was upgraded with the inclusion of more
topics of relevance to the Southern African context, e.g. NEPAD was
included.
86
 Because of the overlap between Geography and Environmental
Management, essential non-overlapping topics in the Natural Environmental
syllabi were incorporated in the ordinary level Geography syllabus and the
Environmental Management syllabus was phased out.
 The IGCSE subjects Child Development, Religious Studies and Music were
phased out because of the very low candidate enrolments in these subjects.
 The seven specialised IGCSE technical subjects were phased out. Design
and Technology remains the only “technical subject” at both NSSC ordinary
and higher levels.
 The structure of the NSSC senior secondary curriculum remains the same
as for IGCSE and HIGCSE.
 The Core/Extended differentiated examinations which existed for ten (10)
IGCSE subjects were done away with in the NSSC Ordinary Level syllabi
except for Mathematics, Afrikaans as a Second Language and English as a
Second Language, where they were retained.
 The grading scales of A (highest) to G (lowest) for Ordinary Level and 1
(highest) to 4 (lowest) for Higher Level were retained as was the case for
IGCSE and IGCSE respectively.
 Art and Design, French and Computer Studies syllabi and examinations
were still to be borrowed from the Cambridge system. The localisation of
these syllabi has not been completed because of a lack of capacity and
expertise in the Namibian Education system in these subject areas (Ministry
of Education 2007:3).
Changing from the old education system in Namibia, which was characterised
by inequality and fragmentation, to the new system was a gradual process. As
noted in the Policy Dialogue Reports: Examinations (1993: 3) “… a major
objective [to reform assessment systems] was to begin the lengthy process of
mental decolonization away from the images of an inferior and separate people
which permeated the old curriculum and pedagogy”. For quality assurance and
the maintenance of public confidence, links with Cambridge were thought to be
vital, especially after the localisation of the syllabi.
As Njabili (2004:38) observes, “it should be noted that the most sensitive part
of curriculum change is change in the Assessment and Examination System.
Poor performance in Public Examinations, to the public at large is often taken
as an indicator of poor teaching and learning”.
Now that the government of the Republic of Namibia, through the Ministry of
Education, is in charge of its assessment systems and procedures the reforms
there have been an indication that the curriculum is being well served. This is
encouraging since research has shown that “curricular objectives can best be
achieved if examinations and assessment serve the curriculum. Frequently,
curriculum has been the servant of examinations. As Njabili (2004:37) argued,
87
“… in such a situation, the content of the curriculum and emphasis in teaching
is determined by examination demands”.
SA-eDUC JOURNAL Volume 9, Number 2 September 2012
The Educational assessment reforms in post-independence Namibia: A critical

analysis
Sakaria M. Iipinge & Gilbert N. Likando
Faculty of Education, University of Namibia
2.4 Features of the end of primary (summative) education

examinations
Primary education lasts seven years and is divided into lower primary (grades
1-4, second phase of basic education) and upper primary (grades 5-7, third
phase of basic education). Under ideal conditions a learner begins grade 1 at
the age of 6. Learners will be monitored nationally in grade 5, using nationally
standardised assessments. With the implementation of the new curriculum for
basic education (2010) the grade 7 examinations will be phased out (Unesco.
2010/11. Namibia. World Data on Education. Vii Ed www.unesco.org/iep).
Continuous assessment is used throughout upper primary (grades 5 -7) and

there are end-of-year examinations. The result of summative assessment is a
single end-of year promotion grade. The examination is, in effect, a moderation
device (Unesco. 2010/11. Namibia. World Data on Education. Vii Ed
www.unesco.org/iep).
Not more than 40% of the summative grade may be based on tests. Internal
end-of year examinations will be given in the upper primary examination
subjects as specified in the subject syllables. The purpose of these
examinations is to focus on how well learners can demonstrate their thinking,
communication and problem-solving skills related to the areas of the syllabus
which are most essential for continuing in the next grade.
Preparing for and conducting these examinations should not take up more than
two weeks altogether at the end of the year. The purpose of the examination is
to assess how far each learner can demonstrate their achievement in reaching
competencies. A promotion will be awarded at the end of each year based on
the average of the summative grade from continuous assessment and the
grade obtained in the examination. Learner achievement in selected subject
areas will be monitored nationally in grade 5 (Unesco. 2010/11. Namibia. World
Data on Education. Vii Ed www.unesco.org/iep).
88
In the past, at the end of primary schooling (grade 7), learners were required to
write a semi-external examination as a transition to the junior secondary
education in four subjects, English Second Language, Mathematics, Social
Studies and Natural Science and Health Education. Due to some challenges in
maintaining quality in the marking of these examinations, semi-external
examinations were stopped in 2009 and schools were given a directive through
the Ministry of Education Circular no. 28/2010 to set their own question papers
as from November 2010 (Ministry of Education 2010a). As per this directive,
Grade 7 Standardised Achievements under the Education, Training and Sector
Improvement Programme (ETSIP) were maintained in three subjects, namely:
Mathematics; English Second Language and Natural Science. Worth noting is
that unlike other examinations that are geared towards promotion, the
standardised achievements examination outcomes are used for diagnosis
rather than for promotional purposes (Ministry of Education).
2.5 Relation between the Namibian primary and secondary

assessment directives and the features of competency-based
assessment
Assessment is the process of collecting evidence and making judgements on

whether competency has been achieved. The purpose of assessment is to
confirm that a learner can perform to the expected standards as set by the
teacher.
Competency is the consistent application of knowledge and skill to the

standard of performance required by the teacher. It embodies the ability to
transfer and apply skills and knowledge to new situations and environments
(http://anrl.com.au/samples/SHEA59_S.pdf).
Competency-based assessment is the process of gathering sufficient evidence

to make a judgment about whether the specified standards have been met.
This evidence is demonstrated or produced by the learner
(http://nicelavz.hubpages.com/hub/Characteristics-of-competency-based-
assessment). The assessment is derived from a specification of a set of
outcomes that clearly states both the outcomes, general and specific, that
teachers and learners can make reasonably objective judgements regarding
learner achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes; and that certifies
progress on the basis of demonstrated achievement of these outcomes
(http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/resources
/heca/heca_cl25.pdf).
Competency-based assessment should not be an isolated activity. It is part of

the learning process. It is important to identify skill gaps as well as
89
opportunities for further learning and development. Evidence collecting is a
process, not a one-off test of knowledge.
The three components of competence-based assessment, which are especially

important, are:
 The emphasis on outcomes; specifically, multiple outcomes, each

distinctive and separately considered.
 The belief that these outcomes can and should be specified to the point
where they are clear and "transparent".
 The joining of assessment with other learning areas.
(http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/resources/heca
/heca_cl25.pdf)
Some of the characteristics of competency-based assessment are:
 It is based on outcomes that describe the expected level of competency.

 Outcomes include criteria that provide details of what is considered as
acceptable.
 The assessment is individual; there is no comparison among learners.
 It provides a judgement for the assessed learners.
 It is done in classroom situations.
 It does not take a predetermined period of time; it is a process rather than a
particular moment.
 It is not subject to the completion of a specific learning task.
 It includes the recognition of acquired competencies as a result of learning
experience.
 It plays an important role in the development of skills and abilities of the
learner.
 It actively involves the learner in the assessment process.
 It makes competency meaningful to learners by relating the outcomes to
what the learners know.
 It clearly targets the evidence that the learners needs to present.
 It incorporates clear and efficient methods of evidence collection.
 It has clear procedures for making the assessment decision.
 It includes efficient record-keeping systems.
 It ensures that the learners are given clear and constructive advice and
feedback.
Figure 1: Key features of competency-based assessment (Department of

Employment, Training & Youth Affairs. 2001. Training Package assessment
materials kit.)
90
The Namibian Qualification Authority (NQA) has developed a National
Qualifications Framework (NQF) to promote a competency-based approach to
education and training. Its starting point is the intended outcomes or end-points
of learning.
2.6 Rules for the administration of the national examinations

Assessment (DNEA) are to provide a national assessment and certification
service for the school system, assist in enhancing the quality of education and
assist with the monitoring of educational standards.
The main objectives are:
 To successfully administer the examination and certification functions of the

national school examinations, namely, the Junior Secondary Certificate
(JSC), the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate Ordinary Level (NSSCO)
and the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate Higher Level (NSSCH)
examinations, as well as the semi-external end of primary (grade 7)
examination.
 To continuously monitor and improve the security of examinations and the

efficiency of regional examination offices, heads of examination centres,
and invigilators.
91
standards in the education system.
Learners in Namibia take nationwide, formal examinations for promotion

purposes at three points in their schooling: Grades 7, 10, and 12. However,
very little information is collected on how well learners in primary school are
acquiring key skills and competencies from the national curriculum.
Furthermore, no data is collected that can sufficiently represent learner
achievement at the school, either on regional or a national level. Consequently,
Namibia’s Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme (ETSIP)
has called for the development of national standardised achievement tests.
The Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment (DNEA) has been
tasked with developing these sustainable, long-term standardised achievement
tests that would accomplish the following:
 Monitor learners’ acquisition of identified skills and competencies in key

subject areas, which must be implemented nationally at grades 5 and 7.
 Set baseline and performance targets to monitor the progress of learners in
grades 5 and 7 at individual schools.
 Disseminate diagnostic feedback from the test results to schools and
advisory and inspection services in each of the educational regions.
 Establish professional and administrative capacities at the Directorate of
National Examinations and Assessment (DNEA).
This project ensured that DNEA developed the capacity to implement the
grade 7 National Standardised Achievement Test. This process took place over
three separate phases. The first phase was test construction, which involved
defining the purpose and scope of the test as well as the process of writing and
pilot-testing test items. The second phase was the development of the baseline
scale. This phase began after the administration of the first operational test and
involved applying modern test theories during the analysis of the results. The
third phase was the maintenance of the test scale. This was the process used
to ensure future tests are equivalent to the baseline test so that comparisons
can be made across years.
The Namibia Qualifications Authority (NQA) is positioning itself for a productive

year with increasing public awareness and access topping the institution's list
of goals.
For Namibia to attain its objective to become an industrialised nation by 2030,

it is imperative for the country to produce an appropriately skilled and educated
workforce. Education and, by extension, qualifications, is the first step towards
sustainable socio-economic development and attaining national objectives. As
such, quality assurance is critical in education and training as it not only
facilitates enhancement of employability of graduates but also ensures that the
92
link between educational outcomes and societal needs is strengthened. It is
therefore the NQA's quest to ensure that all institutions of higher learning in
Namibia offer programmes and qualifications that meet the required standards
and are aligned with the national developmental goals as outlined in both
vision 2030 and NDP 4.
One of the NQA's strategic goals this year is to take the institution and its
services to the people. With increasing demand for higher education, coupled
with the growing threat of qualifications fraud, it has become increasingly
important for the NQA to become more visible, known and accessible to the
public. In order to achieve this, the authority will be rolling out aggressive public
education interventions to be carried out throughout the country and in both the
mainstream and social media. The ultimate goal is to increase public
awareness and knowledge of the NQA and most importantly of the role the
authority plays in ensuring that all qualifications offered in Namibia are quality
assured and meet the set national standards.
This website provides access to examination results, statistics and information

about the national examinations for HIGCSE, IGCSE and JSC. Go to the
following webpage: http://www.moe.gov.na/files/files/Dewald2.pdf.
You will find the rules of the Directorate of National Examinations and
Assessments (DNEA) on that website. You have to study this document to be
able to do the activity and the assignment. This document is also important for
the examination.
http://www.dnea.gov.na/
2.7 Features of inspections of a National Examinations Centre
The DNEA has set standards and regulations for schools that are examination
centres. When an inspection is done, the following checklist serves as a guide
to prepare for the inspection:
Name of inspection
officer:
Centre no: NA NX
Centre name:
Region:
Date:
93
Time of inspection:
Name of question paper:
(in process)
1. SECURITY OF STATIONARY, QUESTION PAPERS AND

SCRIPTS
Suitable safe or container and its location in a secure

area.
Envelopes with question papers received – these must be

sealed for examinations not yet conducted. Examination
stationery received – this must be locked in a suitable
safe or container together with the question papers.
Any shortages/incorrect question papers must be

reported to the REXO (Regional Examination Official) by
the centre.
Examination material is kept in a suitable strong room.
Question paper packets are arranged in timetable order.
The forms to certify that envelopes with question papers

were found sealed and intact on the day of the
examination were available, completed, signed and filed.
All question papers must be collected after the

examination and kept in a safe place for 24 hours.
Is a relative of a registered candidate employed at this

centre?
The relative has no unaccompanied access to

examination materials.
Access to the strong room is allowed Name(s):

for:
Occupation:
The key to the strong room is Name(s):

available to:
94
Occupation:
Comments:
2. EXAMINATION ROOM(S)
Classroom(s)/a hall is/are being used as examination

room(s).
The rooms/hall provide candidates with appropriate

conditions to take the exams such as sufficient lighting,
ventilation, cleanliness.
The immediate environment is quiet.
No helpful materials are visible in the room.
Time is indicated with a wall clock(s) which is/are visible

to all candidates.
The poster “Notice to Candidates” is displayed inside the

examination room.
The poster “Notice to Candidates” is displayed outside

the examination room.
The centre number, start and finishing times, and paper in

progress are visible to all.
The arrangement and spacing of desks are as required

(1.25 m apart).
Candidates are seated in candidate number order in

accordance with the checklist and seating plan.
Candidate numbers are labelled on each desk.
All candidates face in the same direction.
Comments:
95
3. INVIGILATION
The Handbook for Centres is available in the examination

room.
Invigilators are familiar with the regulations contained in

Part 3 of the Handbook.
An invigilation timetable is available.
At least one invigilator for every 30 Invigilators:

candidates:
Practical tests: one invigilator per 15 Candidates

candidates:
Invigilators
Practical tests: Teacher of subject examined present at

the start of the test.
Listening tests: Teacher who speaks the language is

present in the examination room.
The subject teacher should not be the sole invigilator at

any time.
Comments:
4. CONDUCT OF THE EXAMINATION
Candidates must arrive at least 30 minutes before starting

time.
ID documents are being checked on entry.
Admission permits are being checked on entry.
The ‘Present’ column on the checklist is ticked off as

candidates enter the room/hall.
96
Candidates are allowed only to take in authorised
materials.
Candidates must be seated at least 15 minutes before

starting time.
Candidates are informed of the regulations regarding

stationery, equipment, etc.
A seating plan is compiled in triplicate for every session.
Answer paper must be handed out first and then question

papers.
Question paper envelopes must be checked and opened

in front of the candidates. Candidates may not read
through the paper before the starting time. Reading and
writing time are included in the time allocated for the
paper.
Practical tests: Movement of candidates limited to the

minimum.
Practical tests: Chemicals in containers are not identified.
Comments:
5. EXAMINATION FILE
Forms to certify that envelopes were found sealed are

available, completed, signed and filed.
Seating plans (second copies) are available, completed,

signed and filed.
Copies of SC forms (if applicable) are available and filed.
Check lists are dealt with according to regulations, and

are available and filed.
Cut open envelopes are available in the safe. (Check if

envelopes were correctly opened by having been cut
open with a scissor as was indicated on the envelope,
with a small piece still attached to the envelope).
97
Comments:
6. AT THE END OF THE EXAMINATION
Candidates are informed that 5 minutes remain before the

end of the examination.
Candidates stop writing at the end of the examination.
Rules are followed for candidates who arrive late.
Invigilator follows the instructions for candidates at the

end of the examination.
Comments:
7. PACKING AND HANDLING OF ANSWER SCRIPTS AFTER

THE SESSION IS COMPLETED
Answer scripts, multiple choice answer sheets and

question papers are collected from/handed in by the
candidates before candidates leave the room and the
‘Number of Scripts’ column on the check list is completed
at the same time.
Answer scripts/multiple choice answer sheets are placed

in the order shown on the check list.
Collected answer scripts and question papers are

immediately handed over to the responsible person for
packing.
All unused stationery is collected and returned to secure

storage.
Answer scripts/multiple choice answer sheets of

completed examinations are packed in white answer
script envelopes. Check lists are included and the
envelope is sealed immediately after the session, labelled
and ready for dispatch. (White envelope for scripts and
brown pre-prepared one for multiple choice answer
sheets).
98
Consignments are collected by regional office/delivered to
regional office.
Comments:
(DNEA, 2004, Rules for regional examination officials)
2.8 The role of assessment in achieving quality education
Assessment is vital as you will often have to make decisions about learners
when teaching and caring for them. The decisions you will face most of the
time will involve how best to educate your learners. It will be expected of you to
make decisions every day before, during, and after your teaching. Whereas
some of these decisions will seem small and unimportant, others will be very
important, influencing the course of learners’ lives. All of your assessment
decisions taken as a whole will direct and alter learners’ learning outcomes.
Assessment plays a role in different areas of quality education. The role of
assessment in achieving quality education will now be discussed.
2.8.1 Purposes of assessment
The assessment strategy designed by the Ministry of Education

(National Professional Standard for Teachers in Namibia) is consistent
with the defined purpose of the assessment and the evidence
requirements revealed in the analysis of the learner syllabus objectives.
The assessment strategy meets a number of key purposes.
These purposes include:
Encouraging the continuous development of learners.

Making reliable decisions regarding learner competence.
Providing information to modify learning design and facilitation.
The assessments are furthermore able to gather valid, reliable and

sufficient evidence of learner competence in relation to meaningful
outcomes of learning.
Valid evidence relates directly to the purpose of the assessment

and the identified syllabus objectives, and not something else.
Reliable evidence means we can trust the authenticity of the
evidence.
99
Sufficient evidence refers to coverage and repeatability i.e. there is
enough evidence in terms of syllabus coverage and the likelihood
of repeatability of learner performance to make an informed
decision regarding learner competence. The key relates to finding
a balance between under-assessing and over-assessing, bearing
in mind cost and time constraints
Assessment criteria are conveyed clearly and unambiguously. The

criteria are conveyed in a way that promotes accurate evidence
gathering and assessment judgements.
 The assessment design ensures holistic, integrated and

comprehensive assessment using multiple sources and types of
evidence.
 Assessments are consistently proven reliable through
moderation processes.
 Assessments are structured logically and in an appropriate
sequence and cater for a range of thinking skills including higher
order thinking skills.
 The assessment design provides opportunities for learner input
into assessment where appropriate.
 Assessment activities, instruments and resources selected are
useful for the collection of valid and sufficient evidence of
competence in relation to the identified learner syllabus
objectives.
 The assessment activities are appropriate, fair and manageable,
and are consistent with the purpose of the assessment.
 Appropriate means the method of assessment is suited to the
syllabus objectives being assessed i.e. is capable of gathering
evidence in relation to the intended objectives, and not
something else.
 Fair means the method of assessment does not present any
barriers to achievements which are unrelated to the
achievement of the objectives being assessed i.e. should gather
the same from all, and not advantage or prejudice.
 Manageable means the methods used make for easily arranged,
cost-effective assessments that do not unduly interfere with
learning.
 The assessment design makes provision for special needs of
learners, without compromising the validity of the assessment.
 Time allocated for the activities is verified as realistic and
justified by the requirements of the learner syllabus objectives
being assessed.
100
 Instructions to learners are pitched at their level. Instructions
provide clear direction regarding the purpose and requirements
of the assessment without influencing them towards particular
responses.
 The structure of the assessment documentation promotes
efficient and effective assessment. It further facilitates the
recording of data before, during and after the assessment for
purposes of record keeping, assessment decisions and
moderation of assessment.
 Support material promotes effective and efficient assessment,
including observation sheets, checklists, exemplars, memoranda
or rubrics as applicable.
(Ministry of Education. National Professional Standard for Teachers in

Namibia Namibian Qualifications Authority.)
2.8.2 Promotion policy
Promotion policy is aimed at ensuring quality education by offering

guidance for the implementation of quality assessment practices.
The promotion policy states that a learner should not repeat a grade in a
phase more than once. This does not mean that it is the norm that a
learner can perform weakly and still be allowed to go to a higher grade.
It is an approach to repetition which only permits repetition between sub-
cycles of a schooling phase, hence the statement ‘a learner should not
repeat a grade in a phase more than once’. Therefore, it is referred to as
semi-automatic promotion, the main purpose of which is to reduce high
repetition rates and to ensure internal efficiency of the schooling system.
The policy was adopted on the assumption that its implementation
would be supported with a strong element of a remedial teaching and
learner support programme. It is not the norm that any learner is allowed
to perform weakly and allowed to proceed to the next grade.
The policy is based on the premise – as per beliefs of the proponents of

automatic promotion – that learners may perform well when they are
promoted with their peers. The key idea here is the element of learner
support. The policy is implemented on the assumption that it would be
supported with a strong element of learning support where information
about a learner who has partly achieved the required standards must be
passed on to the teachers of the next year grade.
http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%
5D=79628&no_cache=1
101
2.8.3 Non-promotional subjects
Go to the following webpage:

http://www.nied.edu.na/publications/subject%20policy%20guides/Nation
al%20Subject%20Policy%20Guide%20for%20Non-promotional%
20Subjects% 20Gr%20512%20 Updated%2015%20April %202009.pdf
You will find the rules of the national subject policy guide for non-
promotional subjects grades 5 - 12 on the above website. Focus on
point 3. You have to study this section to be able to do the activity and
the assignment. This part of the document is also important for the
examination.
2.8.4 Passing percentage
The assessment and promotion policy is discussed thoroughly in point

2.3 and the promotion policy is further discussed in 2.8.2. Percentages
are discussed in point 2.3.3.2. In addition to passing percentages
guiding the achievement of quality education, phase competencies are
equally important as assessment standards. A learner should not
achieve a passing percentage without achieving the phase
competencies to the same extent. All the mentioned points must be
considered with the information in this section.
The goal and aims of basic education, and the core skills, key learning
areas, and cross-curricular issues apply to all phases. The different
levels to be attained in each of the key learning areas by the end of
each phase are formulated in terms of phase competencies. A
competence comprises the cognitive, affective and/or practical skills
which a learner is to demonstrate as a result of the teaching/learning
process, and which will be assessed. The statements of phase
competencies are the standards of the curriculum (Ministry of Education
2008).
The phase competencies are in turn broken down into more detailed
statements of basic competencies at the level of the subject syllabus. In
this way the teacher knows exactly what is expected (that the learners
should understand and/or do) and which is to be assessed. By building
up their competence step by step, learners will become aware of their
own progression, and the process will strengthen learning to learn. The
competencies are the core skills which are developed across the
curriculum. They are very specific at the level of the basic competencies
but emerge more holistically at the level of phase competencies
(Ministry of Education 2008).
102
The phase competencies for each phase are as follows:
PRE-PRIMARY PHASE: On completion of the pre-primary phase:
Learners listen for information and respond

appropriately. They read signs and words from their
immediate environment and communicate
Languages
effectively and confidently in their mother tongue
(or, where mother tongue is not possible, in their
locally most spoken language).
Learners orally express their understanding of

number concepts and mathematical symbols. They
Mathematics recognise and describe patterns, relationships and
shapes, and solve simple problems in everyday
contexts.
Learners are aware of the importance of their own

basic health and nutrition. They react positively
Environmental towards the natural environment and interact
studies positively in the social environment. Learners have
a basic understanding of their own beliefs, respect
those of others, and share common positive values.
Learners demonstrate personal and interpersonal

skills through free participation in creative activities;
Arts
they express themselves through art forms and
appreciate how others express themselves.
Learners participate to the best of their ability in a

Physical
variety of physical activities that promote movement
education
and motor development.
JUNIOR PRIMARY PHASE: On completion of the lower primary phase:
First language
Learners express themselves well orally, read

appropriate texts, and write reasonably correctly for
Languages their everyday purposes in their mother tongue (or,
where mother tongue is not possible, in their locally
most spoken language).
Second language
103
Learners understand, speak, read and write
English as a Second Language well enough within
a limited range to continue learning through the
medium of English in the next phase.
Learners express, orally and in writing, their

understanding of number concepts and
mathematical symbols.
Mathematics Learners solve simple problems in everyday
contexts by adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing, estimating and measuring, within the
required range.
Learners look after their own basic health and

nutrition, interact positively in the social
environment, and react responsibly towards the
Environmental natural environment.
studies
Learners have a basic understanding of their own
beliefs, are tolerant of others’, and share common
positive values.
Learners participate freely in ICT-related activities

ICT
and use educational games, software and
foundation
multimedia appropriate to their purpose.
Learners participate freely in creative activities,

express themselves through art forms, and
Arts
appreciate what others communicate through the
arts.
Physical Learners participate to the best of their ability in a

education variety of games, sports, and physical activities.
SENIOR PRIMARY PHASE: On completion of the upper primary phase:
First language
Learners have irreversible literacy. They show

competence in listening with understanding for
Languages information and enjoyment to texts appropriate to
their level; speaking fluently and confidently
according to situation and audience; reading with
understanding children’s literature and texts about
everyday issues; sustained factual and
104
imaginative writing up to one page, using mostly
correct spelling and grammar.
Second language
Learners listen for information and enjoyment to

texts appropriate for non-mother tongue speakers,
express ideas, opinions and feelings adequately,
read and understand easy children’s literature and
texts about everyday issues, and write short
factual and imaginative texts in which language
errors do not confuse meaning. They use English
adequately for official purposes.
Learners have an understanding of the concept of

rational numbers and carry out the basic
operations.
Mathematics Learners solve everyday problems involving

numbers, measurement and spatial relationships.
Learners collect, interpret and present simple

data.
Learners use simple scientific models, methods

and skills to make scientific sense of the natural
environment and of themselves biologically,
Natural sciences psychologically and socially. They relate the
implications of scientific understanding to their
personal and social health and the sustainable
use of all natural resources for future generations.
Learners explain main developments from

selected episodes of Namibian and world history
and main outlines of Namibian and African
geography. They describe development of society
and its impact on the environment. They explain
Social sciences
beliefs other than their own in a non-judgemental
way. They identify their own personal traits,
manage time to study effectively, and
demonstrate positive social values and skills in
interactions with others.
105
Material technologies
Learners show creativity in investigating and

exploring product ideas and designing a product.
They choose appropriate materials, correctly use
basic hand tools and equipment, and make and
evaluate their product.
Technology
ICT
Learners demonstrate understanding and correct

use of software applications such as Microsoft
Office and/or Open Office.
They conduct basic navigation through the

windows environment or other operating systems.
Learners identify a demand, work out cost and

sale prices for a product which they have
Commerce developed in design and technology, home
ecology or elementary agriculture, and sell it in
the school or community.
Learners explore and investigate ideas and art

media freely, using creative activities;
communicate adequately for their purpose
Arts
through chosen art forms; and appreciate and
interpret sensitively what others communicate
through the arts.
Learners have developed co-operative activity

and game skills, monitor their own progress and
Physical
achievements, and explain why continued
education
physical activity is important for health and
wellness.
(Ministry of Education. 2008. The National Curriculum for Basic

Education. NIED: Okahandja)
2.8.5 Automatic promotion
This information is obtained from the following document:
Sichambe, B. Nambira, G. Tjupueja, G. Kapenda, L. 2011. No 4:

Evaluations and Promotion Policy requirements in Namibian Schools.
106
National Institute for Educational Development (NIED): Professional and
Resource Development Research Unit.
According to research, retention leads to lower academic achievement

and increases the likelihood of school dropout. A concise assessment of
learners in schools and supporting of those with backlogs would curb
the grade repetition and promote high academic gains.
Ndaruhutse (Automatic Promotion 2008) defines automatic promotion as

“the act of allowing these same children to continue to the next year of
study with the rest of their peer group despite not having met the
minimum required standards”.
A number of studies reviewed show that grade repetition has a negative

impact on learners’ progress. Repeating a grade has negative effects,
while automatic promotion appears not to be a solution to academic
difficulties experienced by low achieving learners. When children
perform below average in school, educators and parents may believe
that the best course is for them to repeat a grade. Research, however,
shows that this choice is often a mistake. Many learners who have
difficulties in learning or have learning disabilities would benefit from
special services, not retention. Different child support systems would
help learners to succeed in their education, instead of promoting grade
repetition.
On the transfer of learners in Namibian schools, the promotion

requirements stipulate:
 A learner who does not comply with the minimum promotion

requirements for the second time must be transferred to the next
grade.
 It further stipulates that a learner who has reached the age of 16
years and is still in the primary phase must be transferred to the
next grade at the end of the year.
The Namibian promotion requirements make compensatory teaching

compulsory. All struggling learners who are held back or transferred
should receive compulsory compensatory teaching.
The promotion requirements stipulate that:
In some cases where learners do not achieve the basic competencies,

repetition might be part of the solution. However, it must be emphasised
that making a learner repeat a grade will be of no benefit unless the
learner receives compensatory teaching. When compensatory teaching
107
is organised for learners who repeat a grade, they would normally not
experience any further backlogs within that phase (MoE 2007:42).
It further states in circular 6 of 2009 that:
Learners who do not progress to the next grade must receive

counselling to help them understand their situation and must receive
learning support focusing on the competencies which they did not
achieve. A learner who does not comply with the minimum promotion
requirements for the second time must be transferred to the next grade.
Transferred learners should receive learning support in the next grade in
those subjects in which they could not achieve the competencies
required.
As per circular no.6 of 2006, compensatory teaching is mandatory. The

goal is to ensure that all learners with learning backlogs, and especially
repeaters and transferred learners, get the necessary assistance to
eliminate a possible lack of background knowledge, to develop the
necessary skills and competencies and to ensure that they are
promoted to the next year. Clear guidelines are set for schools on how
to implement learning support.
The principal and class teachers / subject teachers must compile a

complete profile of each learner to include specific academic needs and
shortcomings in specific subjects as well as behaviour. When backlogs
are discovered, compensatory teaching should be administered as part
of everyday teaching and thus be portrayed in lesson plans. Special
emphasis should be put on reading, writing and spelling skills in English,
Mathematics, homework, study skills, positive self-esteem, skills to write
examinations and interpret questions, and a positive attitude towards
life.
Based on this information, the principal is responsible for detailed

planning for an additional programme of compensatory teaching by the
teachers in the afternoons. It is also possible to use the regional school
counsellors or other expertise in the community to assist the school in a
compensatory teaching programme. Inspectors should advise principals
of schools with double sessions how to deal with compensatory
teaching.
The number of learners in these afternoon classes should be limited to a

maximum of 10-15. The smaller class sizes will ensure that each learner
receives individual attention.
108
Thorough monitoring of the work done by these learners should be done
and each learner and his/her parents should get continuous individual
feedback on his/her progress. Parents form an integral part of the
programme.
When a learner is not willing to cooperate, the principal must compile a

report, discuss it with the parents and ask their assistance in motivating
their child to cooperate. If this fails, the principal must report the case to
the inspector at the regional office. In cases where parents are reluctant
to cooperate, the principal must take up the matter with the parents and
similarly report to the inspector if the matter is not resolved.
Compensatory teaching is compulsory, either in class as part of

everyday teaching or in the afternoon.
The principal and involved teachers should take full responsibility for the
successful implementation of this programme.
Inspectors and advisory teachers should take full accountability for

assisting principals and teachers in the successful implementation of
this policy (MoE 2006).
2.8.6 Analysis and input of assessment results
Inflated continuous assessment results do not accurately reflect learner

progress and competence, which impacts on their motivation and
summative results.
Summative assessment results are interpreted fairly and accurately and

in line with national assessment and promotion policies. Interpretations
help to assess and promote learning and to modify instruction in order to
encourage the continuous development of learners.
The Ministry of Education (National Professional Standard for Teachers

in Namibia) explains analysis of assessment results as follows:
“Assessment records are used in ways that contribute to continuous

improvement and to enhance learning. There is a need in primary
schools for interactive assessment which looks at the child as a person.”
Analyse assessment results
Contextual information:
There are no examinations in lower primary.
109
Content assessed is basic skills – all aspects of learning, reading and
writing. Practice differs across schools; they do structured activities at
lower levels.
There are national examinations in four subjects at grade 7 (end of

primary) but not a school leaving certificate. The examination is, in
effect, a moderation device.
Relevant resources, including colleagues, are identified and utilised to

assist in evaluating assessment results.
 Assessment results are analysed systematically in relation to

agreed criteria.
Lower primary school:
The focus is on criteria for required competence.
Upper primary and Secondary School:
The focus in these phases is on percentages, symbols, and

criteria
 The analysis identifies issues that arise from assessments

concerning the:
 quality of the assessment,
 learner competence,
 learner readiness for assessment,
 the learning programme and materials,
 the teacher and teaching,
 the environment, and
 other inputs to the learning and assessment process.
Secondary:
Analysis includes feedback from learners on teaching.
Note:
Both teachers and learners should feel protected in the process.
Requires systems, training and commitment to a democratic

approach.
 The analysis identifies the extent of alignment between

assessment methodologies and instruments, and learning
outcomes.
110
 Issues that arise from assessments are evaluated to produce
relevant and meaningful findings and recommendations regarding
adjustments to learning and assessments. Such findings and
recommendations are incorporated into preparation for future
teaching and assessment.
 Assistance to intern teachers develops their understanding of

assessment results.
2.8.7 Motivational role of assessment
Learners tend to learn more and enjoy assessments when they are
project- or competency-based rather than traditional paper‐and‐pencil-
based assessments. After the assessment, the material is rarely
retained in a meaningful manner, due to the lack of relevancy to real life
experiences. This results in less transfer of the material to other
experiences. Without motivation, learner engagement in meaningful
learning is decreased, preventing them from carrying the information
beyond the classroom.
Some researchers showed that multiple choice exams can be just as

effective in providing learners with meaningful learning, if used correctly.
Teachers must exercise good practice in assessment of learner’s
performance, utilising those that match the purpose of the assessment
and the intended outcome of instruction.
When learners are engaged in higher‐level cognitive processes, such as

projects and competency-based assessments, they are more likely to
demonstrate a thorough understanding, integration, and application of
the context knowledge.
Learners learn better in assessments that provide free choice, allowing

for less structure by the teacher and more learner directed methods.
Assessments create a mastery climate, when learners are interested in
increasing their competencies and believe in the effects of effort, where
the assessment tasks involve variety, originality, diversity, and interest.
Competency-based assessments are linked with mastery and
performance goals, thus allowing the learner to employ several sources
of motivation at one time. Learners enjoy having control over the
process and/or product of an assessment. This encourages learners to
develop and use self‐management as well as self‐monitoring their skills
and utilising effective learning strategies.
When learners are engaged in active learning, they construct their own
knowledge. Learners search for meaning rather than accept the world
111
for what it is. When assessment tasks are learner-centred where
learners are allowed to free untapped motivation, greater academic
success is achieved. Learners are given the opportunity to learn from
their mistakes during the assessment process.
Projects are another way to utilise learner-centred assessment. Projects

give learners self‐esteem and personal responsibility, which boosts their
self-image and motivates them to succeed. Projects that are integrated
into the curriculum satisfy learners’ needs for creativity. Creativity can be
fostered through challenges, various resources, the educational
environment, atmosphere, and technology.
Learner achievement can be improved through the integration of

technology in the classroom, which helps them to overcome cognitive
and affective difficulties. Learners can utilise written materials, DVD
materials, computer files, drawings, models, and pictures to help
question, analyse, synthesise, solve problems and create new ideas for
new projects. Effective assessment criteria heighten learner sense of
ownership of the task and help them feel that tasks are clearly important
and worthwhile. When learners are assessed using methods that keep
them involved, their overall performance on standard based summative
assessments improve.
If learners are involved in the choice of assessment activities they are

much more motivated to learn and participate. They are also more able
to predict their performance. Learners who feel confident that they can
do well in assessment tasks often do so.
2.9 Summary
I hope you understand the general and primary assessment directives of

Namibia and that it helps to guide you when you plan and design your own
assessment activities. Most of what is addressed in this unit relates to policy
requirements. You have to adhere to the policy prescriptions when doing
assessment and therefore have to know what is expected of you and what you
may and may not do.
In the next unit, the aims, construction and application of objective questions,
semi-objective questions and free response questions are discussed. Before
you start with unit 3 make sure you have mastered this unit by ticking the
checklist before continuing.
112
Learning activity 1
Do not rewrite the study guide. Use key words or key sentences to illustrate
a function, an objective or an activity.
Example:
Function Objective Activity
Provide national Administer Localise exams.

assessment examinations.
services.
Learning activity 2
Focus on the different types of assessments. Write at least 1 sentence to

describe what each is. Write 1 sentence to describe how the assessments
are carried out. Write 1 sentence to explain what information is collected.
Learning activity 3
Write the aims/purpose of each phase in one sentence. Focus on differences

between the phases.
Learning activity 4
Focus on the characteristics of the examinations. Here are some words to

guide you:
When, purpose, composition, by whom, time and subjects.
Learning activity 5
Write the features of competency-based assessment in one column and,

next to it, a concept or sentence that will fit the feature. You can write down
more than one sentence or concept, e.g.: Integrated – Continuous
assessment.
Learning activity 6
113
Do not write details, only focus on main points, such as:
Boxes.
Receiving of papers.
Opening of papers.
Learning activity 7
There are 7 main points. Study what is expected under each point. Explain
in a paragraph what is important under each point and what the school
should attend to or do when it is an examination centre.
Learning activity 8

guide but rather use your own words. Look at the key words of each section
to guide you in selecting your ideas. Summarise what you regard as
important. Make sure you understand it well and that it makes sense to
you.
Glossary
Competencies Identified behaviours, knowledge, skill and abilities that

positively impact the success of learners at school.
Contextual Relating to or depending on the context.
Criterion-referenced An assessment where a learner’s performance is compared

to a specific learning objective or performance standard and
not the performance itself.
Impaired Weak, diminished or damaged.
UNIT 3
The aims, construction and application of assessment tools (part 1)
Introduction 110
114
3.1 Assessment tools appropriate to assess levels/objectives of the three
learning domains 113
3.2 Comparison between cognitive taxonomies of Bloom and Marzano and
Kendall 120
3.3 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of objective
questions 127
3.3.1 True/false questions 127
3.3.2 Matching items 129
3.3.3 Multiple choice questions 131
3.4 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of semi-objective
questions 135
3.4.1 Completion questions 135
3.4.2 Short answer questions 137
3.4.3 Structured questions 139
response (interpretive) questions 140
3.5.1 Structured essays 140
3.5.2 Unstructured essays 143
3.5.3 Discussion/comparison/evaluation of… 144
3.6 Summary 147
Glossary 148
115
Introduction
In this unit the focus will be on assessment tools. Suggestions are given regarding
appropriate tools to assess the levels and domains of Bloom’s taxonomy. Bloom was
not the only one who developed a taxonomy of learning. Marzano and Kendall and
others also investigated and wrote about levels and domains of learning. We will look
into the taxonomy of Marzano and Kendall and you will get the opportunity to
compare the two classifications.
The aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of objective questions, semi-

objective questions and free response questions will be discussed. It is strongly
advised that you find examples of all these types of questions in textbooks, from
mentor teachers, the IOL resource centre, and even the internet. Start building a
“question bank” for yourself to which you can refer when you are teaching.
Learning outcomes
 Discuss which ‘assessment tools’ are appropriate to assess levels/ objectives of

the three learning domains (cognitive, affective & psychomotor).
 Compare the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom with that of Marzano and Kendall.
 Discuss the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of the following
‘objective’ questions:
 True/false questions.
 Matching item.
 Multiple choice questions.
‘semi-objective’ questions:
 Completion questions.
 Short answer questions.
 Structured questions (problem solving, handling information, descriptive
response / paragraph question).
‘free response (interpretative)’ questions:
 Structured essays.
 Unstructured essays.
 Discussion/ comparison/ evaluation of …
116
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
Choose 2 assessment tools from each learning domain. Choose 2 statements

from the possible assessment tasks to design an assessment activity with each
assessment tool. Indicate the learning domain as well as the level.
Learner activity 2
Compare the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom (as discussed in 1.1 and refer to 3.1
as well) with that of Marzano and Kendall. List the differences as well as the
similarities between these two taxonomies.
Learner activity 3
Answer the following questions on each objective question:
What levels of Bloom’s taxonomy does this type of question address?

What level of the taxonomy of Marzano and Kendall does this type of
question address?
In one paragraph, describe what the aims of this type of question are.
Learner activity 4
Answer the following questions on each semi-objective question:
What level of Bloom’s taxonomy does this type of question address?

question address?
In one paragraph, describe what the aims of the type of question are.
Learner activity 5
Answer the following questions on each free response question:
117
What level of Bloom’s taxonomy does this type of question address?
question address?
In one paragraph, describe what the aims of the type of question are.
3.1 Assessment tools appropriate to assess levels/objectives of

the three learning domains
Below are some suggestions of possible questions or assessment tasks as

well as assessment tools that are appropriate to assess the levels of the three
learning domains of Bloom’s taxonomy as discussed in 1.1.
Cognitive domain
Level Possible assessment tasks Assessment tools
Knowledge What is? Make a list of ...

How is? Make a timeline of …
Where is? Make a fact’s chart.
When did ____ happen? Write a list of what you can
How did ____happen? remember.
How would you explain? Make a chart showing...
Why did? Recite a poem.
How would you describe? Film, record or photograph the
When did? event or person.
Can you recall? Draw what you know.
How would you show? Make a mind map of what you
Can you select? know.
Who were the main?
Can you list three?
Which one?
Who was?
Understand Classify the types of … Draw/paint pictures to explain

Compare. what an event was about.
Contrast. Illustrate the main idea.
State or interpret in your own Sequence the events in a
words. cartoon or flowchart.
Rephrase the meaning. Write and perform a play based
What facts or ideas show … on event/facts.
118
What is the main idea of … Retell in your own words.
Which statements support … Write a summary report.
Explain what is happening. Edit the film/recording/
What is meant … presentation to illustrate
What can you say about … important parts.
Choose the best answer.
Summarise.
Apply How can you use … Construct a model to show how
Find examples to … it will work.
Solve _______ using what you Edit films/photographs/
have learned. recordings to demonstrate a
Organise ___ to show … particular point.
Show understanding of … Make a puzzle game using
What approach can you use to ideas from event.
… Create a presentation that
Apply your learning to develop shows how it applies to
… another situation.
What other way can you plan Play a piece of music showing
to … your understanding of it.
What can result if …
Use the facts to …
What elements can you
choose to change …
Select facts to show …
What questions can be asked
in an interview?
Analyse Classify … Design a questionnaire to
How is _______ related to … gather further information.
Why do you think? Write a commercial to sell a
What is the theme? new product.
What motive is there? Conduct an investigation to
Can you list the parts? produce information
What inference can you make? supporting a point of view.
What conclusions can you Make a flow chart to show
draw? critical stages.
Categorise. Illustrate data/information with a
Identify the difference parts. graph.
What evidence is there to? Make a tree map.
What is the relationship Write a biography.
between … Review art/music in terms of
Can you make a distinction form, texture, colour,
between … rhythm.
What is the function of … Write an index and glossary.
119
What ideas justify … Create a model.
Reorganise your brainstorm/
mind map and add ideas to
it.
Evaluate Do you agree with the Prepare a list of criteria to judge

outcomes? a show.
What is your opinion of … Include priorities and ratings.
How can you prove … Conduct a debate about an
Disprove. issue of special interest.
Assess the value or Evaluate the composition
importance of … (art/music) that you
Can it be better if … performed or others
Why did they (the character) performed.
choose … Hold a discussion about …
Recommend. Write a letter outlining …
Rate the … Look at the process of how you
Defend the actions. got to where you are on the
Evaluate. topic/what have you learned.
Determine. What would you change?
What choice can you have
made?
Select.
Prioritise.
Make judgements about …
Explain.
What information can you use
to support the view?
Justify.
What data was used to make
the conclusion?
Why was it better that …
Prioritise the facts.
Create Make changes to solve … Invent a machine for a specific
(synthesis) How can you improve … task.
What can happen if … Create a new product.
Elaborate on the reason. Write about your feelings in
Propose an alternative. relation to …
Invent. Do a visual presentation (video,
How can you adapt to create a TV show, play, puppet show
different … etc) on a ‘new’ version or
Change/modify the plot (plan). angle connected to the
topic.
120
What can be done to Compose a rhythm/song or put
minimise/maximise? new words to a known
What way can you design … melody.
What can you combine to Write your prediction about how
improve/change? views on this topic would
What can you do? change in time or place.
How can you test? Set goals from your learning.
Formulate a theory for …
Predict the outcome if …
Estimate the results for …
Construct a model that
changes.
Think of an original way for the
…
Affective domain
Level Possible assessment tasks Assessment tools
Receive Listen to the teacher or peers. Focus on a …

Take interest in a session or Attend the session.
learning experience. Ask your classmates.
Take notes. Discuss the story/play.
Turn up. Follow the instructions.
Make time for the learning Concentrate on the …
experience. Feel the differences.
Participate passively listening Listen to others with respect.
to a story. Listen for and remember the
name of newly introduced
people.
Listen attentively.
Show sensitivity to social
problems.
Listen to others with respect.
Respond Participate actively in group Question the relevance.

discussion. Interpret the story.
Active participation in activity. Seek the meaning.
Interest in outcomes. Clarify the meaning.
Enthusiasm for action. Perform a play.
Question and probe ideas. Write a story.
Suggest interpretation. Give examples of …
Bring examples of …
121
Participate in class
discussions.
Give a presentation.
Question new ideals, concepts,
models, etc. in order to fully
understand them.
Know the safety rules and
practice them.
Complete homework.
Obey rules.
Participate in class discussion.
Show interest in the subject.
Enjoy helping others.
Give a presentation.
Value Decide on the worth and Argue your point of view.

relevance of ideas/ Debate a topic.
experiences. Criticise the performance.
Accept or commit to particular Justify actions.
stance or action. Challenge his way of doing it.
Demonstrate belief in the
democratic process.
Show sensitivity towards
individual and cultural
differences (value diversity).
Show the ability to solve
problems.
Propose a plan for social
improvement and follow
through with commitment.
Inform management on
matters that one feels
strongly about.
Demonstrate belief in
democratic processes.
Show appreciation for the role
of science in daily life.
Show concern for others'
welfare.
Demonstrate a problem-solving
approach.
122
Show sensitivity towards
individual and cultural
differences (value diversity).
Show the ability to solve
problems.
Inform management on
strongly felt matters.
Organise Qualify and quantify personal Develop your own …

views. Build a model.
State personal position and Prioritise the importance of …
reasons. Modify the design.
State beliefs. Compare two objects.
Arrange it to …
Recognise the need for
balance between freedom
and responsible behaviour.
Accept responsibility for one’s
behaviour.
Explain the role of systematic
planning in solving
problems.
Accept professional ethical
standards.
Create a life plan in harmony
with abilities, interests, and
beliefs.
Prioritise time effectively to
meet the needs of the
organisation, family, and
self.
Recognise the need for
balance between freedom
and responsible behaviour.
Understand the role of
systematic planning in
solving problems.
Accept responsibility for own
behaviour.
Internalise Self-reliant. Give suggestions on how to

Behave consistently with solve the problem.
personal value set. Practice the …
123
Display your work.
Show self-reliance when
working independently.
Cooperate in group activities
(display teamwork).
Use an objective approach in
problem solving.
Display a professional
commitment to ethical
practice on a daily basis.
Revise judgments and change
behaviour in light of new
evidence.
Value people for what they are,
not how they look.
Concerned with personal,
social, and emotional
adjustment.
Psychomotor domain
Level Possible assessment tasks Possible assessment tools
Perception Awareness, the ability to use Use and/or selection of senses

sensory cues to guide to absorb data for guiding
physical activity. movement.
The ability to use sensory cues Detect non-verbal
to guide motor activity. This communication cues.
ranges from sensory Estimate where a ball will land
stimulation, through cue after it is thrown and then
selection, to translation. moving to the correct
location to catch the ball.
Adjust heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and
taste of food.
Set Readiness, a learner's Mental, physical or emotional

readiness to act. preparation before
It includes mental, physical, experience or task.
and emotional sets. These Know and act upon a sequence
three sets are dispositions of steps in a manufacturing
that predetermine a process.
124
person’s response to Recognise one’s abilities and
different situations limitations.
(sometimes called Show desire to learn a new
mindsets). process (motivation).
NOTE: This subdivision of
psychomotor is closely
related to the "responding to
phenomena" subdivision of
the affective domain.
Guided Attempt. The early stages in Equation as demonstrated.

response learning a complex skill that Follow instructions to build a
includes imitation and trial model.
and error. Respond hand-signals of
Adequacy of performance is instructor while learning.
achieved by practicing. Watch teacher or trainer and
Copy action of another; repeat action, process or
observe and replicate. activity.
Mechanism Basic proficiency, the ability to Competently respond to

perform a complex motor stimulus for action.
skill. Use a …
This is the intermediate stage Repair a …
in learning a complex skill. Drive a …
Learned responses have
become habitual and the
movements can be
performed with some
confidence and proficiency.
Complex Expert proficiency, the Execute a complex process
overt intermediate stage of with expertise.
response learning a complex skill. Manoeuvre.
The skilful performance of Operate.
motor acts that involve Display competence.
complex movement
patterns.
Proficiency is indicated by a
quick, accurate, and highly
coordinated performance,
requiring a minimum of
energy.
Performing without hesitation;
an automatic performance.
125
Adaptation Adaptable proficiency, a Alter response to reliably meet
learner's ability to modify varying challenges.
motor skills to fit a new Responds effectively to
situation. unexpected experiences.
Skills are well developed and Modify instruction to meet the
the individual can modify needs of the learners.
movement patterns to fit Perform a task with a machine
special requirements. that it was not originally
intended to do.
Origination Creative proficiency, a Develop and execute new

learner's ability to create integrated responses and
new movement patterns. activities.
Creating new movement Construct a new theory.
patterns to fit a particular Develop a new and
situation or specific comprehensive training
problem. programme.
Learning outcomes emphasise Create.
creativity based upon highly
developed skills.
3.2 Comparison between cognitive taxonomies of Bloom and

Marzano and Kendall
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (first published in 1956)

formulated hierarchies in three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
When used generically, the phrase “Bloom’s Taxonomy” refers to the
cognitive domain. The taxonomy has six levels.
Originally, these levels were, from lowest to highest:
 Knowledge.
 Comprehension.
 Application.
 Analysis.
 Synthesis.
 Evaluation.
In 2001, a revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy was published. In addition to using

verb forms, rather than nouns (so that the hierarchy showed what learners do),
some of the language was altered as follows:
 Remembering.
126
 Understanding.
 Applying.
 Analysing.
 Evaluating.
 Creating.
Bloom’s Taxonomy, old and new:
OLD NEW
6) Evaluation 6) Creating
5) Synthesis 5) Evaluating
4) Analysing 4) Analysis
3) Application 3) Applying
2) Comprehension 2) Understanding
1) Knowledge 1) Remembering
In 2007, Robert Marzano and John Kendall published: The new taxonomy of
educational objectives (Corwin Press). Like the Bloom’s Taxonomies, Marzano
and Kendall’s taxonomy is hierarchical, i.e. the higher levels represent more
sophisticated cognitive processes than the lower levels but theirs is broken into
four overarching categories with 14 subcategories. As follows:
127
Source - http://www.maine.gov/doe/cbp/taxonomieslearning.html
Marzano and Kendall restructured Bloom’s taxonomy (as discussed in 1.1).

Instead of categorising learning activities they describe six levels of processing
knowledge.
Domains Levels of processing
Information Self- system
Mental procedures Meta-cognitive system

Psychomotor procedures
Knowledge utilisation (cognitive)
Analysis (cognitive)
Comprehension (cognitive)
Retrieval (cognitive)
128
Each level of processing can operate within each of the three domains.
The cognitive levels are retrieval, comprehension, analysis, and knowledge

utilisation. Retrieval is the least complex and knowledge utilisation requires
higher order thinking.
The meta-cognitive system involves the learner’s organisation of their own

learning.
The sixth level of processing, the self-system, involves the learner’s examining
of the importance of the learning task and their self-worth. It also involves the
learner’s emotional response to the learning task and their motivation regarding
it.
The mental processes in the cognitive system take action from the knowledge
domain. These processes give people access to the information and
procedures in their memory and help them manipulate and use this knowledge.
Each process is composed of all the previous processes.
Comprehension, for example, requires knowledge retrieval; analysis requires

comprehension, and so on.
Cognitive level Description Process Verbs

Retrieval The recognition Recognition. Recognise (from a
and recalling of list).
information. Select (from a
list).
The execution Identify (from a
of mental and list).
psychomotor Determine (true /
procedures. false).
Recalling Recall Name.

information (calling up facts, List.
from permanent sequences, or Describe.
memory. processes). State.
Identify who,
where, or when.
Describe what.
129
Execution Use.
Demonstrate.
Show.
Make.
Draft.
Complete.
Comprehension The integration Integration Summarise.

and Paraphrase.
symbolisation Describe the key
of knowledge. parts of …
At a higher Describe the
level, identifying relationship
what is between …
important to Explain the ways
remember and in which …
placing that Describe how or
information into why …
appropriate Describe the
effects.
130
categories is Symbolisation. Use models.
required. Through Symbolise.
Therefore, the representation Depict.
first skill of information is Represent.
comprehension, organised in Draw.
synthesis, categories that Illustrate.
requires the make it more Show.
identification of efficient to find Diagram.
the most and use. Chart.
important Graphic
components of organisers,
the concept such as maps
and the and charts.
deletion of any
that are
insignificant or
unimportant.
What is
considered
important about
a concept
depends on the
context in which
it is learned, so
the information
that is stored
about a topic
would vary by
situation and
learner.
Analyse Matching and Matching Compare and

classifying (identification of contrast.
activities. material Categorise.
Analysing similarities and Sort.
differences in
errors. Differentiate.
information).
Generalising Discriminate.
from Distinguish.
foundational Create an analogy
knowledge and or metaphor.
specifying
Classifying Classify.
Organise.
131
logical (identification of Sort.
consequences. categories). Identify different
More complex types or
than simple categories.
comprehension. Identify a broader
The five category.
cognitive
processes in Analysing errors. Edit.
analysis are Revise.
matching, Identify errors or
classifying, problems.
error analysis, Evaluate.
generalising, Identify issues or
and specifying. misunderstanding.
By engaging in Assess.
these Critique.
processes, Diagnose.
learners can
use what they Generalising Form conclusions.
are learning to (construction of Create a principle,
create new new generalisation, or
generalisations rule.
insights and
based on prior
invent ways of Trace the
learning)
using what they development of …
have learned in Generalise.
new situations. What conclusions
can be drawn?
What inferences
can be made?
Specifying Make & defend.

(identification of Predict.
logical What would have
consequences of to happen?
information or
Develop an
procedures)
argument for.
Judge.
Under what
conditions?
Deduce.
Knowledge Decision-making, Decision-making Select the best

utilisation problem-solving, (the use of among the
information and
132
experimenting and procedures to following
investigating make decisions. alternatives …
Important Decision-making, Which of the
components of a cognitive following would
thinking for project- process, involves
best …
based learning the weighing of
What is the best
since they include options to
processes used by determine the
way …
people when they most appropriate Decide.
want to accomplish course of action.) Which of these is
a specific task. most suitable …
Problem-solving Solve.
(use of information Adapt.
and procedures to Develop a
solve strategy.
problems.Problem-
Figure out a way.
solving occurs
How would you
when an obstacle
is encountered on
overcome …
the way to How will you
achieving a goal. reach your goal
Sub-skills for this under these
process include conditions?
identification of
and analysis of the
problem.)
Experimenting Experiment.
(use of information Generate & test.
and procedures to Test the idea that
produce and test …
hypotheses.
What would
Experimental
happen if …
inquiry involves
generating
How would you
hypotheses about test that?
physical or How can this be
psychological explained?
phenomena, How would you
creating determine if …
experiments, and Based on the
analysing the experiment, what
results. In an can be predicted?
experimental
inquiry, learners
observe and
record direct data
133
about
phenomena.)
Investigating Investigate.
(use of information Research.
and procedures to Find out about …
conduct Take a position on
investigations.
…
Investigation is
How & why did
similar to
experimental
this happen?
inquiry but What would
involves past, happen if?
present, or future What are differing
events. features of …
Investigation
requires logical
arguments. In an
investigation, the
information is less
direct. It comes
from the research
and opinions of
others through
their writings,
speaking, and
other work.)
3.3 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of

objective questions
3.3.1 True/false questions
Aims
True/false questions present the learner with a statement followed by

two alternatives (true or false) of which only one is correct. They are
used to identify whether a statement or fact is correct. It requires the
learner to make a judgement as true or false. The statements are
generally brief and to the point. Often the decision of correctness hinges
on one word.
True/false questions can be used to assess outcomes concerned with

the recall of information or the ability to discriminate. Although they do
134
not usually reach far up Bloom’s taxonomy, they can be applied across
a wide grade range. They can provide an encouraging lead-in to
assessment, but because it is possible to guess the correct response,
they are better used for self-assessment and diagnostic assessment
than for summative assessment.
True/false questions can be used as an important alternative to multiple-

choice question. The level of the tests can be improved somewhat by
having learners justify their false choices or changing them to make
them true.
Construction
 Construct statements that are definitely true or definitely

false, without additional qualifications.
 Use relatively short statements.
 Eliminate unnecessary statements.
 Keep true and false statements approximately the same
length.
 Include an equal number of true and false questions.
 Test only one idea in each question.
 Have learners circle T or F for each question rather than
write the letter which can lead to debate.
 Avoid verbal clues, specific determiners (e.g. the, a, an),
and complex sentences.
 Avoid absolute terms such as, never or always.
 Do not arrange answers in a pattern (i.e., TTFFTTFF,
TFTFTF).
 Avoid taking statements directly from text.
 Use positive rather than negative statements.
 Avoid lengthy and vague statements.
 Set the pass mark high to counter the guess factor.
In order to eliminate guessing, a true-false test should be scored by

multiplying the value of each item by twice its value and subtracting the
number of wrong questions by two and subtracting the result from 100.
Thus:
25 wrong X 2 = 50;
25 right X 2 =50;
50 – 50 = 0
The high guess factor in True/False exercises can be mitigated by

adding a third option — ‘not known’. In this form of alternative response
135
question the learner is presented with a passage of text for interpretation
and responds to a series of statements to which the answers can be
true/false/not known.
Advantages
 A lot of content can be covered in a short time (about two

questions per minute of testing time).
 The question is useful when there are only two possible
alternatives.
 Little demand is placed on reading ability.
 Scoring is easy and reliable.
 Easy to construct and mark.
 Can be used as a self-assessment and diagnostic tool.
 Can be used to generate discussion with learners.
 True-false tests are easy to write, administer, and correct.
 Short true-false quizzes and worksheets are best used as
formative assessments.
 The most useful application of true-false items is as
supplementary material to a much more complete
assessment or as material on a worksheet.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to write questions beyond the knowledge level that

are free from uncertainty.
 50% chance of guessing the correct answer.
 Scores are more influenced by guessing than with any other
question type.
 False statements provide no evidence that the learner
knows the correct answer.
 Cannot discriminate between learners of varying ability as
well as other questions.
 Requires that the answer to the question is absolutely true
or false.
 Chance plays too much of a role in getting the right answer.
 Copying from someone else’s paper is easier.
 Good data for analysis is not typically generated by true-
false tests.
3.3.2 Matching items
Aims
136
Matching questions present the learner with two lists — a set of
statements and a set of responses or key words. The learner is then
required to indicate which response from the second list corresponds
with, or matches, each statement in the first list.
Matching questions can be used to assess the recall, comprehension

and application of knowledge. It is difficult, however, to write matching
items that require more than simple recall of factual knowledge.
Construction
 Provide more possible options than questions.

 Use longer phrases as questions and shorter phrases as
options.
 Keep questions and options short and standardised.
 Avoid verbal cues and specific determiners (e.g. the, a, an).
 Number each question and use alphabetical letters for the
options.
 Specify in the directions the basis for matching and whether
or not responses can be used more than once.
 Make all questions and all options the same type (e.g. a list
of events to be matched with a list of dates).
 The answer list should be larger than the first list to reduce
the chance of guessing by a process of elimination.
 There should be no more than one correct response for
each statement.
 All responses should be plausible but make sure that there
is only one correct choice for each stem or numbered
question.
 The problems can be in various forms. The most common is
to use verbal statements, but other types of material can be
used. For example, the problems might be locations on a
map, geographic features on a contour map, parts of a
diagram of the body or biological specimens or maths
problems. Similarly, the responses do not have to be terms
or labels; they might be functions of various parts of the
body, or methods, principles, or solutions.
 Use similar material in each list of a matching exercise.
Mixing events and dates with events and names of persons,
for example, makes the exercise two separate sets of
questions and gives learners a better chance to guess the
correct response. For example, if one list states “president
of Namibia”, the learner could ignore all the responses other
than names. Using homogeneous materials requires
137
learners to distinguish or discriminate among things which
make for a more challenging task.
 Include directions that clearly state the basis for the
matching. Inform learners whether or not a response can be
used more than once and where answers are to be written.
 Because the learner must scan the list of responses for
each problem, one should keep the responses brief. This
saves reading time for the learner.
 Always include more responses than questions. If the lists
are the same length, the last choice may be determined by
elimination rather than knowledge.
Arrange the list of responses in alphabetical or numerical
order if possible in order to save
 reading time.
Advantages
 Simple to construct.
 Short reading and response time, allowing more content to
be included in a given set of matching questions.
 Because matching items permit one to cover a lot of content
in one exercise, they are an efficient way to measure.
 Well-suited to measure associations between facts.
 Reduces the effects of guessing.
 Useful for assessing topics involving large amounts of
factual Information in an economical manner.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to measure learning objectives requiring more than

simple recall of information.
 Difficult to construct due to the problem of selecting a
common set of key words and options.
 Can be time-consuming to construct good questions.
 If options can be used more than once, the questions are
not mutually exclusive; therefore, getting one answer correct
automatically means a second question is incorrect.
 Restricted to situations where sufficient plausible responses
can be identified — four is probably the minimum.
3.3.3 Multiple-choice questions
Aims
138
Multiple-choice questions are a method of assessment that asks
learners to select one choice from a given list. Multiple-choice
questions or items consist of an incomplete statement or a question,
known as the ‘stem’, followed by four plausible alternative responses
from which the learner has to select the correct one. The correct answer
is called the key, and the wrong answers are called distractors.
Multiple-choice questions are most widely used for measuring

knowledge, comprehension, and application of learning outcomes.
Multiple-choice questions are frequently used to assess at the level of

recall and understanding. If they are carefully constructed, they can also
be used to assess higher-order cognitive skills.
Construction
The most common way to present multiple-choice questions is the

simple stem question or completion format followed by options.
 Technical aspects
- Use either the best answer or the correct answer format.

• Best answer format refers to a list of options that can all be
correct in the sense that each has an advantage, but one
of them is the best.
• Correct answer format refers to one and only one right
answer.
- Use good grammar, punctuation, and spelling consistently.
- Minimise the time required to read each question.
- Avoid trick questions.
- Use the active voice.
- The ideal question will be answered correctly by 60-65% of the
learners.
- Avoid giving unintended cues – such as making the correct
answer longer in length than the distractors.
 Content
- Base each question on a learning objective and avoid trivial

information.
- Test for important or significant information.
- Focus on a single problem or idea for each question.
- Keep the vocabulary consistent with the learner’s level of
understanding.
139
- The level of the language should be within reach of the
learners, bearing in mind that there may be many in the class
whose home language is not English.
- Avoid providing cues from one question to another; keep
questions independent of one another.
- Use examples from course materials and learning activities
as a basis for developing your questions.
- Avoid overly specific knowledge when developing questions.
- Avoid textbook, verbatim phrasing when developing the
questions.
- Avoid questions based on opinions.
 Stem construction
- State the stem as a fact or in a question form.

- The blank section in completion questions should always be at
the end of the stem.
- Stem directions should clearly indicate to learners exactly what
is being asked. State the problem clearly, simply and as
concretely as possible. Avoid vague generalisations and do not
include irrelevant information. It is essential that the learners
should know exactly what is expected of them.
- The stem should contain most of the wording in order to reduce
the reading load.
- Avoid using long sentences with no meaning in the stem.
- To make sure that the stem presents a problem, always include
a verb in the statement.
- Word the stem positively; avoid negative phrasing such as “not”
or “except.” If this cannot be avoided, the negative words should
always be highlighted by underlining or capitalisation: Which of
the following is NOT an example …
- Include the central idea and most of the phrasing in the stem.
- Avoid giving clues such as linking the stem to the answer (…. Is
an example of an: test-wise learners will know the correct
answer should start with a vowel).
 Distractors
- Place selections in logical or numerical order.

- Use letters in front of options rather than numbers; numerical
answers in numbered questions may be confusing to learners.
- Keep options independent; options should not be overlapping.
- Keep all options similar in content.
- Keep the length of options fairly consistent (preferably short).
140
- Avoid, or use sparingly, the phrase ‘all of the above’.
- Avoid, or use sparingly, the phrase ‘none of the above’.
- Include from three to five options for each question (it is difficult
to write more than five good options).
- Avoid the use of the phrase ‘I do not know’.
- Avoid giving clues through the use of faulty grammatical
construction.
- Avoid specific determinates, such as never and always.
- Position the correct option so that it appears about the same
number of times in each possible position for a set of questions.
- Make sure that there is one and only one correct option.
- The greater the similarity among alternatives, the greater the
difficulty.
- Use plausible distractors.
- Incorporate common errors of learners in distractors.
- Avoid technically phrased distractors.
- Use familiar yet incorrect phrases as distractors.
- Use true statements that do not correctly answer the question.
- Avoid the use of humour when developing options.
- Use past learner work for errors and misconceptions of learners
to use as distractors.
- The position of the answer should vary.
- None of the responses should be synonymous.
- Watch for specific determiners such as “all”, “always”, “never”
which are more likely to be in incorrect options. Others like
“usually” and “sometimes” are more likely to be in the keyed
response.
 Suggestions for writing multiple-choice items which measure

higher objectives
It is difficult and time-consuming to write multiple-choice items that

measure the higher thinking skills. You have to be creative in order
to develop challenging questions. The following suggestions may
provide some ideas for writing these kinds of questions:
- Present practical or real-world situations to the learners. These

problems may use short paragraphs describing a problem in a
practical situation. Items can be written which call for the
application of principles to the solution of these practical
problems, or the evaluation of several alternative procedures.
- Present the learner with a diagram of equipment and ask for
application, analysis, or evaluations, e.g. “What happens at point
A if …?” “How is A related to B?”
141
- Present actual quotations taken from newspapers or other
published sources or contrived quotations that could have come
from such sources. Ask for the interpretation or evaluation of
these quotations.
- Use pictorial materials that require learners to apply principles
and concepts.
- Use charts, tables or figures that require interpretation.
- Concentrate on writing items that measure learners’ ability to
comprehend, recall, apply, analyse, as well as evaluate.
Advantages
- Highly structured.
- Good at measuring learner achievement.
- Incorrect alternatives provide diagnostic information.
- Scores are less influenced by guessing than true-false
questions.
- Scores are more reliable than open-ended questions (e.g.
essays).
- Scoring is easy and reliable.
- Question analysis can reveal how difficult each question
was and how well it discriminated between the strong and
weaker learners in the class.
- Performance can be compared from class to class and year
to year.
- Can cover a lot of material very efficiently.
- Avoids the absolute judgments found in True-False tests.
- Can be marked objectively.
- Are generally reliable.
- Make less demand on learners’ writing skills than free
response answers.
- Can provide rapid feedback to learners and assessors.
- Can be used for diagnostic purposes.
- Can be used to access a wide range of cognitive skills.
- Reduce the element of guessing found in alternative
response items.
Disadvantages
- Constructing good questions is time consuming.

- Ineffective for measuring some types of problem solving.
- Scores can be influenced by reading ability.
- Difficult to determine why individual learners selected
incorrect responses.
- Often fails to test higher levels of cognitive thinking.
142
- Does not provide a measure of writing ability.
- May encourage guessing.
- Often perceived as being mainly for testing the recall of
factual information.
- Does not allow learners to express themselves.
- Often difficult to construct good items which are clearly
worded and which will elicit the key.
- It is often difficult to devise enough plausible distractors for
certain topics.
3.4 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of semi-

objective questions
3.4.1 Completion questions
Aims
The learner is required to supply the words that complete a given

statement or to label various parts of a diagram. This type of question is
a variation of the short answer question.
Whilst completion questions provide a convenient means of assessing

recall of factual information, they can also be used to test the
understanding and application of mathematical concepts.
The completion format requires the learner to answer a question or to

finish an incomplete statement by filling in a blank with the correct word
or phrase.
Construction
 Omit only significant words from the statement. Do not omit so

many words from the statement that the intended meaning is lost.
 Only the key words in the statement should be left blank.
 There should be only one possible word or phrase for each blank
space.
 Limit the required response to a single word or phrase.
 Be sure there is only one correct response.
 Write completion items that have a single correct answer, if
possible.
 Use blanks of the same length throughout the test so that the
length is not a clue.
143
 Avoid grammatical clues to the correct response. For example, if
the indefinite article is required before a blank, use a(n) so that
the learner does not know if the correct answer begins with a
vowel or a consonant.
 If possible, put the blank at the end of a statement rather than at
the beginning. Asking for a response before the learner
understands the intent of the statement can be confusing and
may require more reading time.
 Avoid taking statements directly from the text.
 Diagrams should be clearly identified and the parts requiring to be
named should be clearly shown.
Advantages
 Is easy to administer.
 Is easily used for self and diagnostic assessment.
 Allows considerable coverage of content.
 Learners can respond easily and quickly to questions.
 Provides a wide sampling of content.
 Efficiently measures lower levels of cognitive ability.
 Minimises guessing as compared to multiple-choice or true-false
items.
 Provides an objective measure of learner achievement or ability.
Disadvantages
 If there is more than one option as an answer, marking becomes

more difficult.
 Plausible responses might sometimes be difficult to identify.
 Difficult to construct so that the desired response is clearly
indicated.
 Have difficulty measuring learning objectives requiring more than
 Can often include more irrelevant clues than do other item types.
 More time consuming to score when compared to multiple-choice
or true-false items.
 Are more difficult to score since more than one answer may have
to be considered correct if the item was not properly prepared.
 Are difficult to write so there is only one correct answer and no
irrelevant clues.
3.4.2 Short answer questions
Aims
144
The short answer question requires learners to supply the appropriate
words, numbers, or symbols to answer a question or complete a
statement. This type of question involves learners being presented with
a question with a pre-determined answer that consists of a few words.
These questions may also involve the use of numbers, diagrams and
graphs.
Although generally used to assess the recall of factual information, they

can also test the understanding and application of knowledge, for
example mathematical concepts.
Reserve short answer questions for situations when supplying the

answer is a necessary part of the learning outcome to be measured,
such as:
 When the intent is to have learners recall the information (instead

of recognise it).
 Where computational problems are used.
 Where a multiple-choice, true-false, or check all that apply would
make the answer obvious.
Construction
 Questions should require a single word answer or a brief and

definite statement.
 Avoid statements that are answered equally well by several
terms.
 A direct question is often more desirable than an incomplete
statement.
 Blank spaces should usually occur at the end of the statement
rather than the beginning or within.
 Omit only key words. The meaning or main point of the question
is lost if too many elements are removed.
 If the question requires a numerical answer, indicate the units in
which it is to be expressed.
 Avoid verbal clues and specific determiners (e.g. the, an, a).
 They must be devised to ensure that they reflect the requirements
of the outcomes.
 They should be phrased in such a way that the learner’s task is
clearly indicated.
Advantages
 Allows considerable coverage of content.

 Provides a wide sampling of content
145
 Efficiently measures lower levels of cognitive ability.
 Minimises guessing when compared to multiple-choice or true-
false questions.
 Takes less time to complete than multiple-choice questions, so
can cover more content area.
 Less time-consuming to construct than good multiple choice or
matching items.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to phrase the question or incomplete statement so that

only one answer is correct.
 Misspelling can be a problem, particularly when computer scored;
making test scores a mixture of content learning and spelling skill.
 Difficult to measure learning objectives. Requires more than
 Often includes more irrelevant clues than do other question types.
 More time consuming to score than multiple-choice or true-false
questions.
 More difficult to score since multiple answers may have to be
considered if the question was not properly written.
 Tends to be used only for lower levels of cognitive competence.
3.4.3 Structured questions
Aims
A structured question consists of a stem (which describes a situation)

followed by a series of related questions. The stem can be text, a
diagram, a picture or multi-media. The questions may require
completion, short answers, or restricted responses. While structured
questions can be devised to assess the recall of knowledge, they are
probably most useful for the assessment of outcomes concerned with
comprehension, the application of knowledge, analysing and creating.
Examples of structured questions are:
 Problem solving
A problem is an unknown that results from any situation in which a
person seeks to fulfil a need or accomplish a goal.
 Handling information
Learners are expected to use information from pictures, articles,
146
photos, DVDs, films, graphs, poems, pieces of prose or essays to
answer questions.
 Descriptive responses
Descriptive responses let the reader touch, taste, see, hear and
smell what the writer describes. It is a clear description of what the
writer is experiencing. Descriptive words are used generously. A
picture is painted by using words.
 Paragraph questions
A paragraph question requires that learners answer questions in
either paragraph or essay format. Paragraph questions can assess
learners’ understanding of course materials and provide them with
the opportunity to express their ideas and thoughts independently,
based on what they learnt from the course.
Construction
 Repetitive questions should be avoided.

 Questions based on recall are inappropriate.
 Questions should be based on, and relevant to, the stem.
 Questions should be devised to ensure that they reflect the
requirements of the learning outcomes.
 Questions should be phrased in such a way that the
learner’s task is clearly indicated.
 Use lifelike stimuli with which the learners can identify.
 Ask questions about novel situations, not those provided in
a textbook or discussed in class.
 Ask a series of questions in order to stimulate the learner’s
thinking.
 Use verbs that require higher order thinking skills.
 Ask learners to apply knowledge and not to focus on
reporting of facts.
 Guidelines must be very clear.
 Ask many short specific questions, rather than a few general
questions.
Advantages
 More reliable than extended response questions since the

learners are led through the question and are less likely to
stray from the subject or miss the point.
 It is ideal for assessing analysis, evaluation and creative
thinking skills.
147
Disadvantages
 Often restricted to a limited area of content.

 Failure in one part may prejudice the learners’ answers in
succeeding parts.

response (interpretive) questions
3.5.1 Structured essays
Aims
Essays are “free response” questions where learners are asked to

produce a piece of non-fiction writing that conveys factual information or
argues the validity of a point of view, with objective evidence. They are
particularly suitable for assessing outcomes concerned with the
cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. They provide a
way of assessing a learner’s command of language, powers of analysis,
discrimination in choice of evidence, and skills in argument. Essays
require technical writing skills as well as a logical line of thought and are
good to use when trying to determine what learners know about a few
broad topics. Essay questions typically consist of a small number of
questions to which the learner is expected to demonstrate his/her ability
to:
 Recall knowledge.
 Organise this knowledge.
 Present the knowledge in a logical, integrated answer.
Construction
 Essay questions must clearly define the expected response such

as compare, evaluate, summarise, critique, etc. Words like
discuss and explain can be confusing. If you use “discuss”, then
give specific instructions as to what points should be discussed
 The questions should be devised to ensure that they reflect the
requirements of the outcomes, and should be phrased in such a
way that the learner’s task is clearly indicated.
 Clearly stated questions not only make essay tests easier for
learners to answer, but also make them easier for instructors to
score.
 Make the assessment criteria and marking scheme very clear,
including grammar, spelling and other issues.
148
 Specify the length of the answer desired for each question (e.g.
number of words or pages). All learners are required to answer
the same questions.
 Indicate the relative importance of each question (e.g. time to be
spent or points assigned) If time is running short, learners may
have to choose which questions to answer. They will want to work
on the questions that are worth the most points.
 In order to obtain a broader sampling of course content, use a
relatively large number of questions requiring shorter answers
(one-half page) rather than just a few questions involving long
answers (2-3 pages).
 Avoid writing essay items that only require learners to
demonstrate certain factual knowledge. Factual knowledge can
be measured more efficiently with objective-type items.
 Avoid the use of optional questions on an essay test. When
learners answer different questions, they are actually taking
different tests. If there are five essay questions and learners are
told to answer any three of them, then there are ten different tests
possible. It makes it difficult to discriminate between the learner
who could respond correctly to all five, and the learner who could
answer only three.
 Do not use essays to measure knowledge or understanding that
can be assessed using less time consuming assessment
methods.
Advantages
 Essays have the ability to assess all levels of learning objectives.

 It encourages original and creative thinking.
 Relatively easy to construct.
 Allows considerable scope for self-expression.
 Essay items are an effective way to measure higher-level
cognitive objectives. They are unique in measuring learners’
ability to select content, organise and integrate it, and present it in
logical text.
 They are easier and less time-consuming to construct.
 They have a good effect on learners’ learning. Learners do not
memorize facts, but try to get a broad understanding of complex
ideas, to see relationships, etc.
 They present a more realistic task to the learner. In real life,
questions will not be presented in a multiple-choice format, but
will require learners to organise and communicate their thoughts
in their own words.
149
 Allows learners to interpret and integrate their knowledge of
course content.
 Allows learners to express individuality and creativity in their
answers.
 Reduces guessing.
Disadvantages
 As essays are very time-consuming to answer and to correct,

they are not recommended if only low-level of learning outcomes
are assessed which can be assessed by multiple choice or short
answer questions.
 Although guessing is not possible in essay assessments,
“bluffing” is.
 Reliability may be difficult to achieve, because of the range of
approaches that the learners might adopt in their responses.
 Makes considerable demands on learners’ writing abilities.
 Is time-consuming for the learner and for the marker.
 Often covers a relatively small area of content.
 Difficult to devise clear-cut questions that will elicit valid
responses.
 Because of the time required to answer each question, essay
items sample less of the content.
 Difficult to measure a large amount of content.
 Due to the subjective nature of essay assessments, grading is
very unreliable even for the same assessor at different periods.
 They are difficult to score objectively and reliably. Research
shows that a number of factors can bias the scoring:
- Different scores may be assigned by different readers or
by the same reader at different times.
- A context effect may operate; an essay preceded by a top
quality essay receives lower marks than when preceded
by a poor quality essay.
- The higher the essay is in the stack of papers, the higher
the score assigned.
- Papers that have strong answers to items appearing early
in the test and weaker answers later will fare better than
papers with the weaker answers appearing first.
- Scores are influenced by the expectations that the reader
has for the learner’s performance. If the reader has high
expectations, a higher score is assigned than if the reader
has low expectations. If we have a good impression of the
learner, we tend to give him/her the benefit of the doubt.
150
- Scores are influenced by quality of handwriting, neatness,
spelling, grammar, vocabulary, etc.
3.5.2 Unstructured essays
Aims
Unstructured questions are also free-response questions. They are

much the same as structured essays but there are some differences.
The biggest difference is that in an unstructured essay the learner is
allowed maximum freedom for discussion. Unstructured essays are
excellent measures for assessing a learner’s broad grasp of a topic,
knowledge of related areas, powers of synthesis, analysis and
evaluation, written communication skills, etc. They also give learners the
opportunity to organise their ideas and demonstrate their power in
creative and divergent thinking.
Well-designed unstructured questions foster breadth in learning.

Learners can move beyond the topics in a textbook or a syllabus and
branch out to discover related knowledge. It is required from learners to
remember information and to process and organise the information and
then present it in a logical and coherent manner. It can be used when
there is a short time to prepare items and when there is a need to
assess many aspects of a learners’ writing.
Construction
The principles of constructing structured essays apply to unstructured

essays as well. Consider the following as well:
 Ask questions about major concepts.

 Ask learners to apply their knowledge and not to simply report
facts.
 Be very clear about what is expected of the learner. Be thorough
and very specific.
 Break a general question up in short, specific sections in order for
the learner to understand what is expected.
 Make the way in which scoring will be done available to the
learners. It also helps them to know what is expected of them.
Advantages
 Can offer windows into thinking processes; to tap planning,

organisation, integration and effective expression of ideas.
 Requires less preparation time.
151
All the advantages of structured essays apply to unstructured essays as
well.
Disadvantages
 Writing unstructured essays well requires a great deal of skill and

marking and scoring them requires a very skilful teacher.
 Small number of possible tasks.
 May be influenced by bluffing or by poor writing skills.
Disadvantages of structured essays apply to unstructured essays as

well.
3.5.3 Discussion/comparison/evaluation of…
Aims
These assessment tools assess higher levels of thinking and reasoning.

The learner is required to demonstrate their knowledge and
comprehension of a particular problem or subject. It should be
structured in such a way to assess whether a learner is able to apply
their newly acquired knowledge and understanding to gain new insights.
This assessment is aimed at assessing the learners’ creative application
and evaluation of a subject or problem.
It is used to explore underlying issues such as how learners went about

tackling a task, what they learned from an activity or why they followed a
particular course of action. This helps to integrate assessment.
 Discussion
Discussion is used it to explore underlying issues such as: how a
learner tackles a particular issue, what they learned from an
activity or why they followed a particular course of action. This
helps to integrate assessment. Discussion is used:
- To assess knowledge and explore behaviours and

values.
- As an alternative to the reflective account.
- To help deal with sensitivities.
 Comparison
Comparison helps to work out the importance of a number of
options relative to one another. This makes it easy to choose the
most important problem to solve, or to pick the solution that will be
most effective. It also helps you set priorities where there are
conflicting demands on your resources. Analysis is useful for
152
weighing up the relative importance of different options. It is
particularly helpful where priorities are not clear, where the options
are completely different, where evaluation criteria are subjective, or
where they are competing in importance. It provides a framework
for comparing each option against all others, and helps to show the
difference in importance between factors.
 Evaluation
Evaluation of a topic or problem allows one to decide how good,
useful, or successful it is. It implies that something will be
examined following which a judgement can be made. To evaluate
a problem does not mean that the learner needs to solve it. The
learner is expected to draw a conclusion after examining the topic
problem.
Construction
 Take time to prepare and plan.

 Decide what is to be assessed.
 Decide how relevant topics within or across topics can be brought
together.
 Decide the kind of evidence that is required from the learner.
 Ask questions directly related to the evidence needed.
 Give clear instructions for learners to know precisely what is
expected of them.
 Instructions as to the evidence expected of the learner must also
be included.
 Be clear about the knowledge needed for completing the
comparison, discussion or evaluation.
 Develop specific, measurable criteria for assessing.
Advantages
 Can be used to assess from multiple perspectives.

 Using a learner-centred design can promote learner motivation.
 Can be used to assess transfer of skills and integration of
content.
 Engages learners in active learning.
 Can provide a dimension of depth not available in classroom.
 Can promote learner creativity.
 Can be scored holistically or analytically.
 May allow probes by teacher to gain clearer picture of learner
understanding or thought processes.
 Can be summative or formative.
153
 Can provide an avenue for learner self-assessment and
reflection.
 It allows the learner to give evidence about important behaviours
and values not easily identified by other means of assessment.
 Encourages assessors to integrate assessment and show the
linkages between different aspects of learning.
 It allows learners to integrate their assessment evidence.
 Covers a wide range of specific activities.
Disadvantages
 Time consuming preparation is essential and cannot be skimped

on.
 Must be carefully designed to be effective.
 Assessment can be more subjective.
 Needs experienced teachers to design.
 The more skilled the assessor, the easier an assessment is to
implement.
3.6 Summary
In this unit we have looked at assessment tools aimed at the levels and
domains of Bloom’s taxonomy. We have also explored the taxonomy of
Marzano and Kendall. The aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages
of objective and semi-objective questions as well as free response questions
were examined. In the next unit the aims, construction, advantages and
disadvantages of assessment tools will be studied further.
In the next unit the performance-based assessment tools, teacher observations

and some specific assessment methods will be discussed. Make sure you have
mastered this unit by ticking the checklist before continuing with unit 4.
Learning activity 1
Cognitive domain.
154
Knowledge level.
Make a timeline of your life from birth up to today.
Answer the following questions:
i. How would you describe your life up to now?
ii. Who would you describe as prominent people who have featured in your
life since birth?
Learning Activity 2
Make 2 columns, one for similarities and one for differences. Make sure you
compare only the cognitive domain and not the other domains. Include
levels of each domain in your comparison.
Learning Activity 3 - 5
i. & ii. The clues as to which of Bloom’s taxonomy are addressed in each
level of questions are given in the discussion. The level of Bloom’s
taxonomy will guide you to the level of the taxonomy of Marzano and
Kendall.
iii. Use your own words to describe the aims of each type of question. Do
not rewrite the study guide. Use your own words and sentences.
Make sure you understand the aims.
Glossary
Synthesis Combination of parts or elements.
155
UNIT 4
The aims, construction and application of assessment tools (Part 2)
Introduction 151
4.1 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of performance-

based assessment tools 154
4.1.1 Products and processes/performances 154
4.1.2 Portfolios 156
performances 163
4.2 The features of reliable observations by primary teachers 166
assessment 169
4.3.1 Assessment of learners’ internalised values 169
4.3.2 Assessment of learners’ social relationships 172
4.3.3 Assessment of learners’ emotional happiness 173
4.3.4 Assessment of learners’ special talents 176
4.4 The relationship between primary teaching-learning methods and
media with assessment methods 187
4.4.1 Labelled drawings 187
4.4.2 Concept maps 188
4.4.3 Competition among groups 189
4.4.4 Projects 190
4.4.5 Writing paragraphs 191
4.4.6 Inference pictures 192
4.5 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of oral assessment 193
4.5.1 Aims 193
4.5.2 Construction 194
4.5.3 Advantages 194
4.5.4 Disadvantages 195
4.5.5 Types of questions 195
4.5.6 Guidelines for implementation of interviews/oral assessment 196
4.6 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of peer assessment
tools 197
4.6.1 Rubrics 197
4.6.2 Memos 203
4.6.3 Games 205
156
4.6.4 Role play 207
4.7 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of self-assessment
tools 209
4.7.1 Checklists 209
4.7.2 Diagrams 210
4.7.3 Questionnaires 212
4.8 Summary 213
Glossary 215
157
Introduction
In this unit we will be exploring the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages
of performance-based assessment tools as well as peer and self-assessment tools.
Teacher observations (for assessment purposes) require particular skills that need to
be practiced and we will therefore be looking at the features of reliable observations.
You will get the opportunity to evaluate some observational assessment checklists
and rubrics. Media refers to handy teaching tools and the relationship between
teaching and learning methods with some assessment methods will be investigated.
Learning outcomes
 Analyse the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of the following

‘Performance-based assessment tools’:
- Products and processes / performances
- Portfolios
- Teacher observations of oral, written and behavioural performances
 Explain the features of ‘reliable observations’ by (primary) teachers
 Evaluate the format and content of the following given checklists / rubrics to be used
for observational assessments of upper-primary learners:
- Assessment of learners’ internalized values
- Assessment of learners’ social relationships
- Assessment of learners’ emotional happiness
- Assessment of learners’ special talents
 Discuss the relationship between primary teaching-learning methods and media with
assessment methods, e.g. label drawings, drawing/ completing concept maps,
competitions among groups, projects on something, writing paragraphs, interpreting
pictures, etc.
 Analyse the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of ‘Oral assessment’
- Aims of oral assessment
- Types of questions
- Guidelines for implementation of interviews / oral assessment
 Analyse the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of ‘Peer assessment
tools’ (rubrics, memos, games, role play)
 Analyse the aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of ‘Self-assessment
tools’ (checklists, diagrams, questionnaires)
158
Learning activities
Please complete all activities to the best of your ability before looking at the
feedback at the end of this unit. Please note that the feedback does not always
provide complete answers, but rather see it as a guide to work out answers or how
to approach a particular question. It is good preparation for the examination.
Learning activity 1
Answer the following questions on each performance-based assessment

tool:
i. What level/s of Bloom’s taxonomy (3.1) does this type of question

address?
ii. What level/s of the taxonomy of Marzano and Kendall (3.2) does this
type of question address?
iii. Discuss in one paragraph what the aims of the type of question are.
Learning activity 2
“Watching children while they play is observation”
i. Is this statement true or false?

ii. Explain your opinion by focusing on the features of reliable
observations.
Learning activity 3
Answer the following questions on each of the checklists /rubrics below:
i. Evaluate the format of each tool. Is it user friendly?

ii. Evaluate the content of each tool.
iii. Look at the assessment and promotion policy of the upper primary
phase (2.2 & 2.3).
Does it comply with the requirements laid down in the policy?
Does it assess what it aims to assess?
Does it give good quality assessment information?
Learning activity 4
159
i. The following teaching and assessment methods use different forms of
media as instruction tools. Mention which domain and also which level
of the domain (unit 1.1) are addressed by each assessment method
discussed below. Also identify the type of intelligence (unit 1.2) that is
targeted when using each method.
ii. Complete the given concept map in 4.4.2.
Learning activity 5
Answer the following questions on oral assessment as an assessment tool:
i. What level/s of Bloom’s taxonomy (3.1) does this type of assessment

address?
type of assessment address?
In one paragraph describe what the aims of this type of assessment are.
Learning activity 6
Answer the following questions on each peer assessment tool:

address?
iii. In one paragraph describe what the aims of this type of assessment
are.
Learning activity 7
Answer the following questions on each self-assessment tool:

address?
In one paragraph describe what the aims of this type of assessment are
160
4.1 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of
performance-based assessment tools
“Performance assessment is the direct, systematic observation of an actual

learner performance … and rating of that performance according to pre-
established performance criteria. Learners are asked to perform a complex
task or create a product. They are assessed on both the process and end
result of their work. Many performance assessments include real-life tasks that
call for higher-order thinking.” (What is performance based assessment?
clicit.ort.org.il/files/upl/192089623 /851598900.doc)
Learners are able to demonstrate specific skills and competencies by

performing or producing something.
4.1.1 Products and processes/performances
Aims
Products and processes/performances are valuable to assess the

performance of a complex task. It assesses in the cognitive as well as
affective domains. The learner has to demonstrate knowledge,
understanding, and application as well as creativity. The teacher has the
opportunity to focus on each learner. The teacher can notice challenges
that the learner experiences. The unique style of the learner provides a
significant context for understanding and interpreting the competency of
each learner.
Construction
 List the specific skills and knowledge (goals) you wish learners to
demonstrate.
 The statement of goals and objectives should be clearly aligned
with the measurable outcomes of the performance activity.
 Design a performance task that requires learners to demonstrate
the specific skills and knowledge.
 Performance tasks should be motivating, challenging and
appropriate to learners’ language level and cognitive ability.
 The tasks should relate to real-life experiences.
 The task should not examine unimportant or unintended
variables.
 Develop explicit performance criteria and expected performance
levels measuring learners’ mastery of skills and knowledge
(rubrics).
161
 Performance assessments should be fair and free from bias.
 The completion of performance assessments should provide a
valuable learning experience.
Advantages
 It has various outcomes; it does not require one right answer.

 It is integrative, combining different skills.
 It encourages problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
 It encourages divergent thinking.
 It focuses on both product and process.
 It promotes independent learning, involving planning, revising and
summation.
 It builds on learners’ prior experience.
 It can include opportunities for peer interaction and collaborative
learning.
 It enables self-assessment and reflection. Involve learners in the
process of assessing their own growth.
 It is interesting, challenging, meaningful and authentic.
 It provides educators with information about that which learners
have learned, not just how well they can learn.
 It allows for instruction in most subject areas to be altered to
include more practical applications of skills and to incorporate a
greater focus on the understanding and combining of content and
skills.
 It systematically documents what learners know and can do
based on activities they engage in on a daily basis in their
classrooms.
 It evaluates thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
and interpretation of facts and ideas.
 It presents an opportunity for teachers to evaluate each child's
progress using information obtained from on-going classroom
interactions with materials and peers.
 It permits an individualised approach to assessing abilities and
performance.
 It offers a means for improving instruction, allowing teachers to
plan a comprehensive, developmentally oriented curriculum,
based on the knowledge of each child.
 It establishes a framework for observing children that is
consistent with the principles of child development.
 It contributes to meaningful curriculum planning and the design of
developmentally appropriate educational interventions.
162
163
Disadvantages
 It requires time to complete.

 Generalisations and comparability of performance across tasks
are difficult.
 The scoring of complex tasks and the appropriate interpretation of
performances proves challenging.
 The costs of development, administration, and scoring can be
high.
 It can be difficult to implement in a large class setting.
 Large classes and limited teacher resources would make the
timing and cost of performance-based testing more difficult.
 Usually fewer questions are included and call for a greater degree
of subjective judgment.
 Since there are no clear right and wrong answers, teachers have
to decide how to grade and what distinguishes an average
performance from an excellent one.
 Teachers might teach only to the test, thereby narrowing the
curriculum and reducing the test's value.
 Learners may be unintentionally penalised for such things as
having a disability, being from a certain cultural background, or
attending classes at a school with limited resources.
4.1.2 Portfolios
Aims
Portfolios are collections of learner work representing a selection of

performance with a common theme or purpose. It is a formative
assessment that measures the progress of a learner, as well as his/her
strengths and challenges. A good portfolio will be a broad spectrum of a
learner's work, and will serve as not only a place to store completed
work, but will also include self-reflections and recommendations for
improvement (http://www.ehow.com/about_5103845_ purposes-
portfolio-assessment.html). The portfolio may be a folder containing a
learner's best pieces and the learner's evaluation of the strengths and
weaknesses of the pieces. It may also contain one or more works-in-
progress that illustrate the creation of a product, such as an essay,
evolving through various stages of conception, drafting, and revision
(http:// www2.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides/classuse.html).
Portfolios are often described as a more authentic means of assessment

than the traditional classroom test. Rather than showing that the learner
knows what has been taught, the portfolio demonstrates that the learner
164
can do what has been taught. Portfolio assessment is most appropriate
when learning can be best demonstrated through a product
(http://www.nasponline.org/communications/spawareness/portfolioasses
s.pdf).
Portfolios are useful as a support to instructional approaches that

emphasise the learner's role in constructing understanding and the
teacher's role in promoting understanding (http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/OR/
ConsumerGuides/classuse.html). Portfolios are valued as an
assessment tool because, as representations of classroom-based
performance, they can be fully integrated into the curriculum. Unlike
separate tests, they supplement rather than take time away from
instruction. It is believed that portfolio assessments are more effective
than "old-style" tests for measuring academic skills and informing
instructional decisions (http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides
/classuse.html).
Portfolio assessment is important because it measures the progress of a

learner and examines the instructional process, not just the final
product. Portfolios provide multiple levels of learning evidence and
demonstrate what a learner knows and how he/she uses this knowledge
(http://www.ehow.com/ about_5103845_purposes-portfolio-
assessment.html). The ultimate aim in the use of portfolios is to develop
independent, self-directed learners. Long-term portfolios provide a more
accurate picture of learners' specific achievements and progress and the
areas of needed attention
(http://www.teachervision.fen.com/assessment/resource/5942.html).
Construction
Read Dreyer (page 46, 2.18.5.2), in which the construction of portfolios

is explained.
Although there is no single correct way to develop portfolios, learners

are always expected to collect, select, and reflect. Portfolios may, for
example, document varied experiences of the learner in a class, provide
points for discussion between learner and teacher or among learners,
and represent change in the learner’s technique or skill over time
(http://www.nasponline.org/communications/
spawareness/portfolioassess.pdf).
Before beginning a portfolio, the learner must be aware of the goals

he/she is trying to accomplish. Otherwise, he/she will be confused as to
what artefacts to include. A portfolio functions as a place to store
materials so they are not forgotten and so that the learner can
165
continuously reflect on his/her growth in that particular subject area
(http://www.ehow.com/about_ 5103845_purposes-portfolio-
assessment.html).
Artefacts placed in the portfolio should be carefully chosen to represent

the portfolio purpose and the most solid work done by the participant.
The work should also show growth and progress, and can even include
work-in-progress pieces. Most importantly however, a portfolio is only
complete if it has a reflection, a summary of strengths and weaknesses,
and a plan to improve. Creating opportunities for reflection places the
responsibility of the learning on the learner, allowing him/her to see,
understand and conceptualise his/her own strengths and weaknesses
(http://www.ehow.com/about_ 5103845_purposes-portfolio-
assessment.html).
In building a portfolio of selected pieces and explaining the basis for

their choices, learners generate criteria for good work, with teacher and
peer input. Learners need specifics with clear guidelines and examples
to get started on their work, so these discussions need to be well guided
and structured. The earlier the discussions begin the better.
The content in portfolios is built from class assignments and as such

corresponds to the local classroom curriculum. Often, portfolio
programmes are initiated by teachers, who know their classroom
curriculum best. They may develop portfolios focused on a single
curricular area, such as writing, mathematics, literature, or science, or
they may develop portfolio programmes that span two or more subjects,
such as writing and reading, writing across the curriculum, or
mathematics and science.
The age/grade level of learners may determine how portfolios are

developed and used. For example, in developing criteria for judging
good writing, older learners are more likely to be able to help determine
the criteria by which work is selected, perhaps through brainstorming
sessions with the teacher and other learners. Younger learners may
need more directed help to decide on what work to include.
Administrative contexts also influence the structure and use of portfolios.

While the primary purpose of portfolios for most teachers is to engage
learners, support good curricula and instruction, and improve learner
teaming, some portfolio programmes are designed to serve other
purposes as well. For example, portfolios can be used to involve parents
in their children's education programmes and to report individual learner
progress. Teachers and administrators need to educate parents about
how portfolios work and what advantages they offer over traditional
166
tests. Parents are generally more receptive if the traditional tests to
which they are accustomed are not being eliminated.
Portfolios may also be used to compare achievement across classrooms

or schools. Guidelines may also address issues of teacher or peer
involvement in revising draft work or in deciding on what to identify as a
best piece.
In all administrative contexts, teachers need administrative support to

initiate a portfolio programme. They need support material such as
folders, file drawers, and access to a photocopy machine, and time to
plan, share ideas, and develop strategies
(http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/OR/Consumer Guides/classuse.html).
This is a process with multiple steps that takes time, and all of the
component parts must be in place before the assessment can be utilised
effectively. The following is important to keep in mind when planning
portfolio assessment:
Decide on a purpose or theme

General assessment alone is not a sufficient goal for a portfolio. It
must be decided specifically what is to be assessed. Portfolios are
most useful for addressing the learner’s ability to apply what has
been learned. Therefore, a useful question to consider is, what
skills or techniques do I want the learners to learn to apply? The
answer to this question can often be found in the school
curriculum.
Consider what samples

Consider what samples of learner work might best illustrate the
application of the standard or educational goal in question. Written
work samples, of course, come to mind. However, videotapes,
pictures of products or activities, and testimonials are only a few of
the many different ways to document achievement.
Determine how samples will be selected

A range of procedures can be utilised here. Learners, maybe in
conjunction with parents and teachers, might select work to be
included, or a specific type of sample might be required by the
teacher, the school, or the school system.
167
Decide whether to assess the process and the product or the
product only
Assessing the process would require some documentation
regarding how the learner developed the product. For example, did
the learner use the process for planning a short story or utilising
the experimental method that was taught in class? Was it used
correctly? Evaluation of the process will require a procedure for
accurately documenting the process used.
Develop an appropriate scoring system

Usually this is best done through the use of a rubric, a point scale
with descriptors that explain how the work will be evaluated. Points
are allotted with the highest quality work getting the most points. If
the descriptors are clear and specific, they become goals for which
the learner can aim. There should be a separate scale for each
outcome being evaluated. For example, if one outcome being
assessed is the use of grammatically correct sentence structure,
five points might be allotted if all sentences are grammatically
correct. Then, a specific number of errors would be identified for all
other points with zero points given if there are more than a certain
number of errors. It is important that the standards for evaluation
be carefully explained. Points available should be small enough to
be practical and meaningful; an allotment of 20 points for clarity is
not workable because a teacher cannot really distinguish between
a 17- and an 18-point product with regard to clarity.
Share the scoring system with the learners

Qualitative descriptors of how the learner will be evaluated, known
in advance, can guide learning and performance.
Engage the learner in a discussion of the product

Through the process of discussion, the teacher and the learner can
explore the material in more depth, exchange feelings and
attitudes with regard to the product and the learning process, and
reap the greatest advantage of effective portfolio implementation
(http://www.nasponline.
org/communications/spawareness/portfolioassess.pdf).
Portfolios should be developed by the learners, not the teacher.

Learners should have freedom in selecting items to include in their
portfolios. It is advantageous to make the whole portfolio process a
collaborative teacher-learner effort, with the teacher becoming more of a
consultant to the learner. Each item in the portfolio should be dated to
facilitate the evaluation of progress through the year. Be patient.
168
Portfolios are a new concept to most learners and parents. There is a
learning curve involved in adapting to the process. Experiment to
determine what works and feel free to modify as needed.
Develop your own teaching portfolio as a means of facilitating your

professional development. It can also prove invaluable in tenure
assessments and future job searches. Your professional portfolio might
include videotapes of successful classes, curriculum materials you have
developed, course syllabi, sample lesson plans, professional
development goals and objectives, workshop classes attended,
publications written, learner evaluations, awards, certificates,
professional affiliations, principal's and supervisor's evaluations, and
your teaching philosophy.
Any item that provides evidence of a learner's achievement and growth

can be included in a portfolio. Commonly used items include:
 Examples of written work.

 Journals and logs.
 Standardised inventories.
 Videotapes of learner performances.
 Audiotapes of presentations.
 Mind maps and notes.
 Group reports.
 Tests and quizzes.
 Charts and graphs.
 Lists of books read.
 Questionnaire results.
 Peer reviews.
 Self-evaluations.
(http://www.teachervision.fen.com/assessment/resource/5942.html)
Advantages
 It presents a more individualised way of assessing learners and

has the advantage of demonstrating a wide range of work.
 It shows sophistication in learner performance.
 It highlights learner strengths.
 It allows identification of learner weaknesses for remediation, if
timed properly.
 It can be used to view learning and development.
 It can promote a dialogue between teacher and learner.
169
 It allows for one-to-one interaction, which is an additional bonus
for those learners who may be too shy to initiate conversations
with teachers as well as for those who enjoy speaking about their
work and may better understand what worked and what did not
through a verbal exchange.
 It reduces the possibility that learners will be unclear about the
assessment or what must be done to make improvements.
 It allows multiple components of the curriculum to be assessed
(e.g. writing, critical thinking, technology skills).
 It offers an alternative or an addition to traditional methods of
assessment and testing.
 It reflects learner ability better then tests.
 It allows learners an opportunity to make decisions about their
work and encourages them to set goals regarding what has been
accomplished and what needs further work, which is an important
skill that may serve them well in real life, as portfolio contents are
selected collaboratively.
 It allows learners to grow and develop in their knowledge and
understanding, as they are taking part in the development of their
portfolios, analysing the criteria for what constitutes good work,
and learning to evaluate their own work through guided reflective
practices.
 It provides an authentic way of demonstrating skills and
accomplishments.
 It provides sound assessment opportunities by providing
evidence of effort and accomplishments in relation to specific
instructional goals.
 It allows for more meaningful results at all levels (learner, class,
subject, school) and can therefore be used for diagnostic and
prescriptive purposes as well.
 It prevents or minimises test anxiety and other one-shot
measurement problems.
 It increases power of maximum performance measures over
more artificial or restrictive speed measures on test or in-class
samples.
 It increases learner participation (selection, revision, and
evaluation) in the assessment process.
 It can be used to gather information about learners’ assignments
and experiences.
 It allows for reflective statements which could be used to gather
information about learner satisfaction.
 It encourages a real world experience that demands organisation,
decision-making, and met cognition.
170
 It can foster a positive outlook on learning and achievement if
used in a thoughtful way and if carefully planned.
Disadvantages
 Portfolios are as good as the quality of the collected pieces.

 Time consuming and challenging to evaluate.
 Content may vary widely among learners.
 Learners may fail to remember to collect items.
 Transferred learners may not be in the position to provide
complete portfolios.
 Time-intensive to convert to meaningful data.
 Costly in terms of assessing time and effort.
 Management of the collection and evaluation process, including
the establishment of reliable and valid assessment criteria, is
likely to be challenging.
 There are concerns whether submitted samples are the learner’s
own work.

performances
As discussed in unit 2, teacher observations are the main method of

assessment in the pre-primary phase. Although other forms of
assessment are introduced in the lower and upper primary phases,
observations remain an important assessment tool in these phases.
Observations of oral, written and behavioural performances provide
substantial information on the learner’s demonstration of learning
outcomes at all levels of teaching and learning.
There are two types of teacher observations, namely incidental and

planned observations.
 Incidental observation occurs when an unplanned opportunity

presents itself during teaching and assessment activities during
which the teacher observes some aspect of individual learning. If
reliable and valid records are kept, the assessment is regarded
as authentic and can be added to learner marks.
 Planned observation involves deliberate planning of an
opportunity for the teacher to observe specific learning outcomes.
This planned opportunity may occur in the context of regular
classroom activities or may occur through the setting of an
assessment task
171
Observations provide important evidence for assessment judgments. In
some cases, they provide the only way of obtaining evidence about
particular learning outcomes, especially those involving practical
techniques, performance activities, ‘real life’ projects and group work.
Aims
Teacher observations are a way to record and report the demonstration

of learning outcomes by the learner. It gives teachers a rich and diverse
range of evidence on learning outcomes from observations of their
learners. Teacher observation allows assessment to be more:
 Comprehensive — ensuring recognition of all desired learning

outcomes, especially those not assessable other than in
classroom contexts.
 Connected — situated within familiar learning contexts and
closely related to curriculum frameworks, learning experiences
and pedagogical planning.
 Contextualised — sensitive to the effects of context on
performance and deriving assessment evidence from a variety of
situations and occasions.
 Authentic — interesting, challenging, worthwhile and meaningful
to learners (Maxwell: 2001).
Construction
 Know in advance what learning outcomes will be assessed.

 Different types of evidence require different types of planning.
Plan the method of evidence recording; oral, written, and
behavioural.
 Keep adequate records.
 Incidental observation necessarily involves little additional
planning, apart from the normal planning of classroom learning
activities. Record them through descriptions in a logbook.
Incidental observation is therefore the weakest form of teacher
observation and would preferably be used only as supplementary
evidence to support other forms of evidence.
 Planned observation involves planning for observation in learning
situations and/or planning for set assessment tasks.
 Inform learners when they are being assessed, since they may
otherwise choose not to show their actual capabilities.
 Think about and plan how the event and/or the observations will
be recorded.
172
 Prepare an observation sheet that allows systematic recording of
observations and judgments.
 Failure to demonstrate proficiency of learning outcomes does not
indicate incapability of demonstrating those learning outcomes,
as it can be ascribed to a lack of appropriate challenge or
opportunity.
Advantages
 It enhances assessment validity.

 It presents an opportunity for learning outcomes that have not
been demonstrated to be deliberately prompted.
 It can, with careful planning, ensure that assessment is
comprehensive.
 It allows for many opportunities for observation over time.
 It allows for some observation which is deliberate and focused.
 It offers multiple opportunities and a variety of contexts which
allow for cross-checking the strength of the learner’s
performance.
 It makes it possible for procedures which strengthen and verify
teacher judgments to be introduced.
 It allows for each assessment occasion to be approached as a
fresh opportunity to test hypotheses derived from prior
impressions.
 It makes it difficult for bias to survive evidence-based justification
to learners and their parents (a form of accountability).
(Conscious bias is unethical and unconscious bias requires
constant vigilance.)
 It can allow for observation to be as unobtrusive as possible.
Disadvantages
 Lack of representation: learners may not demonstrate all relevant

learning outcomes in natural settings.
 Lack of observation: teachers may not observe the demonstration
of a learning outcome when it occurs, either because their
attention is elsewhere or because they fail to recognise it.
 Lack of control of influences: the learner can derive unintended
cues and prompts from the setting, even from the teacher, and
these can be unnoticed by the teacher. Learner performance may
then be misinterpreted.
 Lack of standardisation: all learners do not undertake the same
tasks under the same conditions. Teacher judgments of learner
173
demonstrations of learning outcomes are therefore not
dependable.
 Lack of objectivity: teacher judgments are subjective and prone to
inconsistencies. Too much is left to the discretion of the teacher.
 Possibility of stereotyping: subjective judgments allow the
possibility of stereotyping of learners in terms of other
performances or characteristics.
 Possibility of bias: subjective judgments allow the possibility of
conscious or unconscious bias for or against particular individuals
or groups.
4.2 The features of reliable observations by primary teachers
Most teachers want to know more about what engages and interests their
learners so that the teacher can be more effective. Observing and recording
the behaviours of young children on a consistent basis helps to do this
(http://www.childcareexchange.com/library/5011250.pdf).
Teachers have always watched and observed learners in the classroom and
they have made instructional decisions based on these observations. Too
often, however these observations have been informal and have not been
documented
(http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/curriculum/worldlanguages/resources/aa
a/obcheck4.pdf).
Knowing children provides a way to chart the growth and plan for the learning
to come. Observation as assessment tool documents the work learners do and
how they do it, as a basis for a variety of educational decisions that affect the
child (http://www.childcareexchange.com/library/5011250.pdf).
Observations can take place in a variety of settings. They can focus on learner
performance during a single activity or during routine classroom activities
(http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/curriculum/worldlanguages/resources/aa
a/obcheck4.pdf).
There are several principles that should guide assessment of learners through
observation (http://www.childcareexchange.com/library/5011250.pdf).
 Learning to see the whole child

Observing learners requires the gathering of evidence of growth in a
natural setting. An early childhood classroom is a familiar place where
the learner feels at ease in experimenting and exploring with a variety of
things. This experimentation and exploration provides a rich storehouse
of observable information for the teacher skilled in assembling it from
174
the play that surrounds the learner. Observing in this setting looks at the
whole child and not fragments or skills that are out of context. When a
learner is counting to see how many friends are at school today, there is
authenticity; but when asked to count objects for a test, the reason is
absent.
One of the important benefits of doing observations is that teachers are

viewing many components at the same time. The emotional, physical,
social, and cultural dimensions of the learner are equally important,
especially with the younger learner.
 Finding/making opportunities to observe

Early childhood teaching is a task that is filled with movement. Often
teachers are doing ten tasks at the same time. It is hard for many
teachers to understand when they will find the time and how they can
remain stationary and unobtrusive enough to observe the learners.
Observing and recording is just as crucial to good teaching as providing
the setting, structuring the day, and planning the curriculum.
Teachers observe the development of a particular learner or activity

within the setting. They relate what happened during the day and are
the basis for reflection and planning activities that will occur the next
day. Teachers are full of stories of what happened in their classroom.
These stories can be the basis of putting theory into practice or practice
into theory as they are shared with other early childhood educators.
 Keeping records of observations

Observing learners often comes very easily. Teachers watch and
remember what learners are doing and how they accomplish the task.
But observing without recording is only half of the picture. Teachers
must find ways to keep all the information that they traditionally store in
their heads. Insights are gained about who is being observed on a
consistent basis. Record keeping often reveals that some learners are
being observed more than the shy learner or the invisible learner or the
learner that is just minding to the business of playing and getting along.
Careful records reveal information about the observer, such as
preferences for certain centres of the classroom or certain times of the
day. These insights offer the teacher an opportunity to broaden the
perspective of the observations and record keeping.
 Sharing observations with parents

Detailed records kept over time reveal growth in many areas. This can
be shared with parents during formal and informal conferencing. Parents
175
want to know more about their child’s progress and they want to know
that the teacher knows and understands their child. Most report cards
and tests do not convey that the teacher really knows the child as good
observational records do.
 Using observations for planning

Detailed observational records are necessary to show the value of a
curriculum that is based on learner’s needs. Planning begins with
knowledge of the age group and goals. Observation provides insights so
that planning can be done to meet individual needs and evaluates the
learning that takes place. Along the way, there are modifications made
to meet individual and group needs and the cycle begins again.
 Considering assessment
We are living in an era when early childhood educators are being asked
to subject their learners to all sorts of tests to determine a variety of
information for a variety of purposes. Many of these are good tests, but
most of them subject a learner to time spent away from learning so that
someone can quickly determine what they have learned or not learned.
Often tests focus on what the learner does not know. They are designed
to show areas of weakness. Good observations focus on what the
learner knows and document areas of strengths. Areas of concern are
often closely linked to these strengths and are noted.
Features of observation: http://www.mbaofficial.com/mba-

courses/research-methodology/features-advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-observation/.
 Eye observation
Observation involves the use of the eyes rather than the use of the ears
and the voice. Observations are trustworthy if the teacher has observed
that with his/her own eyes or if the report is first-hand evidence of
his/her eyes.
 Aim
Observations aim to achieve something. Observations done in a very
minute and a detailed manner help in achieving specific goals.
 Planning
The value of an observation in the classroom is only valid if it is done
properly – in a planned manner. If it is done in a careless sense then the
chance of making such an observation may never come again. Hence,
observation should be carried out in a very phased and a planned
176
manner in order to get in-depth understanding of an activity.
 Recording
The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain
should be remembered but a known fact is that memory is very
deceptive in nature. With the passage of time things tend to be
forgotten, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities. One
very common method to keep track of these activities is to write down
the various impressions.
 Physical and mental activity

Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the observation
process. During the observation the teacher has to use his/her sense
organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the
whole set of observations for an in-depth analysis of the matter later on.
 Direct study
Observation is a vital assessment method that helps a lot in the
collection of primary information that is reliable in nature.
There are several possibilities for recording information to help guide the
observations and to make sure that the observations are consistent for
all the learners involved. Some recording options include the following
(http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/curriculum/worldlanguages/resour
ces/aaa/obcheck4.pdf):
- Checklists.
- Anecdotal records.
- Rubrics.

assessment
4.3.1 Assessment of learners’ internalised values
Internalisation is a process of making something an integral part of one’s

beliefs. The expectation is that learners will internalise cultural norms
and values based on input from parents, teachers and other influential
people in their lives. This process begins outside of the learner. Once
internalisation takes place, these views and norms become an
unwavering part of the learner’s belief system. This will become evident
in his/her actions and interactions.
177
The following rubric is designed by a grade 6 teacher. Some of the core
values in her class are:
- Appreciation for other learners.

- Respect towards self and others.
- Sense of belonging.
- Good working relationships with others.
She gave her learners a group activity and while working in the group,
she wants to assess the extent to which these values were internalised
by the learners and how they display these values.
Intrinsic
Organisation Responsibility Respect Teamwork
motivation
The learner
The learner is demonstrates The learner is
The learner a positive role leadership goal-driven
displays The learner model for and and displays a
mature completes work others and interpersonal passion for
organisational ahead of displays skills beyond learning
4
habits and schedule and respect and expectations through
tools that exceeds empathy for by working classroom
exceed requirements. everyone productively activities
expectations. beyond and beyond
expectations. cooperatively expectations.
in group work.
The learner
demonstrates
The learner consistent
The learner The learner
follows all interpersonal
consistently The learner values learning
classroom skills such as
displays consistently and completes
rules and listening,
habits and completes work learning
3 procedures, feedback,
tools for on schedule activities
while personal
organising and meets all without the
displaying responsibility,
materials and requirements. expectation of
respect for effort, and
tasks. rewards.
others. attitude by
working
cooperatively
and
178
productively in
groups.
With some
noteworthy
exceptions,
With some the learner With some
With some noteworthy displays noteworthy
noteworthy With some exceptions, interpersonal expectations,
exceptions, noteworthy the learner skills such as the learner is
the learner exceptions, the follows all listening, motivated to
displays learner classroom feedback, complete
2
habits and completes work rules and personal learning
tools for on schedule procedures, responsibility, activities
organising and meets while effort, and without the
materials and requirements. displaying attitude by expectation of
tasks. respect for working rewards or
others. cooperatively consequences.
and
productively in
groups.
With help or
prodding, the
learner
With help or
displays
prodding, the
With help and interpersonal Rewards and
learner still
prodding, the With help or skills such as consequences
has difficulty
learner has prodding, the listening, are often
following
developed learner hands feedback, required to
classroom
1 some habits in work on personal motivate the
rules and
and tools for schedule and responsibility, learner to
procedures
organising meets effort, and complete
and
materials and requirements. attitude by learning
displaying
tasks. working activities.
respect for
cooperatively
others.
and
productively in
groups.
179
The learner Even with
Even with Even with
often has guidance and Even with
guidance and guidance and
serious support, the rewards and
support, the support, the
difficulty learner does consequences,
learner lacks learner does
following not display the learner is
0 habits and not complete
classroom cooperative not motivated
tools for work on
rules and skills that to complete
organising schedule or
displaying allow a group learning
materials and meet
respect for to complete activities.
tasks. requirements.
others. tasks.
http://www.rhinelander.k12.wi.us/faculty/BloomBet/lifeskillsrubric.cfm
4.3.2 Assessment of learners’ social relationships
Below is an assessment rubric designed by a grade 5 teacher for the

assessment of social relationships and which focuses specifically on
social interaction.
Definition: Social interaction is the ability to work effectively with

individuals and within groups.
Rationale: Teamwork and social skills are vital for success at school,
work, and in the community.
Outcome: Learners will work effectively with individuals and groups.
Behaviour Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning

behaviour behaviour behaviour behaviour
Learner will Almost always Usually displays Sometimes Rarely

display displays empathy, self- displays displays self-
personal empathy, self- control, empathy, self- control,
behaviour and control, friendliness, control, friendliness,
interpersonal friendliness, generosity, friendliness, cooperation,
skills. generosity, cooperation, generosity, helpfulness,
co-operation, helpfulness, cooperation, and respect/
helpfulness, and respect. helpfulness,
and respect. and respect/
180
Learner will Accepts and Delivers May deliver Delivers
accept and delivers criticism with criticism if criticism with
deliver criticism with confidence, but prompted, but sarcasm and
criticism well/ compassion does not always does not does not
and accept it well. always accept accept it well.
confidence/ it well.
Learner will Can read Can usually Can Usually

read others’ others’ body read others’ sometimes ignores or
body language. body language. read others’ fails to read
language. body others’ body
language. language.
Learner will Utilises Usually utilises Sometimes Rarely uses

use conflict conflict conflict utilises conflict conflict
management management management management management
techniques. techniques in techniques in techniques in techniques in
an individual, an individual, an individual, an individual,
group, or group, or group, or group, or
professional professional professional professional
setting. setting. setting. setting.
Learner will Willingly takes Takes on task Usually does Rarely

take on task- on task and/or and/or not take on participates in
maintenance maintenance maintenance task and/or group
roles. roles in a roles in a group. maintenance activities.
group. roles in a
group.
Learner will Almost always Usually uses Sometimes Rarely uses

use humour uses humour humour in an uses humour humour in an
appropriately. in an appropriate but not always appropriate
appropriate manner. in an manner.
manner. appropriate
manner.
http://www.uafortsmith.edu/Learning/SocialInteraction
4.3.3 Assessment of learners’ emotional happiness
Emotions form an integral part of all learners. Learners learn better in an

environment which is safe and friendly and in which they will feel at ease
181
and therefore happy. It is important as a teacher to be aware of the
emotions of your learners.
The following checklist was designed by a grade 3 teacher to observe

her learners during break. The aim was to observe her learners’
happiness at school.
Below is a checklist to assess learners’ emotions:
Emotion Look for: √ x
Happiness: Smiles
Happiness helps people enjoy life
and seek similar pleasurable Laughter
experiences. Help children and
adolescents find appropriate outlets
to express their joy, and celebrate
Spontaneity
with them. Encourage them to talk
about things they are happy about.
Anger Frowns and angry

Anger helps people deal with Expressions
obstacles to their goals, often
spurring them to try new tactics. Help Possible retaliation
youngsters express their anger toward the target of
appropriately and determine how anger
they can redirect their energy toward
new solutions.
Fear Scared face

Fear occurs when people feel
threatened and believe that their Withdrawal from
physical safety and psychological circumstances
well-being are potentially at stake.
Fear motivates people to flee, escape Physiological
from harm, seek reassurance, and responses, such as
perhaps fight back. Help children sweating
articulate their fears. Offer
reassurance.
Sad expression
182
Sadness Crying
People are sad when they realise
they cannot attain a desired goal or Pouting
when they experience a loss, such as
a friend moving to a distant city. Being quiet
Reassure children, help them
express their sadness, and Possible withdrawal
encourage them to consider ways to from a situation
deal with sad feelings.
Disgust Wrinkled nose

Disgust occurs when people
encounter food, smells, and sights Remarks such as
they find repulsive. Disgust is “Phew!”
nature’s way of getting people to be
wary of something that is potentially Withdrawal from the
troublesome or threatening to their source of
health. Respect children’s feeling of displeasure
disgust, but also encourage them to
reflect on why they might have this
reaction.
Anxiety Frequent worrying

Anxiety is when somebody is worried
about almost everything. They panic Excessive fidgeting,
easily and are scared of most new hand wringing, or
situations. They are afraid to try out nail biting
new thing. As long as it is not
excessive, anxiety can spur people to Avoidance of source
take steps to avoid problems and of anxiety
achieve valued goals. Teach
youngsters strategies that keep
anxiety at a manageable level, as
well as strategies that help them
achieve their goals.
Shame Signs of
When children feel ashamed, they embarrassment
183
are aware of other people’s Attempts to

standards for behaviour and know withdraw from a
they are not meeting these situation
standards. Shame motivates children
to try harder. Shame works only Looking down and
when it comes from within; adults away from other
should never intentionally ridicule people
learners. Help children redirect their
behaviour so they can meet their own
standards.
Guilt Sad expression

Guilt occurs when people do
something that violates their own May appear self-
standards. It leads people to right the conscious
wrong. More generally, it causes
people to behave in socially May show concern
appropriate ways that protects others for a person who
from harm. Help children express has been harmed
their feelings and realise that they
can behave differently next time.
Pride Happy expression

People are proud when they earn
others’ respect and meet their own Desire to show off
goals. Pride fosters continued work and
commitment to behaving accomplishments to
appropriately and achieving high other people
standards. Pride motivates people to
share their accomplishments with
others. Encourage children to identify
things that make them proud. Share
in their joy when they accomplish
something meaningful.
4.3.4 Assessment of learners’ special talents
Below is a rubric which is a performance-based assessment that seeks

to measure or rate the quality of learners' work or behaviour using a
scoring guide to identify special talents. This five-point rubric, ranging
184
from "no concept" to "distinguished", was designed to focus on work or
behaviour typically addressed in gifted education. This rubric is intended
as a holistic approach, assessing the learner's whole behaviour.
The learning skills/behaviour rubric contains 20 elements. Scoring

requires the assignment of one of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 for each
element in the spaces provided to the right of the descriptions. The
overall score across all elements is determined by adding the scores
from each of the elements.
The following chart provides a range of scores corresponding to each of

the five levels of this rubric. Using the rubric holistically, the learner’s
total score is used to find the performance level.
Description Score
1. Persisting – When dealing with a new problem, the learner
Gives
- up on a problem-solving task. No concept – 0
Limited/incomplete
Stays
- on task with prompting.
–1
Sporadically
- stays on task without prompting. Developing – 2
Sustains
- problem-solving process over time. Proficient - 3
Is devoted
- to problem-solving tasks. Distinguished - 4
2. Managing impulsivity – When attempting a task, the learner
185
Description Score
Is unable to control actions; is impulsive; does

not consider a plan of action. No concept – 0
Manages negative emotions with assistance; is Limited/incomplete

unable to maintain focus over time. –1
Pre-empts negative emotions before they

escalate; engages in goal setting and planning Developing – 2
with guidance; maintains focus with prompting.
Thinks before acting and maintains focus; sets

goals and strategically plans to reach those Proficient - 3
goals; exercises self-restraint without assistance.
Intentionally forms a plan before beginning a

task; remains composed and focused even under
stress. Distinguished - 4
3. Listening to others with understanding and empathy - When given written

and/or spoken texts, the learner
Fails to listen to others. No concept – 0
Limited/incomplete
Selectively listens to others.
–1
Always listens to others. Developing – 2
Listens and demonstrates understanding of

Proficient - 3
another person's point of view.
Listens empathetically and demonstrates

understanding of another person's point of view Distinguished - 4
that differs from own.
4. Thinking flexibly - When new data is provided, the learner
186
Description Score
Does not consider new information; makes spur-

of-the-moment decisions; rigidly follows plan No concept – 0
when developed by the teacher or others.
Accepts the information as given; restates facts;

Limited/incomplete
does not apply facts to actions and continues to
–1
follow plan as developed by self or others.
Considers new information and demonstrates

ability to change direction or use different Developing – 2
strategies with guidance.
Considers new information and adjusts effort and

Proficient - 3
strategies when needed.
Considers new information, adjusts performance

Distinguished - 4
and extends learning to new situations.
5. Thinking about our thinking (met cognition) - When in a learning situation,

the learner
Is unaware of individual learning processes No concept – 0
Has a limited awareness of certain basic learning Limited/incomplete

processes. –1
Is aware of individual learning processes with

guidance from the teacher or using visual Developing – 2
models.
Is aware of and applies individual learning

processes and can explain strategies in own Proficient - 3
decision-making.
Can consciously reflect on what learning process

works and what does not; adjusts accordingly; Distinguished - 4
can explain process to others.
187
Description Score
6. Striving for accuracy and precision - In any presentation of work, the

learner
Turns in sloppy, incomplete or uncorrected work;

is disorganised (possibly due to many ideas); is
No concept – 0
impatient with details or restrictions; does not
value accuracy and precision in work.
Corrects work only when reminded; accepts Limited/incomplete

direction in correcting work. –1
Is able to confirm that his/her finished product

Developing – 2
matches criteria.
Proofreads and checks the quality of personal

Proficient - 3
work; values accuracy and precision.
Evaluates work and produces exceptional results;

understands the importance of and values
Distinguished - 4
accuracy and precision; focuses energy on
accomplishing tasks with perfection.
7. Questioning and posing problems - The learner
Is not able to generate appropriate questions

No concept – 0
about a problem.
Is able to generate closed-ended questions but is Limited/incomplete

afraid to probe deeper into an issue or problem. – 1
Is not afraid to probe deeper into an issue or

problem but needs prompting from teacher to Developing – 2
generate appropriate questions.
Is able to generate appropriate questions to see

Proficient - 3
alternative points of view.
188
Description Score
Is able to pose hypothetical problems; makes

Distinguished - 4
connections and relationships.
8. Applying past knowledge to new situations - The learner
Considers each event to be separate with no

connections to what came before or comes No concept – 0
afterwards.
Limited/incomplete
Is able to apply some events to other contexts.
–1
Uses experience from the past when confronted

with a new problem when reminded by others Developing – 2
how it relates.
Uses previous knowledge, data, theories or

Proficient - 3
processes to solve challenges.
Extracts meaning from an experience, applies it

to a new situation and explains how it relates to Distinguished - 4
previous experiences.
9. Thinking and communicating with clarity and precision - The learner
Uses vague and imprecise language; does not

No concept – 0
communicate clearly or effectively.
With considerable assistance, articulates

thoughts and ideas, representative of real or Limited/incomplete
imaginary experiences, through oral, written or –1
multimedia communication.
With some assistance, articulates thoughts and

ideas through oral, written or multimedia Developing – 2
communication.
189
Description Score
Articulates accurately, clearly and effectively in

oral, written or multimedia communication while Proficient - 3
avoiding over-generalisations and deletions.
Articulates accurately, clearly and precisely in

oral, written and multimedia communication and
Distinguished - 4
demonstrates complexity with supporting
statements.
10. Gathering data through all senses - The learner
Is oblivious to sensory stimuli. No concept – 0
Uses a narrow range of sensory problem-solving Limited/incomplete

strategies to learn. –1
Uses all available sensory pathways to learn but

needs some assistance in using the information Developing – 2
to solve problems.
Uses all available sensory pathways to learn and

transfers the information to improve overall Proficient - 3
learning; can distinguish fact from fiction.
Observes the environment, using all senses to

gather and evaluate the information, skilfully Distinguished - 4
using it to solve problems.
11. Creating, imagining and innovating - The learner
Appears happy with status quo; cannot generate

No concept – 0
any new ideas.
Tries to solve problems by examining alternative Limited/incomplete

possibilities –1
Generates more than one original idea, ingenious

Developing – 2
product and solution to problems.
190
Description Score
Strives for greater fluency of ideas, flexibility,

Proficient - 3
originality and elaboration.
Evaluates to refine work; engages discovery,

exploration, and experimentation to reach Distinguished - 4
unexpected answers.
12. Responding with wonderment and awe - The learner
Does not appear to enjoy learning. No concept – 0
Limited/incomplete
Appears curious at times.
–1
Is curious most of the time. Developing – 2
Is curious, sees and responds to the beauty of

Proficient - 3
the world and enjoys learning.
Is enthusiastic and passionate about learning. Distinguished - 4
13. Taking responsible risks - The learner
Misses opportunities to learn No concept – 0
Is aware of opportunities to learn but unwilling to Limited/incomplete

risk failure. –1
Realises failure is part of the learning process

and shows a willingness to take a chance with Developing – 2
support.
Accepts educated risks as a challenging part of

Proficient - 3
Is a responsible risk-taker and views setbacks

not as failure but challenges with opportunities to Distinguished - 4
grow.
191
Description Score
14. Finding humour - The learner
Finds humour in inappropriate situations. No concept – 0
Finds humour in appropriate situations, yet Limited/incomplete

unable to laugh at self. –1
Finds humour in situations from an original

Developing – 2
vantage point.
Initiates humour more often than classmates;

finds humour in the "right places"; is able to laugh Proficient - 3
at self.
Values having a sense of humour and

Distinguished - 4
understands humour of others.
15. Thinking interdependently - When given group work, the learner
Prefers to work alone; is intolerant of others or

tries to dominate others; interrupts, "shows off" or
No concept – 0
ignores group activities to pursue individual
interests.
Is able to partially accomplish tasks; works Limited/incomplete

ineffectively in groups. –1
Works cooperatively and is able to accomplish

Developing – 2
tasks in certain small groups.
Is open and receptive to feedback from others;

draws positive energy from group members while
Proficient - 3
accomplishing tasks in a variety of roles and
responsibilities.
192
Description Score
Engages in collaborative work and assumes

different roles and responsibilities to accomplish
tasks effectively using group dynamic skills; helps Distinguished - 4
others stay focused and successfully moves the
group toward the goal.
Is self-confident in knowledge already attained;

No concept – 0
closed to uncertainty and new experiences.
Confronts learning opportunities with fear rather Limited/incomplete

than with wonder. –1
Is open to new learning experiences as long as

Developing – 2
little effort is required.
Is eager to learn and invites the unknown, the

creative, the inspirational, even if extra effort is Proficient - 3
required. Learning appears to be very important.
Seizes every opportunity as a valuable learning

experience; searches for new and better ways of Distinguished - 4
learning, striving for improvement.
17. Reasoning - The learner
Does not understand systems. No concept – 0
Inaccurately identifies parts of a system; cannot

Limited/incomplete
explain how those parts interact with one
–1
another.
Somewhat accurately identifies parts of a system

with assistance and attempts to explain how Developing – 2
those parts interact with one another.
Accurately identifies parts of a system and

explains how those parts interact with one Proficient - 3
another.
193
Description Score
Accurately identifies parts of a system and

explains how those parts interact with one
Distinguished - 4
another and analyses and interprets relationships
between systems.
18. Work ethic - The learner
Does not use classroom project time well OR

No concept – 0
typically is disruptive to the work of others.
Sometimes uses classroom project time well but

Limited/incomplete
is often off-task and disruptive to the work of
–1
others.
Usually uses classroom project time well, but

occasionally distracts others from their work, Developing – 2
although not in a hostile manner.
Always uses classroom project time well. Most

conversations are focused on the project and are
held in a manner that typically does not disrupt Proficient - 3
others; is aware of one's actions and the effects
of those actions on others.
Always uses classroom project time well.

Conversations are primarily focused on the
project and are held in a manner that does not Distinguished - 4
disrupt others; can explain cause and effect of
actions.
19. Ethical behaviour - The learner
Does not show an understanding of right and

No concept – 0
wrong.
Shows a basic sense of right and wrong but does

Limited/incomplete
not apply it in all situations; obtains information
–1
from limited or inappropriate sources.
194
Description Score
Shows a basic sense of right and wrong;

borrowed materials are documented with Developing – 2
considerable intervention.
Demonstrates an understanding of ethical

behaviour; borrowed materials are properly Proficient - 3
documented.
Shows a well-developed sense of right and

wrong. Fair use guidelines are followed with
clear, easy-to-locate and accurate citations for all
Distinguished - 4
borrowed material. No material is included from
web sites that state that permission is required
unless permission has been obtained.
20. Civic responsibility - The learner
Shows little regard for peers and adults by

keeping work, play and public areas clean and No concept – 0
organised.
Shows some regard for peers and adults by

Limited/incomplete
keeping work, play and public areas clean and
–1
organised with teacher intervention.
Shows regard for peers and adults by keeping

work, play and public areas clean and organised Developing – 2
with minimal assistance.
Shows considerable regard for peers and adults

and is involved in home, school and/or Proficient - 3
community service.
Shows considerable regard for peers and adults

and initiates service projects to help others in the Distinguished - 4
home, school and/or community.
195
Description Score
0-14 (No concept) 15-30 (Limited/incomplete)
31-49 (Developing) 50-65 (Proficient)
66-80 (Distinguished) Overall score:
Intel Teach Thinking with Technology Course "Higher Order Thinking Skills"
(Online) 2006.
http://download.intel.com/education/EvidenceOfImpact/HigherOrderSkills.pdf
Heidi Goodrich Andrade. "Understanding Rubrics." (Online) 22 October 2001.

http://www.middleweb.com/rubricsHG.html
4.4 The relationship between primary teaching-learning methods

and media with assessment methods
4.4.1 Labelled drawings
Drawings provide an open form of assessment, allowing learners to

respond in a variety of ways. They enable learners to show evidence of
understanding. Drawing a picture or diagram provides an alternative to
writing. Sometimes it is more efficient to show ideas in a picture than in
writing a lengthy explanation. Learners answer a question by drawing
their responses. Some learners are more motivated to demonstrate their
knowledge or understanding through drawing than writing. Learners
decide on the balance between drawing and writing according to their
strengths and preferences. Comparing before and after drawings or
adding to previous drawings assists learners to evaluate progress they
have made in their learning.
The teacher asks a question, the learners then:
 Draw a picture of their answer.

 Label the picture.
 Make notes on/around the picture.
 Add to a picture.
Drawings can be a used:
 When writing is likely to be a barrier to learners showing what

they know.
196
 To assess understanding of concepts.
 When there is a need to check learners’ familiarity with the
selected context.
 To assess observation skills.
 To assess learners ability to communicate pictorially.
 Before, during, and after teaching.
 To show progress. Learners either do another drawing or add to
their first.
 At all age levels.
Give a clear instruction that focuses on what you want to find out, for
example, draw a heron showing the features that enable it to catch its
food in shallow water. State if you want the drawing labelled or
interpreted.
Ensure that there is enough room on the paper to complete the task
neatly.
Have a list of features you expect to see in the drawing, for example,
draw appropriate beak and feet. Sometimes it is appropriate to share
this with learners.
 Before they draw, provide guidelines on components of their

drawing.
 After they have completed their drawing, encourage self-
assessment or to identify areas of uncertainty (White, R. And
Gunstone, R.: 1992).
4.4.2 Concept maps
A concept map is a type of graphic organiser that helps learners to

organise and represent knowledge of a subject. Concept maps begin
with a main idea (or concept) and then branch out to show how that
main idea can be broken down into specific topics. Concept mapping
visually illustrates the relationships between concepts and ideas. Often
represented in circles or boxes, concepts are linked by words and
phrases that explain the connection between the ideas, helping learners
organise and structure their thoughts to further understand information
and discover new relationships. Most concept maps represent a
hierarchical structure, with the overall broad concept first with connected
sub-topics and more specific concepts following.
When created correctly and thoroughly, concept mapping is a powerful

way for learners to reach high levels of cognitive performance. A
concept map is also not just a learning tool, but an ideal assessment
197
tool for educators measuring the growth of and assessing learning. As
learners create concept maps, they restate ideas using their own words
and help identify incorrect ideas and concepts; teachers are able to see
what learners do not understand, providing an accurate, objective way
to evaluate areas in which learners do not yet grasp concepts fully.
http://www.inspiration.com/inspiration-socialstudies-examples
One way to start a concept map on the same topic will be as follows:
ANIMALS
FLYING
CRAWLING SWIMMING WALKING
SCALES FEATHERS SCALES HAIR
4.4.3 Competition among groups
Games are valuable peer assessment tools as discussed in 4.6.3.

Quizzes used as teaching-learning tools provide an interesting way to
assess learners. They cover a wide variety of content in a very short
time. Quizzes can be quick or can take up a whole period.
The learners design the questions and ask the questions themselves.
The role of the teacher is that of referee. The teacher must ensure that
the questions that the learners ask cover all the content and are valid
questions. The teacher asks higher level questions.
Very clear instructions must be given to the learners. They must know
what content they may use to structure their questions. Asking good
questions requires some skill. Teachers have to teach their learners to
ask good questions. Quizzes can serve as an alternative to regular
questioning by a teacher.
The value of quizzes:
 It tests accumulation of knowledge.

 Learners learn in a fun environment.
 It teaches listening skills.
 It teaches self-discipline.
 Stimulates learning and motivation.
198
 Improves self-confidence.
 It can cover a wide variety of material in a short space of time.
 It can serve as a consolidation activity when completing a section
of work and prior to moving on.
 Learners will have to transcribe the content when structuring or
answering questions, and thus need to interpret the content.
 It supplies the teacher with information concerning any gaps that
may exist in learning or understanding.
4.4.4 Projects
Project work provides an excellent way of teaching and learning. Project

work fosters academic knowledge and skill. It inspires, connects, and
empowers learners. It is best to design projects that can utilise local
surroundings and resources, integrating technology in purposeful ways,
raising awareness about issues, and achieving other goals aligned with
best practices in 21st-century education. The best projects evolve from
learner interests and needs. The content, activities, and skills addressed
will vary from project to project, but the core goals (to engage learners in
active and meaningful learning pursuits) remain similar in all projects.
Learning is stimulated through projects by:
 Connecting learners to their local and global communities—and

providing them with real-world experiences beyond the
classroom.
 Fostering skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, and
creativity.
 Providing opportunities to integrate technologies into the
classroom—and to use technologies as tools for achieving
specific purposes instead of as ends in themselves.
 Providing learners with opportunities to apply the skills they
acquire through systematic instruction.
 Building on the individual needs, interests, and strengths of all
learners —and allowing learners to work, where appropriate, at
their own pace.
 Giving learners a sense of purpose and fostering self –esteem.
 Providing opportunities for service learning and enhancing a
sense of social justice and responsibility.
 Improving research skills by helping learners not only to use print
and electronic resources but also field work, surveys, interviews,
consultations with experts, and first hand observations and
experiences.
199
 Improving literacy and communication skills by enabling learners
to use a variety of media to share the process and product of their
project work with authentic audiences.
 Integrating content knowledge and skills from a variety of
disciplines, so that learners come to see and make cross-
curricular connections.
4.4.5 Writing paragraphs
The fundamental unit of composition of any piece of writing is the

paragraph. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped
together. This group of sentences together discusses one main subject.
Usually the paragraph consists of three parts, namely, the topic
sentence, body sentences, and the concluding sentence.
The "paragraph hamburger" is a handy way of teaching learners to write

good paragraphs. The “paragraph hamburger” is a writing organiser that
visually outlines the key components of a paragraph. Topic sentence,
detail sentences, and a closing sentence are the main elements of a
good paragraph, and each one forms a different "piece" of the
hamburger.
The "paragraph hamburger" helps:
 Learners to organise their ideas into a cohesive paragraph.

 To show the organisation or structure of concepts/idea.
 To demonstrate in a concrete way how information is related.
How does it work?
Discuss the three main components of a paragraph, or story.
 The introduction (top bun).

 The internal or supporting information (the filling).
 The conclusion (bottom bun).
Ask learners to write a topic sentence that clearly indicates what the
whole paragraph is going to be about. A topic sentence usually comes
at the beginning of a paragraph; usually the first sentence in a formal
paragraph. Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a
paragraph, but, more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a
paragraph. There are not many details in the sentence, but the sentence
introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss in the paragraph.
200
Have learners compose several supporting sentences that give more
information about the topic. A question should now appear in the
reader's mind. The rest of the paragraph will give an answer to this
question. The second sentence gives some explanation of the topic. The
third sentence also gives some explanation. The second and third
sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called "supporting"
because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic
sentence.
Instruct learners on ways to write a concluding sentence that restates

the topic sentence. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a
sentence at the end of the paragraph which summarises the information
that has been presented. This is the concluding sentence. You can think
of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.
Consider a hamburger that you can buy at a fast-food restaurant. A
hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread), meat, cheese, lettuce, and
other elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a bottom bun. The
top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in a way, is
like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding
sentence. Both buns "hold" the meat, onions, and so on. Similarly, the
topic sentence and concluding sentence "hold" the supporting sentences
in the paragraph.
A minimum of at least five to seven sentences should make up your

paragraph. Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences,
especially if the paragraph is very short. However, if your paragraph is
long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.
4.4.6 Inference pictures
Inference is using clues to come to a conclusion. This is awesome

because most kids love puzzles; they love playing detective and that is
exactly what they get to do when they are learning to infer. Unlike text,
pictures do not rely on language to get their message across, and unlike
real life, pictures are static, so there is time to observe and to discuss.
Here are some ways to use pictures:
 Find interesting pictures on the internet, especially Pinterest

(available on the internet) pictures that can be used for inference and
create questions around the pictures.
 Picture books are another terrific source for pictures. Here are some
questions to ask when using picture books:
- How do you think the character in the picture feels? What
makes you think so?
201
- How does the picture make you feel? Why?
- What do you see in the background of this picture? In what
way is the background important?
- Why do you think the illustrator used the colour _______ for
_________?
- What do you think will happen next?
 Choose a concept word such as "love", "anger," or "friendship" and
have learners use magazine pictures to create a collage depicting
that concept. Give learners an opportunity to share their collages,
explaining why they selected each picture.
 Ask each learner to bring a picture of him-/herself from home and to
create one inference question about the picture. For example, if the
picture is of the learner and his brother playing in the yard and there
are orange and yellow leaves all over the grass and the sky is grey,
the question could be: at what time of the year was this picture
taken? You could make the pictures into a bulletin board, a power
point, or simply display them one by one on your walls and discuss.
 Play a video with the sound off. Ask your learners to infer what the
characters are feeling. If you need to take extra time, you can pause
the video to discuss a specific character's body language or facial
expression. Then replay the scene with the sound to see how
accurate their inferences were.
http://www.minds-in-bloom.com/
4.5 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of oral

assessment
4.5.1 Aims
Oral questions are most often used as assessment when a learner has
been observed carrying out a practical task competently. Knowledge
and understanding associated with the task must also be assessed.
The form and content of the response in oral questions may be limited
but the questions do allow the learner a measure of self-expression.
Teachers have to exercise professional judgement when interpreting
learners' responses, because there might not always be pre-determined
answers to the questions.
4.5.2 Construction
202
 Before the oral, the teacher must give general advice to the
learners as to what makes a good presentation.
 Learners have to receive clear guidelines on what is expected of

them well in advance.
 Ensure that the learners have sufficient knowledge and
understanding of the topic to be able to produce a reasonable
presentation.
 Topics for orals need to be integrated into the learning material.
Learners must speak on a specified theme, related to the topic
addressed in the class rather than being given a completely free
choice of topic.
 Learners must have the clear guidelines on the length of the
presentation.
 It is advisable to have a system of timekeeping and to include it
as part of the assessment criteria. Learners must learn to keep
within the time restrictions. Oral presentations should not be too
long or too short.
 The teacher must decide beforehand whether the use of support
material will be allowed. Clear guidelines must be given to
learners beforehand and must be part of the assessment
criteria.
 Assessment criteria specific to this form of assessment should
include:
- The content of the presentation.
- Delivery of the presentation – body language and
appearance.
- Voice.
- Impact on the audience.
 Decide beforehand how much credit will be given to a learner’s
knowledge and understanding if their presentation skills are
terrible or if they fail to respond properly to questions.
4.5.3 Advantages
 Can occur naturally out of an observation and so assist

integration of assessment.
 Can be non-threatening to the learner.
 Can be used when there are some gaps in the learner’s portfolio
of evidence.
 Can be offered to learners with additional support needs.
4.5.4 Disadvantages
203
 Can be difficult to manage with large numbers of learners.
 Reliability may be difficult to achieve because of the range of
responses that the learners might give.
 Learners seriously underestimate the amount of preparation it
takes to give a good presentation.
4.5.5 Types of questions
Oral questioning is so much a feature of practically all teaching, as

opposed to "presenting" or lecturing, that it is hardly recognised as a
form of assessment by teachers—although learners are well aware of it
as such.
Oral questions are asked by the teacher to assess learner achievement.

Teachers may post questions around the room to help learners reflect
on a topic before, during, and after instruction. Across the curriculum,
oral questions can be implemented and learners can design questions
to quiz learners. Teachers can encourage learners to create questions
to solve problems or draw conclusions. The ultimate purpose is to share
knowledge and evaluate learning
(http://missymac.hubpages.com/hub/Effective-Classroom-Assessment-
Strategies).
How to structure oral questions:
The structure of an oral assessment depends on the type of oral

assessment, but in general, the following are used.
 Depend on which type of oral assessments is done. It is

sometimes desirable to allow the learner to start the oral
assessment by giving an account of the analysis of the practice.
The sophistication of his spontaneous account can reveal far
more than simply his/her responses to the questions. Questions
such as: How do you think you did?
 Probing questions – to initiate and engage the learner in
conversation. Questions such as: How did you know that? What
method did you use to arrive at that conclusion?
 Prompting questions – to give hints that point the learner to the
right direction to clarify his response. This, however, does not
mean the assessor answers the questions himself. Questions
such as: Remember the activity we did yesterday? Can you solve
the problem in the same way?
 Challenging questions – to assess the deep understanding - the
higher level of Blooms taxonomy. Questions such as: Why do you
think it is better to do it this way?
204
 Open-ended questions - to implement critical thinking skills and
develop test-taking skills.
 Where there is a need to find out about learning which has not
been directly observed.
 It may be about what did not happen: "What would you have done
if ...?”
 Seeking an explanation for particular practices: "I noticed you
always use this method to calculate; is there a particular reason
for that?"
 Checking understanding of underlying principles: “You always say
you find it difficult, but your answers are always correct. Why is it
difficult?”
 Challenging practice: "Why did you do it in this order?
 The questions may vary, with some being tougher than others,
and there is rarely a record of what was asked.
(http://www.learningandteaching.info/teaching/assessment_oral.htm)
4.5.6 Guidelines for implementation of interviews/oral assessment
A few general tips to keep in mind when planning and administering oral
assessment:
 Prepare learners in advance by explaining how the oral

assessment will work, and, if feasible, having practice sessions in
class so that the learners are aware of what is expected of them.
 Ensure the learners know what the objectives of the assessment
are.
 Provide learners the time period, location, guidelines,
requirements, assessment criteria and if there are items that are
not to be included.
 The learners should also be aware of who is going to assess
them – teacher, peers and/or self? And if peers or themselves are
going to assess, would the weightings be the same as the
teacher’s assessment?
 When questioning the learners’ knowledge, the questions must
be flexible depending on the learners answer. Some learners may
explain something in the initial response that was part of your
follow-up questions, or may not include a relevant concept in their
answer. You must use your best judgement and change the
questions as necessary to establish the understanding of each
learner.
 Give sufficient time for learners to respond.
205
 Record each assessment as you go through them, so that you
can review them later if necessary, and can provide justification
for learners grades if asked.
 Prepare a rubric, or marking guide of some kind in advance. This
way, you can do all the initial marking while the learner is talking.
You can change it later, but it probably will not be necessary. This
makes marking quick and simple.
 It is advisable to incorporate oral assessment into the practice of
teaching during class, e.g. how to think out loud.
(http://ctl.ualberta.ca/instructional-resources/instructional-techniques-
assessment-guides/oral-assessment & http://ar.cetl.hku.hk/am_
orals.htm)
4.6 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of peer

assessment tools
Peer assessment was explained in unit 1.9. We will now look at specific peer
assessment tools.
4.6.1 Rubrics
A rubric is an explicit set of criteria used for assessing a particular type

of work or performance. A rubric includes levels of potential
achievement for each criterion, and sometimes also includes work or
performance samples that typify each of those levels. Levels of
achievement are often given numerical scores. A summary score for the
work being assessed may be produced by adding the scores for each
criterion. The rubric may also include space for the teacher to describe
the reasons for each judgment or to make suggestions.
http://www.tltgroup.org/resources/flashlight/rubrics.htm.
Rubrics are often used to grade learners’ work but they can serve
another, more important, role as well: Rubrics can teach as well as
evaluate. When used as part of a formative, learner-centred approach to
assessment, rubrics have the potential to help learners develop
understanding and skill, as well as make dependable judgments about
the quality of their own work. Learners should be able to use rubrics in
many of the same ways that teachers use them—to clarify the standards
for a quality performance, and to guide on-going feedback about
progress toward those standards (http://www.aims.edu/learner/online-
writing-lab/resources/using-rubrics).
Aims
206
For teachers, a rubric provides an established and organised system for
determining grades by assigning point values to pre-determined criteria.
Because there are specific point values assigned to specific criteria,
grading often becomes easier. Also, the overall score is calculated by
adding up individual criterion, so the final grade becomes more objective
and less subjective.
For a learner, a rubric provides understanding to the criteria that will be

used for grading a particular assignment and, if given ahead of time,
provides the learner with a tangible reminder of the necessary
components for the assignment. It also promotes trust with the instructor
and his/her grading practices since the learner knows in advance how
he/she will be graded. Furthermore, if given ahead of time, the rubric
provides the learner with a reminder (or a checklist) of the important
criteria that need to be included.
http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-
strategies/assessment/grading/using-rubrics.cfm
A rubric presents a public description of the criteria that distinguish good

work from poor work, and it can be used to both promote and evaluate
learner learning in relation to intended learning outcomes. For learners,
carefully developed rubrics can be used to accomplish two broad aims:
to educate learners and to develop their capacity to judge their own
work, thereby sending the message that ownership of their own learning
is respected and valued.
A rubric can represent an affirmation of learner-centred education. It can

be used to establish a greater level of understanding and trust between
the teacher and learner. It can counter the notion that grading is a
special secret activity.
A rubric reveals the grading or scoring rules informing assessment

judgments and decisions.
A rubric provides an instrument for learner feedback that promotes

assessment for learning. Rubrics have the capacity to clearly reveal vital
information to learners that enables them to improve their knowledge
and skill levels.
Rubrics offer learners a vision of what the teacher is seeking to

accomplish through teaching and assessment and why it is important.
Teachers can use a rubric to demonstrate how a particular set of skills
and knowledge will compare with class objectives.
207
Rubrics also can be a tool for more effective grading by supporting more
efficient and consistent judgments and by providing basic feedback on
key dimensions of performance and learning
(http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-
strategies/assessment/grading/using-rubrics.cfm).
Why use rubrics?
 To produce assessments that are far more descriptive than a

single, holistic grade or judgment can be.
 To let learners know in advance what criteria teachers will apply
to assess their work.
 To provide a richer and more multidimensional description of the
reasons for assigning a numerical score to a piece of work.
 To enable other people who mark the same work (peer
assessment or self-assessment), to apply the same criteria to
assessing work.
 To enable authors to elicit formative feedback (e.g., peer
critique) for drafts of their work before final submission.
 To help learners understand more clearly and completely what
teachers had to say about their work.
 To enable comparison of works across settings.
Construction
Types of rubrics:
Analytic rubrics
They provide detailed feedback on specific elements of the

activity/assignment. Analytic rubrics allow the teacher to grade a larger
range of criteria and provide more detailed feedback to the learner. They
also provide for consistent grading across different learners and
activities/assignments.
The downside is that because analytic rubrics are more detailed, they
are more time-consuming to create and score. Analytic rubrics tend to
work effectively when grading an assignment with lots of specific criteria.
Holistic rubrics
They group individual criteria into categories to provide an overall score

for certain portions of an activity. They can even be used to provide a
cumulative score for the entire activity. Because they are not as detailed
as analytic rubrics, holistic rubrics are easy to create and allow for quick
208
grading. The disadvantage of holistic rubrics is that they do not provide
detailed feedback and create a more subjective grade.
Mixed rubrics
They serve as a mix between the two main types. They provide more
detail than a holistic rubric, but not as much as an analytic one. They
can be particularly helpful when grading medium length
assignments/activities.
Keep in mind that a rubric can be as specific or as general as

necessary, but regardless of the type, it is there to help both the
instructor and the learner with creating and evaluating the assignment.
When creating a rubric, consider the overall goal of the assignment and
the number of criteria needed to achieve this goal.
Involving learners in the creation of a rubric is one way to help them feel
empowered and receive helpful feedback. To do this, show them an
example of a rubric you use in a different class or for a different
assignment, and then ask learners to create a similar one with different
criteria for their particular assignment.
 It allows learners to provide input in the grading process.

 It provides the teacher, with help in creating the rubric.
 It serves as an informal review session for what is expected in
the assignment.
As an alternative to having learners create a rubric, they can instead be

assigned with the task of adding more detail or providing feedback to an
existing rubric (http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-
strategies/assessment/grading/using-rubrics.cfm).
The following table is a step-by-step explanation of how to construct

rubrics:
Instructions Explanations Tips
209
List the teaching Think in terms of what Use the curriculum
goals, including you want the learners to benchmarks.
prerequisites accomplish.
(enabling skills) that For example: criteria for
the task should Ensure the chosen an oral presentation
address. These will criteria focus on the require presentation
be used to judge essential elements for skills (a catchy opening,
learners’ product or that task awareness of audience,
performance. etc.) as well as content,
accuracy and fluency.

Determine the Determine the most Ask your learners what

weighting of each of important indicators that they think “counts" in
the different criteria. ensure that the goals of assessing the task and
the task have been met. which of these elements
When possible, do should receive most
this stage with your points.
learners.
Criteria related to
 content should come
first (most important),
while the technical ones
(e.g., spelling) should
come lower down in the
table.
Describe different Instead of using general Start by describing the

levels of performance words such as extremes (outstanding
for each criterion and poor/good/excellent, and poor performance).
choose words or include descriptions such Then describe the
phrases to capture as “a catchy opening,” middle level/s.
the differences “includes specific
between them. examples.”
Show the rubric to Another person is often .

colleagues for able to see things you
feedback. missed.
210
Discuss the rubric Bring in models of
with learners for learners' work to
clarity. illustrate poor, average
and excellent
 performance. Keep
sample tasks for future
use as examples to
show learners when
building rubrics
together.
Revise the rubric on Be prepared to make

the basis of changes according to
feedback. colleagues' and
learners' feedback.

Assess the tasks You will discover the Modify your rubric
using the rubric. strengths and accordingly before
weaknesses of the rubric using it next time.
only when you start using
it to judge learners' work.
Performance-Based Teaching and Assessment:

clickit.ort.org.il/files/upl/192089623/ 851598900.doc
Advantages
 Rubrics can improve and monitor a learner’s performance by

clarifying teacher expectations. Rubrics require the teacher to
clarify his/her criteria and help define “quality”.
 Rubrics can be used as a guide for self/peer assessment. They
promote learners’ awareness of the criteria used in assessing
performance. When learners want to ensure they are meeting
the teacher’s expectations, they can assess their work using
rubrics or request feedback from peers based on these
expectations.
 Rubrics increase validity, reliability and fairness in scoring. They
provide for more objective and consistent assessment. As
criteria relevant to the task are clearly defined, similar scores will
be given no matter who is evaluating the work.
 Rubrics provide a profile of learners’ performance, describing
strengths and weaknesses. This is due to the detailed
description of the performance levels. The teacher will underline
211
or highlight those parts of the description which apply to the
learner’s work.
 Rubrics reduce the amount of time spent by teachers on
evaluating learners’ work. Once the assessment tool has been
designed, it can efficiently grade even the longest project.
 Rubrics accommodate heterogeneous classes. All levels are
included in the performance descriptions. In fact, the more
detailed they are, the better they cover learners’ varying levels.
Learners can strive to improve performance as the requirements
for doing so are clear. Rubrics encourage those learners who
may be weak in some criteria but talented in others since they
will not just be evaluated by a low overall numerical grade.
 Rubrics make teachers and learners accountable and aware of
the learning objectives. The teacher will be able to justify the
grade clearly, with reference to the criteria. Moreover,
involvement of learners empowers them, leading to more
focused and self-directed learning.
 Rubrics are easy to understand and use. They can be referred
to in parent-teacher meetings and learner-teacher conferences
where performance is discussed.
Disadvantages
 Teachers might experience some difficulty in determining

scoring criteria.
 Teachers may focus on excessively general or inappropriate
scoring criteria.
 Teachers might use predetermined criteria, rather than basing
scoring on examples of learner work.
 Teachers might inappropriately focus on the quantity of
characteristics, rather than the indicators of quality work.
 Holistic rubrics might lack validity and reliability.
4.6.2 Memos
Examples of memos are:
 Analytical memo which is a simulation exercise.

 One minute paper which is an evaluation and recall exercise.
 The muddiest point which is a diagnostic exercise.
Aims
212
 An analytical memo is a simulation exercise:
Learners are required to write a one- or two-page analysis of a
specific problem or issue. Learner ability to communicate their
analysis in a clear, concise manner is assessed in this way. It is
used to help learners prepare for future graded, written
assignments.
 A one minute paper is an evaluation and recall exercise:

The teacher stops the class two or three minutes early and asks
learners to briefly write down what the most important thing was
that they learnt that day or what they are unclear about.
Learners identify their own gaps in learning and therefore will
receive answers in the following lessons. If they share their
learning gaps with peers or ask peers to explain work to them it
is of even more value.
 The muddiest point is a diagnostic exercise:

This technique provides speedy feedback on what learners find
least clear or most confusing. The teacher asks the learners to
write down a quick response of what they regarded as “the
muddiest point” (most unclear) in the learning or assessment
activities or the homework assignment. If the learner responses
are grouped to particular points such as facts, concepts or
principles, teachers get a clear picture of learning gaps. Peer
“teaching” of the unclear facts, concepts or principles is a very
successful way of addressing these gaps.
Construction
 Plan carefully when to use a memo, either at the beginning of a

topic (analytical memos) or at the end of a learning topic.
 Decide what you want to assess beforehand, either writing skills
or evidence of quality information. Assess only one skill in each
memo activity.
 Give clear instructions making sure learners understand what is
expected of them.
 Limit the time in which the learners can give information.
 Ensure that learners give useful information in the time at their
disposal.
 Feedback from the learners must be short and to the point.
Advantages
 They are formative in nature.
213
 They are speedy. Although they take up time in planning and
assessing, they are quick to execute.
 They are flexible.
 Learners that are hesitant to ask questions during class get the
opportunity to give feedback.
 Learning gaps are identified.
 Memos assess a wide variety of higher order thinking skills.
 It motivates learners to take their learning more seriously.
 Learners can become more interested in their learning if they
find that others in the class learned some interesting things that
they might have missed.
Disadvantages
 It is best used in small classes.

 It cannot be used for young learners.
 It is heavily dependent on good writing skills.
 It takes time to prepare and assess.
4.6.3 Games
There is a wide variety of games that can be used as teaching tools. It

varies from existing games, games the teacher develops and even
electronic games such as computer games or games available on the
internet.
Aims
Games are fun. Making learning fun motivates learners and helps them
pay attention and stay focused on the subject. If given a choice, learners
will most probably choose games over course work. Educational games
encourage learners to learn outside the classroom situation. Learners
often tend to focus more in games than in traditional class situations and
they learn more. Games improve the learning performances of learners.
Well-designed games are based on the same principles as good course
design, namely fair rules, clear goals and strong incentives to learn from
errors and develop the knowledge and skills necessary to be successful.
Construction
 Design games that reward creativity.

 Design games that have multiple levels of challenge.
 Games that engage players in a learning activity through a
storyline are usually successful.
214
 In order to create a truly educational game, you need to make
sure that learning the material is essential to scoring and
winning.
 Decide beforehand what you want the learners to learn. It is very
important to keep this idea central to planning your lesson and
choosing or designing a game.
 Decide the following:
- Will this be a race, a quiz bowl, a simulation, or some other
kind of game?
- Should the learners play individually or in teams?
- Will they compete against each other or just for a score?
- If the learners will be playing on teams, do not let them sort
themselves into teams. Either assign them randomly or
make sure that they are balanced in terms of experience
with the subject.
 Work out the rules and print or assemble physical apparatus.
 Create good quality game pieces when needed.
 Test your game before you run it.
 Administer a pre- and post-test on the material to be learned
before and after the game.
 While running a game, the major concerns will be to prevent
cheating and, sometimes, especially with a physical game, to
enforce safety issues.
 Work out how to give learners points for accomplishing certain
goals in a lesson plan.
 Give appropriate prizes for completing or winning a game such
as certificates or snacks.
 Keep the following principles in mind:
- Give learners a continuous challenge. This can be done by
setting clear, short-term goals appropriate to the level of the
player and the context within the game. Each challenge
should satisfy some kind of learning objective.
- Keep games interesting.
- Keep games flexible by making sure that there are many
different ways to accomplish each goal. Let each player (or
team) work out their own strategy to the endpoint while still
keeping the game challenging and achieving the learning
objectives.
- Combine fun with realism.
Advantages
 Learners are more likely to learn from their mistakes in games.
215
 Learners are offered multiple opportunities to try similar
challenges over again if they fail. This makes it easier for
learners to reflect on feedback and work through mistakes.
 Skills are learned in a context that makes them seem less
discrete and more like intuitive steps toward an explicit goal.
 Makes learning fun.
 Livens up a classroom.
 Motivates learners to learn.
 Immerses learners in the material so they learn more effectively.
 Bad consequences are rarely serious or lasting because: "It's
only a game".
 If a learner loses he/she can start the game over and try again.
 Often, it is possible to recover within a game and to use what
has been learned to successfully complete a task.
 There are no consequences for the player personally.
 Games that allow learners to assess their own knowledge give
them a chance to see where they are having trouble before a
formal assessment task like a test.
Disadvantages
 Some games have rigid rules and objectives that might stifle
creativity in the classroom.
 Not every learner or subject is ideal for gaming.
 Grading can be difficult.
 Competitive or often even cooperative games are likely to make
for a very noisy classroom.
4.6.4 Role play
In a role play, learners are presented with a situation, often a problem or

incident, to which they then have to respond by assuming a particular
role. Learners are active participants and not just observers. It can be
rehearsed or unrehearsed.
Aims
Teachers use role play as an important teaching strategy or technique to

allow learners to identify with others and discover new ways of
understanding. Role play can be used to assess a wide range of
behavioural and inter-personal skills. It is probably best used formatively
to allow learners to safely try out particular forms of behaviour, to
improvise, and to develop new skills.
Construction
216
 The purpose of the role-play needs to be clear. Decide on the
learning objective/s of the role play.
 Choose a realistic and believable scenario that will highlight the
key concepts of the learning material. Consider the following:
- What topics do you want the exercise to cover?
- How much time do you and your class have to work on it?
- What do you expect from your learners: research, reports,
and presentations?
- Do you want the learners role-playing separately or together?
- Do you want to include a challenge or conflict element?
 Plan the structure of the role play.
 A brief needs to be clearly defined for learners.
 A checklist must be developed defining the outcomes to be
covered and the standards to be expected. This will help to
ensure that the assessment is valid and reliable and that the
requirements of the brief are met.
 Time needs to be given for feedback and reflection on
performance.
 Formative assessment needs to take into account both the
learner’s reflection on the issues raised by the role-play, and on
the performance itself.
 Materials such as photographs, stories, newspaper cuttings,
cartoons and poems could all be used as a stimulus for role
play.
Advantages
 This type of assessment is more open-ended and person-

centred than simulations.
 Allows assessment of individual initiative.
 Assesses learners in a realistic environment but without the
stress of the real situation.
 Feedback from the role-play encourages reflection on
performance and provides a useful stimulus for learning.
 Performance can be recorded and reviewed.
 Develops communication and listening skills as well as
practicing decision making and problem solving in social
situations.
 Builds on the required knowledge and skills of the learners.
 Motivates the learner to learn, especially the slow learners. For
bright learners, role play acts as vehicle that develops
alternative strategies.
217
 Learners get an opportunity to find out what it is like to be in
someone else’s shoes. As such, learners have the opportunities
to explore by acting, thinking and feeling like another person
without real life consequences.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to manage with large numbers of learners.

 Requires experienced teachers to handle well.
 Learners’ performance may be affected by the knowledge that
they are being assessed.
 Reliability may be difficult to achieve.
4.7 Aims, construction, advantages and disadvantages of self-

assessment tools
4.7.1 Checklists
A checklist is a list of sequential behaviours arranged in categories used

to determine whether the learner exhibits the behaviour or skills listed
Aims
Learners are assessed to determine how well they learned especially in

practical abilities such as projects, performances and presentations.
Assessment is achieved through observation during the activities and
through a specific assessment task.
Construction
 Before constructing the checklist, answer the following

questions:
- Do you want to identify individual strengths and weaknesses?
- Do you want to measure progress and provide feedback?
- Do you want to measure individual achievement against a
specific learning outcome?
 Identify the skills to be included in the checklist.
 List target behaviours separately.
 Organise the checklist sequentially.
 Determine how record-keeping will be done.
 Identify each action desired in the performance.
 Add actions that are common errors that learners make.
 Arrange the desired actions (and likely errors if used) in the
order they are expected to occur.
218
 Provide a simple procedure for checking each action as it
occurs.
 Define the expected performance levels.
 Limit the number of assessment activities to be assessed at one
time so that the observations can be made accurately.
 Do not simply use the outcomes and the evidence requirements
as a checklist. This could lead to a fragmented approach to
assessment and could tell you very little about whether the
learners are able to transfer skills to other contexts.
Advantages
 Very appropriate to assess skills in the psychomotor domain.

 Easy to use and update.
 Require little training.
 Available whenever evaluation is needed.
 Flexible and can be used with a variety of assessment
strategies.
 Behaviours can be recorded frequently.
Disadvantages
 Can be time-consuming.
 Teachers find it difficult to adapt teaching and evaluation
behaviours to include checklists.
 If there are too many checklists, the teacher can be
overwhelmed with assessment and record keeping.
 Teachers may not consider assessments with checklists as valid
measures.
 Checklists do not indicate how well a learner performs.
4.7.2 Diagrams
Diagrams are graphic organisers that serve to arrange complex

relationships visually. They allow abstract ideas to be more visible. Fish
and Venn diagrams are excellent examples of the use of diagrams as
self-assessment tools, although it is primarily a thinking tool. A Venn
diagram is useful for primary learners. We will discuss this diagram in
more detail.
Aims
Venn diagrams enable learners to organise information visually so they

are able to see the relationships between two or three sets of items.
They are used to compare and contrast groups of things and to identify
219
similarities and differences. They provide a visual display of similar and
different characteristics that can be used to stimulate discussion, writing,
or further research.
They are a useful tool for formative self-assessment because they are
used to generate discussion and provide teachers with information
about learners’ thinking.
Construction
 If the assessment focus is on organising information:
- Learners view written text, pictures, diagrams, or video/film

about two (or sometimes three) items that have some
related characteristics.
- Identify what items they want to compare (e.g. birds and
bats).
- Draw two overlapping circles. Label each circle (Bird, Bat).
- In each circle, fill in the characteristics of each item.
- Identify which characteristics appear in both circles. These
characteristics go in the intersection (where the two circles
overlap).
- Sometimes features that do not fit in either set are included
and are placed outside the circles.
 If the assessment focus is to interpret a Venn diagram:
- Ask questions about the similarities and differences that the

Venn diagram illustrates.
- Provide true/false statements.
- Ask questions about, or discuss the two sets. For example,
learners may be able to say that bats have some similarities
to birds, but are not birds because they do not lay eggs or
have feathers.
- Ask questions that encourage learners to make
generalisations, e.g. can we classify a bat as a member of
the bird family?
 Use concrete materials, such as post-its, cards, string, or hoops,

which learners can move around.
(http://arb.nzcer.org.nz/strategies/venn.php)
Advantages
 They are useful as a tool for thinking.
220
 They can be useful for practising making logical statements, e.g.
if/then, all/some/none, maybe.
Disadvantages
 Because learners are unfamiliar with them they do not use them
very well.
 If using Venn diagrams as an assessment tool, learners must
have already demonstrated that they know how they work to
ensure that the assessment is valid.
4.7.3 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a structured written interview consisting of a set of

questions relating to a particular area of performance. Unlike a personal
interview, it is administered and judged under standard conditions.
Aims
Questionnaires often catch underlying concepts, or variables, which

cannot be directly measured. They are particularly suited to the
assessment of outcomes concerned with attitudes, feelings, interests
and experiences.
Construction
 Develop a checklist to identify all the outcomes that will be

covered by the questionnaire.
 The questions must meet the requirements of the checklist.
 Set responses must be prepared so that all teachers and
learners clearly understand the expected answers and the range
of responses.
Advantages
 Provides an efficient means of gathering information with

respect to learners’ experiences.
 Less time-consuming to administer than personal interviews.
Disadvantages
 Responses may not be a true reflection of a learner’s attitudes.

 Requires considerable skill to construct questionnaires which
will elicit the desired information.
221
 May be difficult to interpret the results, i.e. to specify what a
satisfactory performance is.
 Reliability may be difficult to achieve.
4.8 Summary
In this unit you became familiar with more assessment tools such as
competency-based assessment tools, peer assessment tools, as well as self-
assessment tools. We investigated reliable teacher observations that are a
very important assessment tool in primary education. You also had the
opportunity to evaluate some assessment tools.
In the next unit we will look into the design and moderation of examination
papers. Make sure you have mastered this unit by ticking the checklist before
continuing with unit 5.
Learning activity 1, 5 & 6
i. & ii. The clues as to which level of Bloom’s taxonomy is addressed in each
type of assessment are given in the discussion. The level of Bloom’s
taxonomy will guide you regarding the level of the taxonomy of Marzano
and Kendall.
iii. Use your own words to describe the aims of each type of assessment. Do
not rewrite the study guide. Use your own words and sentences. Make sure
you understand the aims.
Learning activity 2
False. The teacher has to know what play is. Observation is a particular
way of looking at children playing with a purpose in mind. Dreyer 2.12.1
gives information that you will need to answer this question. Do not rewrite
the handbook; write in your own words and make sure you understand the
features of reliable observations.
Learning activity 3
222
Whether an assessment tool is user-friendly or not is a subjective opinion;
however, some tools are easier to use than others. The more knowledge and
experience you have, the more you will be able to evaluate checklists and
rubrics.
To be able to evaluate the given checklist and rubrics, you will have to look
at the assessment and promotion policy as discussed in 2.2 and 2.3. Check
each one against the policy to make sure it complies, especially when
looking at the grading of upper primary learners.
You will have to study points 4.6.1.1 and 4.6.1.2 before you will be able to
answer this question satisfactorily. Evaluate the given checklist and rubrics
against the prescriptions in the study guide.
Learning activity 4
In the text you will find verbs that will guide you to find the domain and
level of Bloom’s taxonomy. The nature of each activity will guide you to the
type of learning style of each activity.
Take note in 4.4 in the given checklist, that the emotion is described and
then advice regarding the emotion is added. This is a flaw in the checklist.
Behaviour is evaluated and checked; a checklist cannot prescribe behaviour
of the teacher.
Learning activity 7
i. & ii The clues as to which level of Bloom’s taxonomy is addressed in each
type of assessment are given in the discussion. The level of Bloom’s
taxonomy will guide you regarding the level of the taxonomy of Marzano
and Kendall. For example create a table as follows.
Type of assessment Bloom’s Marzano and Kendall

Checklist Evaluating (describe Retrieval (describe
why according to why according to
Bloom’s Taxonomy in Marzano and Kendall
3.1) Taxonomy in 3.2)
Diagrams
Questionnaires
iii Use your own words to describe the aims of a checklist, diagrams and
questionnaires. Do not rewrite the study guide. Use your own words and
sentences. Make sure you understand the aims.
223
Glossary
Beliefs Beliefs are the assumptions we make about ourselves, about others in
the world, and about how we expect things to be.
Values Relative worth or importance of something. Values are those things that
really matter to each of us ... the ideas and beliefs we hold as special.
Norms A standard, model or pattern. Norms are generally established to help

the group function in a positive and healthy way.
Intrinsic The essential nature of something, inherent.
Inference Inference is the act or process of deriving a conclusion based on what

one already knows or on what one assumes.
224
UNIT 5
The design and moderation of tests and examination papers
Introduction 217
5.1 The features of left and right brain oriented assessments 219
5.1.1 Left brain orientation 220
5.1.2 Right brain orientation 222
5.2 The relation between effective learning and effective assessment 224
5.2.1 Valid assessment 224
5.2.2 Reliable assessment 225
5.2.3 Effective learning and teaching 226
5.3 Guidelines for planning and setting good examination papers 231
5.4 Criteria for the moderation of examination papers 234
5.5 Applying a moderation checklist 237
5.6 How to proofread examination papers 241
5.7 How to teach learners to prepare for and write test and examination
papers 244
5.7.1 Before the test/exam 244
5.7.2 During the test 246
5.7.3 After the test 246
5.7.4 Questions to consider 246
5.8 Summary 247
Glossary 248
225
Introduction
In this unit the designing and moderation of test and examination papers will be
discussed. We look at left and right brain orientation because brain orientation has an
influence on learning and assessment. Validity and reliability were discussed in unit 1
but in this unit we will relate valid and reliable assessments to effective learning and
the importance of effective assessments. Guidelines to plan and set good
examination papers will be discussed.
Moderating test and exam papers is an important aspect of ensuring good papers and
a moderation checklist will be evaluated and applied to a question paper.
Proofreading of papers is equally important and guidelines will be discussed about
good proofreading practices. Lastly, some tips will be given on how to teach learners
to prepare for and write test and examination papers.
Learning outcomes
 Clarify features of left and right brain oriented assessments.

 Explain what valid and reliable assessment involves and conclude how effective
learning relates to effective assessment.
 Evaluate guidelines for planning and setting of good tests and examination
papers.
 Evaluate a checklist with criteria for the moderation of examination papers.
 Apply a moderation checklist to a given paper.
 Examine how to proofread examination papers.
 Clarify how to teach learners to prepare for and write tests and exams.
226
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
Are you left or right brain oriented? Give examples from the text to motivate
your answer. Include in your explanation the assessment tasks mentioned that
appeal to you.
Learning activity 2
Describe the three categories of classroom assessment in your own words.

Write down the seven practices of classroom assessment. Describe what
category of assessment each practice is.
Learning activity 3
Explain in your own words what the difference is between a test and an
examination.
Look at the example of a question paper (see reference in 5.5). Evaluate the
quality of the question paper based on the guidelines for the setting of a
good quality question paper.
Learning activity 4
You are the moderator of the grade 6 examination papers. Explain to the grade
6 teachers what you will be looking at when moderating their question papers.
Explain the criteria that are important when moderating papers and motivate
why these criteria are important.
Learning activity 5
Use the ANNUAL NATIONAL ASSESSMENT 2013
227
GRADE 6 ENGLISH FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE TEST AND
MEMORANDUM under 5.5.
Apply the checklist given in 5.4 to the question paper (as if you were the
moderator of the question paper). When you have done this, explain whether
you think the moderation checklist is a good one to use or not, justifying your
answer.
Learning activity 6
Apply the proofreading checklist given in 5.6 to the above question paper (as if
you were proofreading the question paper). When you have done this, explain
whether you think the proofreading checklist is a good one to use or not,
justifying your answer.
Learning activity 7
Table everything you will tell your learners concerning what they should pay
attention to when:
Preparing for exams, and

When writing exams.
5.1 The features of left and right brain oriented assessments
The brain is divided into left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls
its own unique set of activities or tasks. The right side of the brain tends to be
more dominant in creative activities, while the left side of the brain tends to be
more dominant in logical or analytical activities. These hemispheres
communicate with each other through a large bundle of nerve fibres called the
corpus callosum and through several smaller nerve pathways.
Most people tend to have a dominant side of their brain and they tend to
process information using their dominant side. This does not mean that
individuals only use half of their brain. It just reflects a matter of right versus left
brain balance in processing information and performing activities. However,
learning and thinking are enhanced when both sides of the brain are used in a
balanced manner.
Though learners use every part of their brain in the learning process and none
are strictly “right brain only” or “left brain only,” most are either left-brain
dominant or right-brain dominant. Most learners have a distinct preference for
228
one of these styles of thinking. Some, however, are more whole-brained and
equally adept at both modes.
How does right brain or left brain dominance affect how a learner performs in
the classroom? Most classroom teaching styles use left brain strategies. This
tends to favour left brain dominant learners and can make learning difficult for
right brain dominant learners who are not receiving adequate teaching in the
classroom.
Adopting a teaching method that accommodates both learning styles can help
you keep both left and right brain thinkers involved and receptive. Right brain
learners see the whole picture, but left brain learners see the parts of the
picture.
It is also important for teachers to understand their own brain dominance,

because teachers tend to use teaching and assessment strategies according to
their own brain dominance.
5.1.1 Left brain orientation
The left part of the brain specialises in recognising the parts that make
up a whole, in other words, the analytical thinking. Left-hemisphere
processing is also linear, logical and sequential; it moves from one point
to the next in a step-by-step manner. It lines up each detail in
chronological order and discovers the whole picture by examining its
parts. It is most efficient for processing verbal information, such as
encoding and decoding speech. Therefore it is geared towards
understanding and using language, including listening, reading,
speaking and writing. It is involved in the memory for spoken and written
messages and plays a major role in the analysis of information.
Left-brain learners are good at linear and successive processing, such

as those involved in language and maths. Left-brain learners are also
good at planning and following directions. These learners easily learn
information in a lecture-style teaching approach.
The following is important when designing assessment activities for left-

brain learners. Left-brainers are:
 Good at expressing themselves in words.

 Good with symbolic language and can easily memorise
vocabulary words.
 Good note takers and list makers.
 Good at writing and spelling.
229
 Good at verbal expression, whether in person or on paper
because the Broca's area, which is responsible for speech, is in
the left hemisphere.
 Good at mathematics and can easily memorise maths formulas.
 Good at structure and order.
 Enjoy schedule-keeping and list-making and are therefore:
- Good at planning and scheduling.
- Good at completing assignments.
 Appreciate the structure of an outlined lecture and guided
discussion.
Suggestions for assessment tasks:
 Writing a report.
 Conducting independent research.
 Designing an illustration.
 Creating a dramatic work.
Let us say, for example, that you are introducing a unit on the solar
system. Here are some left-brain teaching techniques that will help
strong to moderate left-brain learners feel engaged during your lesson:
 Write an outline of the lesson on the board. Learners with left-

brain strengths appreciate sequence.
 Go ahead and lecture! These learners love to listen to an expert
and take notes.
 Discuss vocabulary words and create a crossword puzzle on the
solar system.
 Discuss the big concepts involved in the creation of the
universe, how the solar system was formed, and so on. Left-
brain learners love to think about and discuss abstract concepts.
 Assign individual assignments so learners may work alone.
 Ask the learners to write a research paper on the solar system
that includes both detail and conceptual analysis.
 Keep the room relatively quiet and orderly. Many learners with
left-brain strengths prefer not to hear other conversations when
working on a stimulating project.
http://www.funderstanding.com/educators/left-brain-vs-right-brain-
teaching-techniques/
5.1.2 Right brain orientation
Right brain thinkers start with the big picture and work their way inwards.
Right brain learners process information more holistically. They learn by
230
understanding the big picture, not the details. They concentrate on
meaning, coherence and aesthetics. Their attention to detail is diffused
rather than focused, which generates a tendency toward intuitive
problem-solving. Solutions are reached not from methodically applying
formulas, but instead they bubble up as an "a-ha" moment. Right brain
thinkers prefer the concrete to the symbolic and will learn more
effectively if they can touch it, see it or connect to it on an emotional
level. The right brain is non-verbal and, therefore, right brain thinkers
may prefer to express themselves through music, dance or works of art.
Right brain learners tend to be more creative, but have more trouble
than left brain learners with the mechanics of writing and
communicating.
Right brain learners are more visual, not language oriented, and are
more involved in activities such as visual imagery and face recognition.
This means they have more difficulty following a lecture-style teaching
approach. They may know what they want to say, but often have trouble
finding the right words. The right side of the brain tends to view
information as a whole, rather than as individual detail. It also tends to
process information more intuitively or randomly. It seeks and constructs
patterns and recognises relationships between separate parts. It does
not move linearly, but processes simultaneously in parallel parts. The
right side of the brain is involved in spatial abilities, such as judging the
position of things in space, and knowing your body position.
Right brain learners tend to approach things randomly. They need to

know why they are doing something. They tend to not make study
schedules, and jump around from one task to another without regard to
priorities. Right brain learners may be late with an assignment, not
because they were not working hard, but because they were working on
a lower priority assignment.
The following is important when designing assessment activities for right

brain learners. Right-brainers:
 Need to see, feel, or touch the real object.

 Prefer hands-on activities.
 Need to draw a maths or other problem to understand it.
 Need diagrams or illustrations to help visualise the problem or
solution.
 Need to make mental images of things they hear or read in
order to remember the information.
 Learn visually, not by listening to a lecture-style class.
231
 Require extra effort when reading instructions to ensure they
understand the assignment.
 Need support in making assignment lists and study schedules.
 Require more time to write a paper.
 Require more revisions to get it to say what they want to say.
 Rely more on spelling checkers and proof reading for their
assignments.
 Enjoy visual stimulation and hands-on learning.
 Are creative and social and enjoy working with others and
completing projects or experiments rather than listening to
lectures and writing essays.
Suggestions for assessment tasks:
 Let them review material before class to understand the bigger

picture, and to understand the context for details that will be
taught in class.
 Provide an overview and hand outs for each lesson.
 Accompany information with visuals like overhead illustrations or
videos.
 Do not to use the same old tests and quizzes every time.
 Let them complete a project or build a structure.
 Make a video.
 Give a multimedia presentation to the class in order to show
what they have learned.
 Give them the opportunity to connect with the material on an
intuitive level through role-playing, music or art projects.
Taking the solar system example, here are some right-brain teaching
techniques that will help learners with moderate to strong right-brain
strengths get the most out of your lesson:
 During the lesson, either write the main points on the board or
pass out a study guide outline that learners can fill in as you
present orally. These visual clues will help learners focus even
though you are teaching.
 Use the overhead, the white board, or the chalkboard frequently.
Since the learners are apt to miss the points discussed verbally,
the visual pointers will help the learners “see” and comprehend
the points.
 Have some time for group activities during the week of the solar
system study. Right-brain learners enjoy the company of others.
 Let the learners create a project (such as a poster, mobile or
paper maché planets of the solar system) in lieu of writing a
232
paper. Right-brained learners often have excellent eye-hand co-
ordination.
 Play music, such as the theme from 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Discuss how space might feel to an astronaut. Learners with
right-brain strengths are intuitive and like to get in touch with
their feelings during the day.
 Bring in charts and maps of the universe and let the learners
find the Milky Way. Maps and graphs make use of the learner’s
strong right-brain visual-spatial skills...
http://www.funderstanding.com/educators/left-brain-vs-right-brain-
teaching-techniques/
The following table summarises key differences between the left and
right sides of the brain.
Right brain Left brain
Holistic, big-picture oriented. Linear, details oriented.
Random processing oriented. Sequential or list oriented.
Concrete processing oriented. Symbolic processing oriented.
Intuitive decision making. Logical decision making.
Non-verbal processing Verbal processing oriented.

oriented.
Fantasy-oriented. Reality-oriented.
http://www.kidport.com/reflib/science/HumanBody/NervousSystem/Brain
Hemispheres.htm
5.2 The relation between effective learning and effective

assessment
For assessments to be sound, they must be free of bias and

misrepresentation. Two of the principles underpinning good assessment
practices as discussed in 1.14 relate to validity and reliability. Study valid and
reliable assessment practices again in addition to the following:
5.2.1 Valid assessment
233
As discussed in 1.14, validity refers to the accuracy of an assessment --
whether or not it measures what it is supposed to measure. Even if a
test is reliable, it may not provide a valid measure. Let us imagine a
bathroom scale that consistently tells you that you weigh 58 kg. The
reliability (consistency) of this scale is very good, but it is not accurate
(valid) because you actually weigh 62 kg. Since teachers, parents, and
school districts make decisions about learners based on assessments,
the validity inferred from the assessments is essential - even more
crucial than the reliability. Also, if a test is valid, it is almost always
reliable.
There are three ways in which validity can be measured. In order to be

confident that a test is valid (and therefore the inferences we make
based on the test scores are valid), all three kinds of validity evidence
should be considered.
Type of
Definition Example/non-example
validity
Content The extent to which A semester or quarter exam

the content of the that only includes content
test matches the covered during the last six
instructional weeks is not a valid
objectives. measure of the course's
overall objectives -- it has
very low content validity.
Criterion The extent to which If the end-of-year maths

scores on the test tests in the 5th grade
are in agreement correlate highly with the
with (concurrent national maths exam, they
validity) or predict would have high concurrent
(predictive validity) validity.
an external criterion.
Construct The extent to which If you can correctly

an assessment hypothesise that home
corresponds to other language speakers will
variables, as perform differently on a
predicted by some reading test than English-
rationale or theory. speaking learners (because
of theory), the assessment
may have construct validity.
234
5.2.2 Reliable assessment
As discussed in 1.14, reliability refers to the extent to which

assessments are consistent. It should not make any difference whether
a learner takes the assessment in the morning or afternoon; one day or
the next. Another measure of reliability is the internal consistency of the
items. For example, if you create a quiz to assess learners’ ability to do
fractions, you should be able to assume that if a learner gets an item
correct, he/she will also get other, similar items correct. The following
table outlines three common reliability measures:
Type of reliability How to measure
Stability or test- Give the same assessment twice,

retest separated by days, weeks, or months.
Reliability is stated as the correlation
between scores at time 1 and time 2.
Alternate form Create two forms of the same test

(vary the items slightly). Reliability is
stated as correlation between scores of
test 1 and test 2.
Internal Compare one half of the test to the

consistency other half.
5.2.3 Effective learning and teaching
Classroom assessment and grading practices have the potential not

only to measure and report learning but also to promote it. Like
successful athletics coaches, the best teachers recognise the
importance of ongoing assessments and continual adjustments on the
part of both teacher and learner as the means to achieve maximum
performance. Well-designed classroom assessment and grading
practices can provide the kind of specific, personalised, and timely
information needed to guide both learning and teaching.
Classroom assessments fall into three categories, each serving a

different purpose:
 Summative assessments summarise what learners have learned

at the conclusion of an instructional segment.
235
 Diagnostic assessments—sometimes known as pre-
assessments—typically precede instruction. Teachers use them
to check learners' prior knowledge and skill levels, identify learner
misconceptions, profile learners' interests, and reveal learning-
style preferences. Diagnostic assessments provide information to
assist teacher planning and guide differentiated instruction.
 Formative assessments occur concurrently with instruction.
These ongoing assessments provide specific feedback to
teachers and learners for the purpose of guiding teaching to
improve learning.
Keeping these three categories of classroom assessment in mind, let us

consider seven specific assessment and grading practices that can
enhance teaching and learning.
Practice 1: Use summative assessments to frame meaningful

performance goals
Summative assessment was discussed in 1.7. Study it again in

conjunction with the following:
Summative assessments have three benefits:
 They clarify the targeted standards and benchmarks for teachers

and learners. By knowing what the culminating assessments will
be, learners are better able to focus on what the teachers expect
them to learn and what they will be expected to do with that
knowledge.
 Second, the performance assessment tasks yield evidence that
reveals understanding. Teachers should set up realistic, authentic
contexts for assessment that enable learners to apply their
learning thoughtfully and flexibly, thereby demonstrating their
understanding of the content standards. Learners must be able to
transfer knowledge—to use what they know in a new situation.
 Presenting the authentic performance tasks at the beginning of a
new topic provides a meaningful learning goal for learners.
Authentic performance tasks provide a worthy goal and help
learners see a reason for their learning.
Practice 2: Show criteria and models in advance
A second assessment practice that supports learning involves the

setting of different levels of assessment criteria and models. Unlike
selected-response or short-answer tests, authentic performance
assessments are typically open-ended and do not yield a single, correct
236
answer or solution process. They need to evaluate products and
performances on the basis of clearly defined performance criteria
usually with valid and reliable rubrics. When a grade-level team uses
common rubrics, evaluation results are more consistent because the
performance criteria do not vary from teacher to teacher.
Rubrics also benefit learners. When learners know the criteria in

advance of their performance, they have clear goals for their work.
Because well-defined criteria provide a clear description of quality
performance, learners do not need to guess what is most important or
how teachers will judge their work. Providing a rubric to learners in
advance of the assessment is a necessary, but often insufficient,
condition to support their learning. Although experienced teachers have
a clear conception of what they mean by “quality work,” learners do not
necessarily have the same understanding. Learners are more likely to
understand feedback and evaluations when teachers show several
examples that display both excellent and weak work. These examples
help clear up the rubric's abstract language into more specific, concrete,
and understandable terms. In addition, when learners study and
compare examples ranging in quality—from very strong to very weak—
they are better able to internalize the differences. The examples enable
learners to more accurately self-assess and improve their work before
handing it in to the teacher.
Practice 3: Assess before teaching
At the outset of any unit of study, some learners are likely to have
already mastered some of the skills that the teacher is about to
introduce, and others may already understand key concepts. Some
learners will have insufficient necessary skills or have misconceptions.
Armed with this diagnostic information, a teacher gains greater insight
into the following: what to teach, by knowing what skill gaps to address
or by skipping material previously mastered; how to teach, by using
grouping options and initiating activities based on preferred learning
styles and interests; and how to connect the content to learners'
interests and talents. If teachers do not identify and confront these
misconceptions, they will persist even in the face of good teaching. To
uncover existing misconceptions, teachers can use a short, non-graded
true-false diagnostic quiz that includes several potential misconceptions
related to the targeted learning. Learner responses will highlight any
prevailing misconceptions, which the teacher can then address through
instruction.
Practice 4: Offer appropriate choices.
237
Responsiveness in assessment is as important as it is in teaching.
Learners differ not only in how they prefer to take in and process
information but also in how they best demonstrate their learning (as
discussed in 5.1). To make valid interpretations about learning, teachers
need to allow learners to work to their strengths. A standardised
approach to classroom assessment may be efficient, but it is not fair
because any chosen format will favour some learners and penalise
others. Assessment becomes responsive when learners are given
appropriate options for demonstrating knowledge, skills, and
understanding. Allow choices—but always with the intent of collecting
needed, valid and reliable evidence based on goals.
Be wary of the following when offering options:
 Teachers need to collect appropriate evidence of learning on the

basis of goals rather than simply offering a “cool” menu of
assessment choices. If a content standard calls for proficiency in
written or oral presentations, it would be inappropriate to provide
performance options other than those involving writing or speaking.
 The options must be worth the time and energy required. It would
be inefficient to have learners develop an elaborate three-
dimensional display or an animated PowerPoint presentation for
content that a multiple-choice quiz could easily assess.
 Teachers have only so much time and energy, so they must be
cautious in determining when it is important to offer product and
performance options.
Practice 5: Provide feedback early and often
All kinds of learning, whether on the practice field or in the classroom,

require feedback based on formative assessments. (Feedback is
discussed in unit 7). To serve learning, feedback must meet four criteria,
namely:
 Timely.
 Specific.
 Understandable to the receiver.
 Formed to allow for self-adjustment on the learner’s part.
The following is important when giving feedback:
 Feedback on strengths and weaknesses needs to be prompt for

the learner to improve. Waiting three weeks to find out how a
learner did on a test will not help learning.
238
 Being specific is key to helping learners understand both their
strengths and the areas in which they can improve. Too many
teachers consider grades and scores as feedback when, in fact, it
is not specific. Pinning a letter (B-) or a number (82%) on a
learner’s work is no more helpful than such comments as “Nice
job” or “You can do better.” Although good grades and positive
remarks may feel good, they do not advance learning.
 Sometimes the language in a rubric is lost on a learner. Exactly
what does “well organised” or “sophisticated reasoning” mean?
“Kid language” rubrics can make feedback clearer and more
comprehensible. For instance, instead of saying, “Document your
reasoning process,” a teacher might say, “Show your work in a
step-by-step manner so the reader can see what you were
thinking.”
 The learner needs opportunities to act on the feedback—to refine,
revise, practice, and retry.
Ask yourself: “Can learners tell specifically from the given feedback what
they have done well and what they could do next time to improve?” If
your answer is not a clear ‘yes’, then the feedback is not specific or
understandable enough for the learner.
Practice 6: Encourage self-assessment and goal setting
Rubrics can help learners become more effective at honest self-

assessment and productive self-improvement. Ideally, the judgment of
the learner must match the judgment of the teacher. If not, the
discrepancy raises an opportunity to discuss the criteria, expectations,
and performance standards. Over time, teacher and learner judgments
tend to align. In fact, it is not unusual for learners to be harder on
themselves than the teacher is.
The rubric also includes space for feedback comments, learner goals
and action steps. Consequently, the rubric moves from being simply an
evaluation tool for “pinning a number” on learners, to a practical and
robust vehicle for feedback, self-assessment, and goal setting.
Initially, the teacher models how to self-assess, set goals, and plan
improvements by asking prompting questions such as:
 What aspect of your work was most effective?

 What aspect of your work was least effective?
 What specific action or actions will improve your performance?
 What will you do differently next time?
239
Questions like these help focus learner reflection and planning. Over
time, learners assume greater responsibility for enacting these
processes independently. Teachers who provide regular opportunities
for learners to self-assess and set goals often report a change in the
classroom culture.
Practice 7: Allow new evidence of achievement to replace old

evidence
New evidence of achievement should replace old evidence. Classroom

assessments and grading should focus on how well - not on when - the
learner mastered the designated knowledge and skill.
Two concerns may arise when teachers provide learners with multiple
opportunities to demonstrate their learning;
 Learners may not take the first attempt seriously once they realise
they have a second chance.
 Teachers often become overwhelmed by the logistical challenges
of providing multiple opportunities.
To make this approach effective, teachers need to require their learners

to provide some evidence of the corrective action they will take—such
as engaging in peer coaching, revising their report, or practicing the
needed skill in a given way—before embarking on their “second
chance.”
As learners work to achieve clearly defined learning goals and produce

evidence of their achievement, they need to know that teachers will not
penalise them for either their lack of knowledge at the beginning of a
course of study or their initial attempts at skill mastery. Allowing new
evidence to replace old conveys an important message to learners—that
teachers care about their successful learning, not merely their grades.
http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov05/
vol63/num03/Seven-Practices-for-Effective-Learning.aspx
5.3 Guidelines for planning and setting good examination papers
Have you wondered what the difference is between a test and an examination?
Exams and test are two words that are often confused as they are thought to
convey the same meaning, while in fact they do not. They should be regarded
as two different words that convey two different meanings. Their usages differ
as well.
240
The word ‘test’ is used in the sense of ‘investigation’. Test is used as tool for
understanding the level of knowledge and behaviour of the learner. A test
refers to short quizzes. A test takes place outside of a designated examination
period.
The word ‘exam’ is used in the sense of ‘checking’. The examination is used to
find out the comprehensive knowledge and behaviour of the learner. An
examination is a test that takes place within a designated examination period.
Tests and examinations usually refer to the assessment of learning as

discussed in 1.13 and are usually done at the end of a learning unit. This
includes a mark or grading.
Guidelines for planning and setting test and examination papers:
Always keep Bloom’s taxonomy in mind when designing papers, and include all
levels questions in your paper. Bloom’s taxonomy was discussed in 1.1 and
appropriate verbs in 3.1. Here is a diagram to of Bloom’s taxonomy to refresh
your memory:
Analyse Evaluate Create
Apply
Understand
Remember
You must also keep the different learning styles as discussed in 1.2 in mind
when designing questions. Include as many learning styles in your test or
examination paper as possible.
Keep the features of left and right brain assessments in mind when designing a
paper and include questions relevant to both sides of the brain in your paper.
The principles underpinning good assessment practice were discussed in 1.14.
Your test and examination papers have to comply with those principles.
You have to know your learners very well and understand their circumstances
and life to be able to set papers that they can understand.
The process of constructing good test and exam questions is not simple.
Therefore, allow enough time to plan the question paper and give time to
design questions. The designing of good quality questions often takes more
time than the planning of the paper.
241
Be creative in designing questions to make them interesting.
Apply the learning content to new situations
Decide beforehand on the content you want to test
Look at previous question papers to verify the standard of your paper. Set your
own questions. You can use ideas from older or example question papers or
the internet, but design your own questions aimed at the learners and their
circumstances.
Test and examination papers have to show adequate variation from year to
year. Do not use the same paper over and over again. You can, however, use
some questions from previous papers
When you refer to TV characters or current events in your area, the country or
internationally, make sure the learners will understand the reference.
Test what your learners know, not what they do not know. Questions should be
difficult for learners who do not know the material, but they should be
straightforward for those who do.
Avoid material that might be distressing to learners
Questions must be free from bias towards any group of candidates: Avoid
gender, age and other stereotyping. Take cultural diversity into account.
The expectations of the questions must be clear and reasonable.
Check each question to ensure that it (is):
 Age appropriate.
 Test/examination-level appropriate.
 In accordance with the examination specification of the Ministry of
Education and the school (e.g. short answer, multiple choice, essay).
 Provides adequate differentiation in respect of the range and ability level
of the learners.
 Phrased clearly.
 Indicates clearly the depth and breadth of response required.
 Does not overlap with or contradict other questions on the paper.
Design sample answers when you design the questions. Write out the sample
answers and make sure you allocate appropriate marks to each question.
242
Questions must be checked and verified over and over again to ensure that
they are sound, correct, and accurate.
Check the accuracy of questions; there should be no mistakes in your paper.

Make sure your wording is straightforward and not complicated. If using
complicated wording (e.g. double negatives) or vocabulary, you will be testing
verbal ability rather than knowledge, understanding and application of content.
Make sure the test or examination paper can be answered in the time allowed.
Make sure the content, spelling, language usage, punctuation and numbering,
etc. are clear, precise and intelligible to learners and use terminology and
language that is appropriate, that the learners know and that you used in class.
Type test and question papers neatly in a common font to enable every learner
to easily read it.
Build up and keep a private question or resource bank.
Take all necessary precautions to ensure the highest standards of

confidentiality and security as prescribed by the school
Flow chart for setting test and examination papers:
Type paper, sample

Define content answers and marking Check for mistakes
scheme
Have paper, sample

Select topics and types Check marks and answers and marking
of assessments gradings scheme checked by a
colleague
Complete assessment Hand paper, sample

Gather relevant material grids and sample answers and marking
answers scheme to moderator
Construct a range of Check questions against

questions, with sample Bloom's taxonomy,
answers and marking different learning styles
scheme and brain orientation
243
5.4 Criteria for the moderation of examination papers
Moderation is a process whereby teachers compare judgements to either

confirm or adjust them.
The moderator must have knowledge and understanding of the syllabus and
must make a judgement regarding to what extent the learner will be able to
demonstrate achievement of the syllabus standard. Teachers need to work
towards making judgements that are consistent and comparable.
The purpose of moderation:
 Develop shared or common interpretations of standards and expectations

of what constitutes achievement of syllabus standards.
 Develop shared understandings of what learners’ achievements look like.
 Develop accuracy and reliability in making judgements.
 Ensure judgements are equitable in terms of implications for learning.
 Strengthen the value of teachers’ judgements.
 Inform well-targeted teaching programmes.
 Make judgements in relation to syllabus standards.
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/consistent_teacher/moder
ate.htm
Below is a checklist for the moderation of examination papers:
Checklist for moderation of examination Name of school

papers and model answers/marking
schemes
Phase:
Grade/s:
Subject:
Teacher:
Material included:
No (if no,
Examination question paper Yes identify
questions and
244
provide
explanation)
Content:
1. Does the time allowed for the
examination match that which is
prescribed?
2. Do the questions cover the syllabus

adequately; in particular, do they reflect
the learning outcomes?
3. Is each question of a standard

appropriate to the level being
assessed?
4. Do questions allow for levels prescribed

in Bloom’s taxonomy?
5. Are the questions clear and

unambiguous?
6. Are the mark allocations appropriate?
Format:
7. Is the presentation and layout of the
examination paper according to
prescriptions?
8. Are all the additional materials listed

(for example, tables, graphs, etc.)
included in the examination paper and
referred to in the relevant questions?
9. Does the cover sheet provide clear

instructions to learners?
No (if no, identify

Model answer/marking scheme Yes questions and provide
explanation)
245
1. Has a model answer/marking
scheme been prepared for this
examination paper?
2. Is the solution accurate for each

question?
3. Are the significant points listed

for the answers to all descriptive
questions?
4. If the question is divided into

sections, have the weightings of
the marks been specified?
5. Are sources of assessment

criteria explicit?
www4.rgu.ac.uk/files/Moderation%20Checklist.doc
5.5 Applying a moderation checklist
To measure learners' competencies against the unit standards, we develop

and implement assessment strategies which include assessment tools such as
checklists and tests.
The NIED offers external assessment and moderation services to ensure that
their assessments are effective and comply with the principles which ensure
objective assessment of learners.
As assessment is central to the recognition of achievement, the quality of the

assessment is therefore important to provide credible certification. Credibility in
assessment is assured through assessment procedures and practices like
moderation being governed by certain principles.
These assessment and moderation principles are:
 Fairness.
 Validity.
 Reliability.
 Practicability.
These principles help to allay the concerns and anxieties of users of

assessment results. The learners, parents, employers, learning institutions and
246
the general public want the assurance that the assessment results are credible.
This is because these results often affect personal, social and economic
progression and mobility in society. In addition, the results provide accurate
information about the individual.
Fairness
An assessment should not in any way hinder or advantage a learner.
Unfairness in assessment would constitute:
 Inequality of opportunities, resources and appropriate teaching and

learning approaches in terms of acquisition of knowledge, understanding
and skills.
 Bias in respect of ethnicity, gender, age, disability, social class and race
in so far as that the assessment approaches, methods, instruments and
materials do not take into account these differences.
 Lack of clarity in terms of what is being assessed.
 Comparison of learners’ work with other learners, particularly in terms of
diversity of learning styles, home language, values, gender, race, life
experiences, etc
Fairness in assessment would constitute:
 The above-mentioned influences are taken into account and addressed.

 The assessment process is clear, transparent and available to all
learners.
 Appeal mechanisms and re-assessments are accessible to all learners.
Validity
Validity in assessment refers to measuring what it says it is measuring, be it

knowledge, understanding, subject content, skills, information, behaviours, etc.
Validity in assessment would constitute: Assessment procedures, methods,

instruments and materials have to match what is being assessed.
For example:
A learner is assessed on research skills. However, a learner’s ability to

write may not necessarily provide evidence that the learner has the ability
to do research.
247
The assessment must assess the learner’s ability to perform. In this case,
the learner should be assessed on the various activities of the stages of
research, namely -
Formulation of the research question.

Literature review.
Development of research instruments.
Collection of data.
Analysis of data and writing a report.
Therefore, the assessment should stay within the parameters of what is

required – not less than the unit standard or qualification, or more than the unit
standard or qualification.
In order to achieve validity in the assessment, assessors should:
 State clearly what outcome(s) is/are being assessed.

 Use an appropriate type or source of evidence.
 Use an appropriate method of assessment.
 Select an appropriate instrument of assessment.
When designing an assessment, the assessor must look at the specific

outcome(s), the assessment criteria and the range so as to determine the kind
and amount of evidence required from the learner.
The kind and amount of evidence will also determine the assessment method
and instruments to be selected and used.
The assessment criteria, the range, contexts and underpinning knowledge

indicated in the unit standard, will inform these decisions.
Reliability
Reliability in assessment is about consistency. Consistency refers to the same

judgements being made in the same or similar contexts each time a particular
assessment for specified stated intentions is administered.
Assessment results should not be perceived to have been influenced by

variables such as:
 Assessor bias in terms of the learner’s gender, ethnic origin, sexual

orientation, religion, like/dislike, appearance and the like.
 Different assessors interpreting unit standards or qualifications
inconsistently.
 Different assessors applying different standards.
248
 Assessor stress and fatigue.
 Insufficient evidence gathered.
 Assessor assumptions about the learner, based on previous (good or
bad) performance.
To avoid such variance in judgement (results), assessments should ensure

that each time an assessment is administered, the same or similar conditions
prevail. Also, that the procedures, methods, instruments and practices are the
same or similar.
In addition:
 Assessors should be trained and competent in administering

assessments.
 Assessors should give clear, consistent and unambiguous instructions.
 Assessment criteria and guidelines for unit standards and qualifications
should be adhered to.
 Assessors should meet and talk to each other.
 Assessors should be subject experts in their learning field(s).
 Where possible, more than one assessor should be involved in the
assessment of one learner.
 Assessors should use checklists, or other objective forms of
assessment, in addition to other assessment instruments.
 Internal and external moderation procedures for assessment should be
in place.
 Clear and systematic recording procedures should be in place.
Practicability
Practicability refers to ensuring that assessments take into account the

available financial resources, facilities, equipment and time. Assessments that
require elaborate arrangements for equipment and facilities, as well as being
costly, will make the assessment system fail.
Where the ideal assessment requires specialised equipment and facilities,

such assessment could be done by means of a simulation or by means of
collecting evidence in the workplace.
To conclude:
FAIRNESS + VALIDITY + RELIABILITY + PRACTICABILITY = CREDIBILITY
The critical overriding principle of assessment is that of ethics.
249
Because the results of an assessment can lead to an increase in pay,
improved career prospects and the like, the principles of assessment should be
applied ethically and responsibly.
Now that you know the responsibility of moderating a test or exam you need to
apply a moderation checklist to a given paper.
That is where learning activity 5 comes in:
ADDENDUM 2 (At the end of the study guide).
Use the ANNUAL NATIONAL ASSESSMENT 2013 GRADE 6 ENGLISH

FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE TEST AND MEMORANDUM below. Apply
the checklist given in 5.4 to the question paper (as if you were the moderator of
the question paper). When you have done this, explain whether you think the
moderation checklist is a good one to use or not, justifying your answer.
5.6 How to proofread examination papers
Proofreading means examining your text carefully to find and correct errors
and mistakes in grammar, style, and spelling. Spelling or typing errors can
change the meaning of words and confuse learners. Below are some tips:
 Before you proofread

- Be sure you have revised the larger aspects of your text. Do not
make corrections at the sentence and word level if you still need
to work on the focus, organisation, and development of the whole
paper, of sections, or of paragraphs.
- Set your text aside for a while (15 minutes, a day, a week)
between writing and proofing. Some distance from the text will
help you see mistakes more easily.
- Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes.
 When you proofread
- Work from a printout, not the computer screen.
- Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on
sentences, but you will also hear other problems that you may not
see when reading silently.
- Use a blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one
you are reading. This technique keeps you from skipping ahead
and missing possible mistakes.
- If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each
kind of error, moving from the most to the least important, and
following whatever technique works best for you to identify that
kind of mistake.
250
For instance, read through once (backwards, sentence by
sentence) to check for fragments; read through again (forward) to
be sure subjects and verbs agree, and again (perhaps using a
computer search for "this," "it," and "they") to trace pronouns to
antecedents.
- End with a spelling check, using a computer spelling checker or
reading backwards word by word.
But remember that a spelling checker will catch mistakes with
homonyms (e.g. "they're," "their," "there") or certain typos (like
"he" for "the").
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Proofreading.html
Remember that each exam paper comprises a coversheet, the exam paper
(page 1 is always the instruction sheet) and a back “Do Not Turn Over” page.
The coversheet and back page are not included in the page number count.
Proofreading checklist
Review the coversheet and instruction page (page 1) of the exam and
confirm:
Yes Needs attention
Does the exam on the coversheet

match the attached exam?
Are the total marks provided on the

cover-sheet?
Is detail such as the teacher’s

name, subject, venue where exam
is written, date of exam and name
of the school given?
Is there a place for the signatures –

teacher (and moderator (according
to prescriptions)?
Are exam details – special

requirements for the exam such as
a calculator/other materials /open
book categories, etc. specified?
251
Are any other instructions that are
noted on the coversheet clear
and/or on page 1 of the exam, if
applicable?
On page 1 of the exam, check the following:
If the correct paper code (if any),

title and year are noted in the title
box, and all match the coversheet.
If the duration is included, and

matches the coversheet.
If the instructions relating to

calculators or open book or other
special prescriptions status match
what is on the cover-sheet.
If total marks are provided, is the

total correct?
Check the pages of the exam as follows:
The total number of pages is noted

on page 1 and, after counting, the
numbers are in sequence and
correct.
TURN OVER has been added at

the bottom right of page 1 (and all
subsequent pages except the last
page).
Check the paper code or whether

the subject appears at the top right-
hand corner of each page except
page 1.
Carefully read page 1 and check:
Are the instructions to learners

sensible, clear and unambiguous?
Are they consistent?
252
If Part A is referred to, is there a
Part A in the body of the exam, or
does it read Section A?
Carefully read the exam paper and check:
Typographical errors, spelling,

grammar, punctuation, etc.
Any ambiguities that might confuse

learners.
Where a diagram or figure is

referred to, make sure it is present
and clearly labelled.
Work through each page and check

whether the question numbering is
sequential.
Multiple-choice question options, if

“All of the above” or “None of the
above” is used as a possible
answer, check whether it is placed
correctly in the sequence (i.e.
Logically “All of the above” must
precede “None of the above”).
That the back “Do Not Turn Over”

page is present.
5.7 How to teach learners to prepare for and write test and
examination papers
Some learners have examination anxiety and although they know the answers,
they are so stressed that they are not able to answer questions due to the
panic they feel whilst taking the test or examination. As the teacher, you can
help them with study guides and tips on to how write the test/exam.
Here are some tips that you can give your learners on how to study for
tests/exams and how to write tests/exams:
5.7.1 Before the test/exam
253
 Be sure to find out the following details ahead of time:
- What material the test/exam will cover.
- What type of test/exam it will be (multiple choice, true false,
short answer, or essays).
- How the test/exam will be graded.
- To what extent the test/exam will count towards the final
mark.
- Study in a place that is free of distractions. Have all the
things you will need ready, such as paper, pens, or a
calculator.
- Study at a time when you are alert and not hungry or sleepy.
- Do not wait until the last minute to study! Short daily study
sessions are better than one long session the night before
the test.
- Set a goal for each study period. If you are being tested on
three chapters, set up four study sessions, one for each
chapter and one for a review of the main ideas in all three
chapters.
- Repetition is vital! Read and reread your class notes and the
relevant chapters in the textbook making sure you
understand the contents.
- While you are reviewing your notes, cover them up
periodically and summarise them out loud as far as possible
using your own words.
- Study out loud. Pretend that you are explaining the material
to someone else.
- Create your own study aids.
• Make an outline of your notes or just the main ideas.
• Make a timeline of important dates or the order of
events.
• Make flashcards for studying vocabulary or events and
important dates.
• Make up your own quiz or test based on your notes
and have a friend, parent or sibling test you.
• Draw or create mental pictures of the information.
- If you become too tired to think, go to bed and get up a bit
earlier to finish studying.
- Do any practice exams or study sheets provided by the
teacher. These will help you focus your study session and
give you confidence.
- Get help from the teacher if you do not understand
something.
Multiple-choice tests
254
 If you can eliminate a single choice, your chances improve.
 If two choices are opposite, one of them is probably correct.
 When unsure about the right answer, look for the wrong ones and
eliminate them.
 Read the question applying it to each choice.
Multiple-choice maths tests
 If two numbers differ by only a decimal point (example: 1.3 and

13) and the other choices are not even close, recalculate, using
rounded numbers to decide where the decimal point must be.
 Try estimation or mental maths to eliminate choices:
Example: 251 x 314 =
a. 63,837
b. 23,634
c. 78,814
d. 76,468
Eliminate a and d because the product of the one’s digits is 1 ´ 4

= 4.
Eliminate b because 251 x 100 = 25,100; 251 x 314 must be

larger than 25,100.
That means the right answer has to be c, 78,814
5.7.2 During the test
 Get to class quickly; sit for a moment and relax.

 Do not talk about the test with friends. You might share
misinformation that way.
 Listen carefully to any oral directions from your teacher. Read the
instructions carefully. Ask the teacher if you are unsure about
anything.
 Read the entire test through before starting. This will help you pace
yourself.
 Answer the easiest questions first, but read them all, so you will
have answered the ones you are most certain of before time runs
out.
 Make a mark next to any skipped items, so you can go back to
them if time permits.
255
 Leave most of the time for questions that have the highest point
value or require a lot of writing.
 Do only what you are required to do. Do not waste time doing
things for which you will not receive any credit, such as copying
test questions onto your paper.
 Write clearly.
 Leave time to check your answers
 Do not change answers unless you are sure they are wrong
5.7.3 After the test
 When the test is returned, read the teacher's comments carefully

and try to learn from your mistakes.
 Save tests for later review (to use for end-of-term revision).
5.7.4 Questions to consider
 Do you study for tests at the last minute?

 Do you ever panic about tests?
 Do you study in the same way for objective and performance
tests?
 Does your mind ever go blank while taking a test?
 Do you ever ignore or misread directions?
 Are you ever disappointed in a test grade, wishing you had done
better?
http://www.teachervision.fen.com/study-skills/educational-testing/2026.
html#ixzz 28AJs2YOC
5.8 Summary
In this unit we examined the design and moderation of test and examination
papers. We have looked at brain orientation and which activities are best for
left or right brain oriented learners. We also looked at what valid and reliable
assessments are and how effective learning relates to effective assessment.
Guidelines for planning and setting good test and examination papers were
discussed and you had the chance to apply a moderation checklist as well as a
proofreading checklist to a question paper. How to help learners prepare for
and write tests and exams was explored as well.
In the next unit marking and grading techniques will be discussed. Make sure
you have mastered this unit by ticking the checklist before continuing with unit
6.
256
Learning activity 1
Apply the answer to yourself. Give an explanation of why you are left or
right brain oriented. Quote from the text to justify your answers. Explain
how you think and how you learn. Explain also which learning activities
appeal to you to further motivate your particular brain orientation.
Learning activity 2
1 – Summative.
2 – Formative.
3 – Diagnostic.
4 – Formative.
5 – Formative.
6 – Formative, can be also diagnostic.
7 – Formative.
Learning activity 3
You should have at least two sentences to explain each one.

Look for domains and levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Compare the question
paper with points a – z to elicit whether it complies with these points.
Learning activity 4
Explain the checklist in full sentences and in paragraphs. Think about each
point on the checklist and explain the relevance of each point.
Learning activity 5
Check all the points on the moderation checklists against the question
paper. When you are done, say if you think the moderation checklist is a
good one or not and provide reasons.
257
Learning activity 6
Check all the points on the proofread checklists against the question paper.
When you are done, say if you think the proofread checklist is a good one or
not and provide reasons.
Learning activity 7
All the points in 5.7.2 apply.

Multiple questions and all the points in 5.7.2.
Glossary
Corpus callosum The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibres that divides
the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres.
Hemisphere One half of the brain, either the left half or the right half.
258
UNIT 6
Marking and grading techniques
Introduction 250
6.1 Different types of grading symbols and functions of marks/grades 252

6.1.1 Norm-referenced grading 253
6.1.2 Criterion-referenced grading 254
6.1.3 Mastery learning 255
6.1.4 Pass-fail grading 256
6.1.5 Grading symbols 257
6.2.1 Purpose and features of the marking scheme 261
6.2.2 The analytic or holistic marking of essays 262
6.2.3 The analytic or holistic assessment of group work 265
6.2.4 The criteria for grading products (placard, models, drawings) 274
6.2.5 The use and grading of portfolios 277
6.2.6 The use and benefits of computer assisted marking 289
6.3 Effective marking practices 291
6.4 Marking scheme’s reflection on the allocation of marks for Bloom’s
higher level verbs 298
6.4.1 A taxonomy of lower to higher order reflection 299
6.4.2 The reflective learner 299
6.4.3. The reflective teacher 301
6.4.4. The reflective principal 302
6.5 Effective recording practices of senior-primary assessment results 307
6.4.1 Assessment of learning 307
6.4.2 Assessment for learning 308
6.4.3 Recording the results of assessments 309
6.4.4 Access to assessment results 310
6.5 Summary 311
Glossary 312
259
Introduction
In this unit we will look at marking and grading techniques. Firstly types of grading
symbols will be discussed and we will have a closer look at the functions of
marks/grades. The features of marking will be discussed and some practical
examples examined. You will get the opportunity to evaluate some assessment tools.
Effective marking practices will be discussed while effective recording practices of
upper primary assessments will be explained.
Learning outcomes
 Discuss different types of grading symbols and functions of marks / grades

 Discuss features of the marking when using different assessment tools such as:
- The purpose and features of a mark scheme
- The analytic or holistic marking of essays
- The analytic or holistic assessing of group work
- The criteria for grading products (placard, models, drawings)
- The use and grading of portfolios
- The use and benefits of computer assisted marking
 Discuss effective marking practices
 Clarify how a scheme of marking must reflect the allocation of marks for Bloom’s
higher level verbs (application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation)
 Explain effective recording practices of upper-primary assessment results, e.g.
keeping a file for each learner including observational and interview rubrics/
checklists, critical incident notes, informal observation notes, tasks performed
graded, etc
260
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
Look at the three given grading examples. To which grading rationale and
grading approach does each example refer?
Learning activity 2
Go to page 59 of the grading plan on the following web page:

www.ualr.edu/pace/UDCD/files/everything.pdf Evaluate each example of
the marking scheme, rubric and checklist against the following principles as
discussed in the grading plan:
Principle 2: Measure a variety of behaviours
Principle 4: Evaluate different levels
Principle 5: Weighting
Principle 6; Creative
Principle 7: Match evaluation measurement to course activities and

objectives
Learning activity 3
Give your own definition of marking

Write a paragraph on each of the following headings (about 150 words
per paragraph):
- Effective marking
- Marking in the presence of the learner
- Distance marking
- Focused quality marking
261
- A paragraph relates to one heading
Learning activity 4
What is the difference between how to record assessment of learning

and assessment for learning?
6.1 Different types of grading symbols and functions of

marks/grades
There are many reasons why a learner’s work is graded. Grading serves as:
 An evaluation of the learner’s work.

 A means of communicating to the learner, the teacher and the parents,
about the learner’s performance in class and his/her potential for further
success.
 Feedback to the learner about his/her own work, clarifying what he/she
understands, what not and what needs improvement.
 A source of motivation to learners for continued learning and improvement.
 A means of organising a lesson, a unit, or a semester in that grades mark
transitions in a course and bring closure to it.
 Feedback to teachers about learning which can guide future teaching and
instruction decisions.
Below are grading rationales that are widely used as reasons for why we
grade. Each rationale for grading, however, offers some concern:
 Grading rationale I: Sorting

One reason for evaluating learners is to be able to label them on the
basis of their performance and thus to sort them. Whatever use we
make of sorting, the process itself is very different from - and often
incompatible with - the goal of helping learners to learn.
 Grading rationale II: Motivation
One of the major motives behind assessment in general is to motivate
learners to work harder so they will receive a favourable evaluation.
Indeed, given the extent to which As and Fs function as rewards and
punishments rather than as useful feedback, grades are
counterproductive regardless of whether they are intentionally used for
this purpose.
 Grading rationale III: Feedback
Some educators insist that their purpose in evaluating learners is
neither to sort them nor to motivate them, but simply to provide
262
feedback so they can learn more effectively tomorrow than they did
today. Grades make it very difficult to do this. A B+ on top of a paper
tells a learner nothing about what was impressive about that
assignment or how it could be improved.
 Grading is often a challenge. As grades are used as evaluations of
learners’ work, it is important that grades accurately reflect the quality
of learners’ work and therefore that the work is graded fairly. Grading
with accuracy and fairness can take a lot of time. Given all that grades
do and represent, it is no surprise that they are a source of anxiety for
learners and that grading is often a stressful process for teachers.
When developing grading criteria, keep the following in mind:
 Consider the different kinds of activities you want your learners to do.
This work might include: quizzes, examinations, projects, essays, class
participation, and oral presentations.
 For the work that is most significant to you and/or will carry the most
weight, identify what is most important to you. Is it clarity, creativity,
rigor, thoroughness, precision, demonstration of knowledge, or critical
inquiry?
 Transform the characteristics you have identified into grading criteria
for the work most significant to you, distinguishing excellent work (A-
level) from very good (B-level), fair to good (C-level), poor (D-level),
and unacceptable work. Use the grading criteria as prescribed by the
Ministry of Education as discussed in unit 2.
There are mainly four approaches to grading.
6.1.1 Norm-referenced grading
Norm-referenced grading compares learners to one another to ascertain

each learner’s relative position within a given class or group of learners.
In norm-referenced grading, the meaning of any one score is derived
from a comparison with other scores in the norm group. This form of
grading frequently is referred to as the “curve” because it promotes the
concept of a normal distribution in which there is a small number of both
superior and failing learners, with a large group in between. Such a
distribution lends itself well to assigning letter grades such as an A for a
distinction and an E for failing.
Advantages
 It is helpful when discriminations among individuals must be

made.
263
 It is appropriate when a given distribution of grades is called for (a
certain percentage of As, for example).
 It is widely used and accepted and therefore requires little
explanation or training.
Disadvantages
 It measures learner status, not learning.

 It creates the illusion of a standard by which learners can be
assessed equitably; in fact, many standardised tests are
constructed deliberately to produce a normal distribution curve.
 This assumption can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy that a few
learners will be high achievers, many will do moderately well, and
some will fail.
 The capabilities of learners and not their performance are often
the determining factor in grading.
 Learners who are below the norm may be labelled incompetent or
below average although actually they may be quite able. These
learners may develop feelings of inadequacy that persist and
diminish their chances of reaching their fullest potential.
 It undermines cooperation between learners. Knowing that their
grades depend on the performance of other learners can
discourage learners from sharing with one another.
 Because grades cannot be determined until all the scores are
checked, anxiety is heightened. Learners worry about their
grades.
 It is de-motivating for most learners, because only the most
outstanding learners can earn an A.
6.1.2 Criterion-referenced grading
In criterion-referenced grading, a learner's achievement is measured

with respect to a specified standard of quality that is based on a
continuum of knowledge acquisition ranging from no proficiency to
perfect performance. An individual learner's achievement level lies at a
point on this continuum resulting from performance. The learner's grade
is thus assigned independent of others.
Advantages
 It is best used when the teacher wants to measure a learner’s

performance against a standard and not against each other's
achievements.
264
 It is also appropriate to select individuals who can perform a
given task at a certain level of competence.
 It is especially useful when public safety or other considerations
demand that certain tasks be performed only by those who are
fully qualified.
 By combining this approach to grading with valid criterion levels
and entering prerequisites, it shows what learners have learned,
not how they rank when compared with others.
 It can help ensure success in subsequent units by screening out
learners who have not mastered the content of prerequisite units.
 It is well suited to classes with significant numbers of high or low
achievers, because grade distribution will not be affected.
 It may motivate learners because there are no predetermined
limits on the number of learners who can earn high grades; it is
possible for all learners to earn As.
Disadvantages
 Use of criterion referenced grading can result in high grades for

all the learners in a class, or, if none perform at the pre-specified
criterion levels, all of them can fail, regardless of the quality of
teaching.
 If all learners do well, it will not eliminate a certain percentage of
low-ranking learners, as will norm-referenced bell curves.
 A major concern is how to establish and defend the criterion
levels for A, B, C, D,E and F.
6.1.3 Mastery learning
Mastery learning specifies that the most complex problems could be

solved if the learner broke them into several small tasks and mastered
them one by one. It is based on the premise that almost all learners
could master a given subject if they were allowed enough time to do so.
The basic premise of mastery learning is that every learner has access
to appropriate instruction, sufficient time to achieve mastery, and thus
the opportunity to reach high levels of performance. Mastery learning is
especially appropriate when there is a body of knowledge, concepts,
skills, and attitudes that learners must learn. Those credited with the
development of mastery learning emphasise that it is not tied to one
particular methodology and can employ a wide repertoire of instructional
methods. This flexibility, coupled with its underlying principles, makes
mastery learning an ideal way to teach those learners for whom
traditional classroom methods are ineffective.
265
Advantages

The criteria for reaching specified competency levels are defined
clearly in mastery learning.
 Its tenets encourage:
- Modification and offering alternative learning activities to
achieve mastery.
- Giving frequent feedback to learners.
- Providing ample opportunity for learners to exhibit their
learning behaviours.
- The use of encouragement and praise.
- The promise that a larger percentage of learners will have
successful and rewarding learning experiences.
 The number of learners who can succeed is unlimited; hence,
learners are encouraged to cooperate with each other and to
compete only with themselves.
 All learners are given multiple opportunities to achieve mastery,
which accommodates those who may require more learning time.
 Learners who persist and make satisfactory progress are allowed
to remain in the class rather than passing through the system.
Disadvantages
 Because mastery learning focuses on learners achieving

specified levels of competence, it has many of the same
disadvantages as criterion-referenced evaluation.
 It is unfamiliar to most teachers and thus requires explanation
and training, especially in how to establish criterion levels.
 It makes it possible for all learners to earn top grades or to fail.
 It will not ensure that a certain percentage of learners fall out of
the system.
 Successful implementation requires extensive recordkeeping,
because learners may be working on different objectives, using a
variety of learning approaches, and finishing individual units at
different times.
 Without adequate training, mastery learning can easily result in
the teacher feeling pressured to “teach to the test”.
 If mastery learning is implemented improperly, a large number of
learners can finish the term with incomplete grades.
6.1.4 Pass-fail grading
266
Pass-fail refers only to the final grade recorded by the teacher. Activities
in the classroom may be the same: homework assigned and evaluated,
tests given, and all work graded numerically for learner’s information
and self-evaluation. The major difference is the simplification of symbols
representing the assessment of the learner’s work. The assumption is
that learners will learn for learning's sake, not for grades, and gain a
positive attitude toward learning that will stay with them for the rest of
their lives.
Advantages
 It reduces learners' anxiety about grades, thus freeing them to

venture into new fields.
 Because there is no competition for grades, the pass-fail system
increases the likelihood that learners will engage in constructive,
cooperative endeavours.
 Because pass-fail assessment does not affect their overall grade
point average, learners will be motivated by reasons other than
grades.
 Pass-fail is considered especially beneficial for learners who are
capable of independent thinking and have the self-discipline to
pursue a subject for the sake of learning.
Disadvantages
 This form of assessment cannot be used to discriminate among

learners.
 Standards for passing work may be low, thus allowing some
learners to pass with little effort.
 Learners may develop a habit of doing just enough work to get
by.
 Learners get so conditioned to receive high grades that they
suffer psychologically when grade rewards are not given.
 The freedom inherent in this system tends to encourage learners
to cut corners in their learning efforts to the point of sacrificing
acquisition of fundamental knowledge and skills.
 It can happen that teachers become unable to motivate learners
and even may experience discipline problems in the classroom.
Search the following webpage:

www.ualr.edu/pace/UDCD/files/everything.pdf. Here you will find a
comprehensive discussion on the features of marks/grades.
6.1.5 Grading symbols
267
Grades in the realm of education are standardised measurements of
varying levels of comprehension within a subject area. Grades can be
assigned in letters (for example, A, B, C, D, or E, or F), as a range (for
example 4.0–1.0), as a number out of a possible total (for example, out
of 20 or 100), as descriptors (excellent, great, satisfactory, needs
improvement), in percentages, or, as is common in some post-
secondary institutions in some countries, as a Grade Point Average
(GPA).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(education)
Following are some examples of grading symbols:
Percentage Letter Grade
90-100 A+ 4.0
86-89 A 4.0
80-85 A- 3.7
77-79 B+ 3.3
73-76 B 3.0
70-72 B- 2.7
67-69 C+ 2.3
63-66 C 2.0
60-62 C- 1.7
57-59 D+ 1.3
50-56 D 1.0
0-49 F 0.0
Study the grade descriptors of the primary and upper primary as

described in 2.3. Your grading symbols must comply with these
descriptors.
Below is an example of grading symbols for writing assignments:
268
Major errors
Symbol Type of error Way(s) to fix
frag fragment Write a complete sentence.
Remember that you must have a
main clause, which will include an
independent subject and verb.
cs comma splice Break the error into two separate
sentences.
fs fused sentence Break the error into two separate
sentences.
agr subject-verb Remember that singular subjects
agreement require singular verbs [ones that
end in s] and that plural subjects
require plural verbs [ones that do
not end in s].
tense verb tense Consult a handbook or a
dictionary for the correct verb
form.
Important [but less severe] errors:
Symbol Type of error Way(s) to fix

pro pronoun error Use the correct pronoun form.
Consult a handbook or class
notes.
ʌ missing comma Add a comma.
sp spelling Use a dictionary!
CE capitalisation Use either a capital letter or a
lower case letter.
art article error Use a, an, or the correctly.
apos apostrophe error Insert an apostrophe where it
belongs, or take it out if it does not
belong.
pl plural error Make the word plural or
singular.
punc punctuation error Some type of punctuation is

necessary. Consult a handbook
or class notes.
269
poss possessive error The word needs to be
possessive—either ’s or s’.
noun noun form Check the dictionary for the

correct noun form.
verb verb form Check the dictionary or a

handbook for the correct verb
form.
adj adjective form Check the dictionary for the

correct adjective form.
adv adverb form Check the dictionary for the

correct adverb form.
prep preposition error Add a preposition if one is

necessary, or use a different
preposition.
end ending error Proofread the ends of words for

the correct spelling or word
form.
ww wrong word Check a dictionary for the right

word.
mw missing word Proofread more carefully.
Awk awkward phrasing Rephrase whatever is marked.

Keep your ideas short and
clear.
¶ new paragraph Begin a new paragraph at the

place marked.
Etc. more examples of Find the other instances of the

the error exist same problem on your own.
 wrong order of Fix the order of the letters,

letters, words, or words, or punctuation.
punctuation
http://rlsimmons.blogs.com/enc1101/files/symbols.pdf
Below is another example of grading symbols:
270
Symbol Description
Star  Really good, outstanding
Plus sign + Good, proficient
Check mark √ Acceptable (or "passing")
Minus sign - Poor or flawed
Weak Lacking depth, needs development
X Incorrect
inc Incomplete
R Resubmit. The work is inadequate and must be

resubmitted within one week. Attach the original
deliverable to the back of the complete new
deliverable. Failure to resubmit will earn a zero.
NC No credit. The work is not at an acceptable level of

quality.
FWG Follow Writing Guidelines. The work must follow the

"mechanics" guidelines above.
http://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~jdalbey/302/writing_guidelines.html

assessment tools
6.2.1 Purpose and features of the marking scheme
A marking scheme is a set of criteria used in assessing learners’

learning. There is a wide variety of marking schemes for different
purposes. The assessment activity will guide the designing and use of a
particular marking scheme.
Visit the following internet pages where you will find information and
examples of mark schemes:
271
http://emaths.co.uk/SAT%20PAPERS/KS2%20SAT%20Papers/KS2
%20English/English%20KS2%20SAT%202007/KS2%20SAT%202
007%20English%20Markscheme.pdf
http://www.cie.org.uk/qualifications/academic/primary/primarycheckpo
int/resources Look for “Specimen papers and marking schemes”
and click on the different marking schemes.
Take special note of the purposes for and features of the marking
scheme. This information is important in order to complete the learning
activity, but more importantly for your assignment and examination.
6.2.2 The analytic or holistic marking of essays
An essay is an assessment question that requires an answer in a

sentence, paragraph, or short composition. Writing an essay demands
high level thinking and makes demands on the ability to create,
organise, and integrate data and ideas.
There are generally three kinds of essays:
 Role play essays

Learners respond to the essay as if he/she is performing a specific
role in the essay, e.g. to write a letter to a business complaining
about the service.
 Structured essays
Structured essays are essays which have specific questions or
topics that require answers. This type of essay is useful if the
teacher wishes to test specific knowledge and techniques. It is also
easier to mark as the teacher knows what type of answers to
expect.
 Interpretation of data essays

Learners are asked to write an essay based on data from a
report/experiment they produced or from an external source.
Usually an essay consists of:
 Introduction/aims/objectives.
 Major points and ideas explained and summarised.
 Results/related points/Issues/or others depending on the topic.
 Conclusion – future work.
272
The nature of essay assessment poses a range of challenges for the
marking process. It is a skill that a teacher develops over time. The
marking of essays is very time-consuming and the reliability of the
marking can be very low.
The designing of a good essay assignment is the starting point of

successful assessment. The following are important when designing the
assignment:
 Let learners know the assessment criteria and marking scheme,

including grammar, spelling and other issues.
 Reduce vagueness in the essay questions, clearly define the
expected response such as compare, evaluate, summarise,
critique etc. (Refer to the relevant verbs in Bloom’s taxonomy, for
e.g. analyse, evaluate, and create)
 Do not use essays to measure knowledge or understanding that
can be assessed by using less time-consuming assessment
methods.
Essays are marked and graded with a rubric. There are two general
grading approaches to marking and grading essays, viz holistic and
analytic grading. The holistic approach refers to grading the essay as a
whole. The analytic approach refers to grading the important
components of the essay and assigns marks to each component.
Below is a sample of an analytic essay rubric from Pearson Education:

http://www.phschool.com/professional_development/rubrics/writing_assi
gnment.pdf
Marking Excellent Proficient Average Poor

rubrics
Content
Introducti Attitude Thesis is Unclear; Introduction is

on: is clear; formulaic incomplete,
defined; provides ; not ineffective, or
thesis is direction creative. missing.
clearly for
focused; essay.
subject is
significan
t.
273
Idea Interestin Clear Simplisti Absent or
develop g; and c; ineffective.
ment: sophistic thoughtfu uneven
ated; l. in
insightful. quality;
lacking
in
relevanc
e.
Support Detailed; Sufficient Uneven. Vague,

or accurate; and missing, or
evidence convincin accurate. inaccurate.
: g.
Word Engagin Appropri Uneven Limited,

choice: g and ate to monotonous,
powerful task. inappropriate.
choice of
words.
Conclusi Extends; Purposef Summa- Absent,

on: connects ul and rises incomplete, or
; perceptiv previousl unfocused.
comment e. y stated
s on informati
topics. on.
Organisation
Topic Clearly Compreh Provides Absent.

sentence related to ensive bland
s: thesis; and restatem
compreh logical. ent of
ensive; thesis;
incorpora narrow
tes or
effective inaccurat
transition e.
s.
274
Paragrap Contribut Demonst Ineffectiv Random.
h order: es to an rates a e or
effective clear inconsist
argument plan. ent.
;
reinforce
s the
content.
Transitio Effective Clear Mechani Absent.

ns: and and cal.
varied. functiona
l.
6.2.3 The
analytic or
Mechanics holistic
assessment
Sentenc Complet Complet Variety Repetitious; of group
e e; varied; e and is fragments and work
structure: interestin correct. present; run-ons are
g. some frequent. Group work
errors can facilitate
are the
evident. development
of skills, such
Punctuat Error- Present Careless Block as:
ion/spelli free. but do or meaning.
 Teamwork
ng: not distractin
skills (skills in
interfere g.
working within
with
team
meaning.
dynamics;
leadership
skills).
 Analytical and cognitive skills (analysing task requirements;
questioning; critically interpreting material; evaluating the work of
others).
 Collaborative skills (conflict management and resolution;
accepting intellectual criticism; flexibility; negotiation and
compromise).
 Organisational and time management skills.
There are three good reasons for group learning
275
 Peer learning can improve the overall quality of learning.
 Group work can help develop specific general skills.
 Group work may reduce the workload involved in assessing,
grading and providing feedback to learning.
The design of assessment is central to capturing the benefits of group

work and avoiding its pitfalls. Assessment defines the character and
quality of group work. In fact, the way in which learners approach group
work is largely determined by the way in which they are to be assessed.
The following are important considerations when choosing groups:
 Determining group membership: Matching group members who

work well together is important. Cohesiveness in groups ensures
that time and effort is spent on the task rather than on developing
cohesiveness when dealing with unproductive conflict.
Some options for determining group membership:
- Letting learners choose their group ('friendship groups')

- Teacher assigning groups
- Randomly selected groups
 Establishing the role(s) and responsibility of group members:

Give clear guidelines about the possible roles and expected
contributions of group members regarding their roles (for
example, leader, note taker and so on), responsibility, behaviour
and contributions.
 Defining group processes and procedures: Guidelines and

procedures for group work and group assessment should be
detailed. It is essential that the purpose and function of group
activities and assessment be explained fully to learners.
Before designing a group activity, first answer the following

questions:
- Why are learners doing this in groups and not individually -

what is the advantage of group work and group
assessment here?
- How will this group activity help achieve the learning
objectives?
- How will it be fairly assessed?
276
Getting the assessment right is critical. Decisions about how to
structure the assessment of group work need to be focussed
around four factors:
- Whether that which is to be assessed is the product of the

group work, the process of the group work, or both (and if
the latter, what proportion of each)?
- What criteria will be used to assess the aspect(s) of group
work interest (and who will determine these criteria –
teacher, learners or both)?
- Who will apply the assessment criteria and determine
marks (teacher, learners - peer and/or self-assessment or
a combination)?
- How will marks be distributed (shared group mark, group
average, individually, combination)?
Clear guidelines are essential in successful group work. Here

are some example rubrics to look at. You will have to design a
rubric for each group work activity to meet the learning
outcomes.
Group participation assessment rubric:
Apprentice Basic Learned Exemplary
- Rarely - Contributed - Contributed - Contributed

contributed to good effort to great effort to exceptionally
the group’s the group’s the group’s effort to the
project; often project. project. group’s
needed to be - Was helpful - Did a good project.
begged to and job of - Did a fantastic
focus and cooperative organising job in
produce; in completing group efforts organising
frequently off his or her and keeping group efforts
task; distracted share. people on and keeping
group. track. people on
- Rarely - Completed track.
completed his his or her - Went above
or her share; share with and beyond
almost always great effort. the call of duty
needed to be to further
prodded. group’s work.
277
Class participation assessment rubric:
- Does not attend - Participation - Participation is - Attends all

class on a is generally as good as but one or
consistent similar to one one receiving two class
basis. receiving an an exemplary sessions.
- Never prepared apprentice rating, but one - Always well
for class. rating, but or two prepared for
Evident that there are one elements are class.
individual has or two not quite at a - Evident that
not completed elements distinguished individual
reading which are level. has
assignments relatively well completed all
prior to class. done. reading
- Exhibits assignments
negative prior to
attitudes toward class.
course and - Exhibits
class members. positive,
- Does not supportive
contribute to attitude
class toward
discussions or course and
in-class class
activities. members.
- Consistently
contributes
to class
discussion.
- Consistently
contributes
to in-class
activities.
Group presentation assessment rubric:
278
- Presenters are - The - The - Presenters
difficult to hear. presentation presentation speak in a
The rates of is generally is as good as clear voice and
speaking are similar to one receiving show a flair for
too fast or too one a communicating
slow. receiving a distinguished with the
- The speakers novice rating, but audience.
do not show rating, but there are one - Rates of
much interest there are or two speech are
and/or one or two elements of appropriate.
enthusiasm in elements the - A speaker
the topic. May which are presentation makes eye
sound like the relatively which are contact with
speakers are well done. less polished. everyone and
reading the has no
presentation. nervous
- Eye contact is habits, is
made with only appropriately
some of the dressed and
audience. has excellent
- The speakers posture.
may have - Presentation
nervous habits involves
which distract audience,
from allowing time
presentation. for audience to
The speakers think and
are not respond.
presentable. - Presentation is
- Speakers do well organised
not involve with a
audience. beginning,
- Presentation middle and
shows little end. There is a
organisation, strong
unclear organising
purpose, theme, with
unclear clear main
relationship ideas and
and/or transitions.
transition - Information is
between complete and
presenters, accurate.
279
rambles or may Clear evidence
seem like a list of research.
of facts. Lacks - Visual aids are
conclusion. well done and
- Details and are used to
examples are make the
lacking or not presentation
well chosen for more
the topic or interesting and
audience. meaningful.
Lacks evidence - Handout(s)
of research. attractive, well
organised and
includes
relevant
information.
- Appropriate
length.
280
Group work rubric”
Criteria Apprentice Basic Learned Exemplary
Decision One person Some Most Learners

making dominates learners learners contribute
decision- contribute to contribute to decision-
making. decision- to decision- making.
making. making.
Social Learners Learners pay Body Learners

interaction frequently attention to and/or respect and
interrupt the group verbal encourage
and/or put discussion. responses the views of
down the indicate others.
views of Some active Learners
others. learners ask listening. ask
Learners do questions Most questions or
not ask and build on learners clarification.
questions or others’ ask Learners
clarification. comments. questions build on
and build others’
on others’ comments.
comments.
Contributi Learners do Some Most Learners

ng not contribute learners learners consistently
in any positive contribute contribute contribute in
way to the positively to positively to a positive
group work. the group the group way to the
work. work. group work.
On-task Learners Learners Most Learners

behaviour exhibit on- exhibit on- learners exhibit on-
task task exhibit on- task
behaviour behaviour task behaviour
inconsistently some of the behaviour consistently
time. most of the .
time.
Group With With Learners Learners

structure assistance, assistance, complete a complete a
and learners have learners are sequence clear and
281
functionin difficulty able to of steps. logical
g sequencing sequence Complete sequence of
steps. Task is steps. Rush task on steps.
not completed to complete time. The Complete
on time. task. Division leader task with
of tasks and assigns form and
responsibiliti responsibilit reflection
es is ies and and
inefficient tasks. revision.
and wastes Members
time. volunteer to
take
responsibilit
ies and
roles.
Elementary teamwork rubric:
Category Exemplar Proficie Partially Unsatisfac Marks

y nt proficient tory
Focus on 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

the task
Stays on Stays on Stays on Hardly ever
task all of task task some stays on
the time most of of the task. Lets
without the time. time. others do
reminders. Group Group the work.
member members
s can must
count on sometime
this s remind
person. this
person to
do the
work.
A true A strong Sometime Sometimes

team group s an chooses
member member active not to help
who works who group out, and
hard and tries member, does not
helps hard! but needs complete
tasks.
282
others in to try
the group. harder.
Work 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

habits
Is on time Usually Sometime Late for all
for on time s late for or most
meetings, for meetings, meetings,
turns in all meeting often and late
work when s, turns turns in turning in
it is due. in most work late. work.
work
when it
is due.
Completes Complet Does not Does not

assigned es most follow complete
tasks and assigne through tasks.
does not d tasks. on most Depends
depend on tasks and on others to
others to sometime do all of the
do the s counts work.
work. on others
to do the
work
Listening 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

,
questioni Respectful Respect Has Does not
ng and ly listens, fully trouble listen with
discussin discusses, listens, listening respect,
g asks discusse with argues with
questions s and respect, team
and helps asks and takes mates, and
direct the question over does not
group in s. discussion consider
solving s without other ideas.
problems. letting Blocks
other group from
people reaching
have a agreement.
turn.
Research 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

and
informati Gathers Usually Sometime Almost
on- informatio provides s provides never
sharing n and useful useful provides
shares informati informatio useful
283
useful on and n and information
ideas for ideas for ideas for or ideas for
discussion discussi discussion discussion.
s. All on. .
informatio
n fits the
group’s
goals
Problem- 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

solving
Actively Improve Does not Does not
seeks and s on offer try to solve
suggests solutions solutions, problems or
solutions suggest but is help others
to ed by willing to solve
problems. other try problems.
group solutions
member suggested
s. by other
group
members.
Group/pa 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 points ___/3

rtner
teamwor Works to Usually Occasion Does not
k complete helps to ally helps work well
all group complet to with others
goals. e group complete and shows
goals. group no interest
goals. in
completing
group
goals.
Always Usually Sometime Often

has a has a s makes makes fun
positive positive fun of the of others’
attitude attitude task(s) or work and
about the about the work has a
task(s) the of other negative
and the task(s) group attitude.
work of and the members.
others. work of
others.
All team Assisted Finished Contributed

members group/pa individual little to the
contribute rtner in task but group effort
284
d equally the did not during the
to the finished assist project.
finished project. group/part
project. ner during
the
project.
Performed Perform Performe Did not

all duties ed d a few perform
of nearly duties of any duties
assigned all duties assigned of assigned
team role of team role team role
and assigne and and did not
contribute d team contribute contribute
d role and d a small knowledge,
knowledge contribut amount of opinions or
, opinions, ed knowledg skills to
and skills knowled e, share with
to share ge, opinions, the team.
with the opinions and skills Relied on
team. , and to share others to do
Always did skills to with the the work.
the share team.
assigned with the Complete
work. team. d some of
Complet the
ed most assigned
of the work.
assigne
d work.
TOTAL POINTS ___ /18
6.2.4 The criteria for grading products (placard, models, drawings)
Products are usually assessments that are visual and/or can be

displayed. The assessment activity could be applied to a variety of
products such as placards, models or drawings.
Before designing the assessment task it is important to find answers to

the following questions:
 Will this product assess the learning outcomes?

 Will the desired learning have been achieved by the creation of
this product?
 How will this product be fairly assessed?
285
The structure of the assessment must be determined beforehand
because this will determine the construction of the assessment tool. The
following needs to be considered:
 What will be assessed, the product or the process of creating

the product?
 What criteria will be used? The purpose of the assessment will
determine the criteria.
 How will the assessment be done (teacher, peer or both)?
The designing of good assessment tasks is important for successful

assessment. Learners must know beforehand:
 The assessment criteria.

 Clearly defined expectations.
 The rubric or checklist according to which they will be assessed.
The way in which the learners are going to be assessed will determine
the learner’s approach to the designing and making of the product.
Here are two example rubrics and one checklist for assessing posters:
Organisation Innovative, Overall the Some thought Haphazard

of the and stylish. impression given to presentation
material The is good. overall image. which
organisation There are Difficult to appears to
allows the some follow the be little more
viewer to imaginative story. than a
easily find aspects and collection of
their way sequence is images and
through the logical. words in an
presentation. almost
random
order.
Image All images Images are The images Images are

content are used are poorly
imaginatively appropriately appropriate selected and
chosen and and answer and partly add very little
convey the the question. answer the to the
message in question. answer.
an
informative
manner.
286
Image Excellent Good quality Images are of Little effort
quality throughout. images. Any an adequate shown in
Good use of variance in standard attention to
colour. quality does detail. Most
not detract of the images
from overall are of poor
impression quality and
may show
signs of ill-
treatment.
Written word Excellent use Mostly good Appropriate Generally

of written choice of use of words poor choice
word. Short statements. adds to of written
statements, Relevant understanding. words which
which add to and concise. tend to
the quality. distract
Correct use rather than
of quotes inform. Too
and many words
appropriate and/or
fonts & style. inappropriate
font/style.
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Required The poster All required All but one of Several

elements includes all elements are the required required
required included on elements is elements were
elements as the poster. included on missing.
well as the poster.
additional
information.
Labels All items of Almost all Many items of Labels are too
importance on items of importance on small to view
the poster are importance on the poster are OR no
clearly labelled the poster are clearly labelled important
with labels that clearly labelled with labels that
287
can be read with labels that can be read items were
from at least 3 can be read from at least 3 labelled.
ft. away. from at least 3 ft. away.
ft. away.
Graphics - All graphics All graphics All graphics Graphics do

relevance are related to are related to relate to the not relate to
the topic and the topic and topic. One or the topic OR
make it easier most make it two borrowed several
to understand. easier to graphics have borrowed
All borrowed understand. a source graphics do
graphics have Some citation. not have a
a source borrowed source citation.
citation. graphics have
a source
citation.
Attractivenes The poster is The poster is The poster is The poster is

s exceptionally attractive in acceptably distractingly
attractive in terms of attractive messy or very
terms of design, layout though it may poorly
design, layout, and neatness. be a bit messy. designed. It is
and neatness. not attractive.
Grammar There are no There are 1-2 There are 3-4 There are
grammatical/m grammatical/m grammatical/m more than 4
echanical echanical echanical grammatical/m
mistakes on mistakes on mistakes on echanical
the poster. the poster. the poster. mistakes on
the poster.
http://teacherweb.com/ME/JALeonardMiddleSchoolOldTown/Ecologywe
bquest/page3.htm
Assessment checklist: a movie poster
Front side of poster has persuasive title, picture and /6

statements to attract attention. Images relate to textual
elements
288
Back side of poster includes starring roles (characters), /6
locations (setting) and a brief
Visually appealing /4
Project shows evidence of thoughtfulness and creativity /4
TOTAL /20
6.2.5 The use and grading of portfolios
The portfolio is a purposeful, cumulative and ongoing collection of a

learner’s work that tells the story of the learner’s efforts, progress or
achievement. It is a record of the learner’s process of learning that
portrays the learner’s style of thinking, questioning, analysis, production
and creation. It is used by the teacher and the learner to monitor the
growth of the learner’s knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a specific
content area.
The aim (for a teacher) of using a portfolio is to:
 Assess the progress of the learner over a period of time.

 To determine the efficiency of the teaching.
 To have connection with the parents of the learners.
 To evaluate the education programme.
 To enable schools to have contact with the commodity.
 To help learners with self-assessment.
 To determine the learner’s weak points in the learning process.
A very important part of portfolio preparation relates to determining the

purposes for the portfolio. The latter directly affects the process of
creating and assessing the portfolio. The purposes for the portfolio also
determine what kinds of items should be in it.
There are various ways of preparing portfolios depending upon the

purpose. The four general steps are:
 Collection. Learners are required to collect their tasks, which

meet the criteria.
 Selection. The selection process is based on the type of
portfolio, which has been stipulated. Learners select their
collected tasks that are appropriate for their portfolio.
289
 Reflection. The most important process of portfolio construction
is self-reflection upon completion of a task. Reflection is a vital
aspect of self-assessment and enhances the learning process.
 Connection. Learners have to establish a connection between
the schoolwork and the value of what they are learning.
There are many genres of portfolios that can be useful for the purpose
of both instruction and assessment. The main categories are:
 Personal portfolio:
The personal portfolio serves as a vehicle for self-reflection and/or
sharing and can contain pictures, awards, videos, or other
memorabilia.
 The working portfolio:

Generally includes samples of the learner’s tasks that show his/her
progress over a certain period. It also depicts the story of the
learner’s growth in performance. Moreover, this type of portfolio
also includes the self-reflection upon and self-assessment of the
accomplished task. This helps assess how the learner has
progressed over time and indicates the limitation of his/her learning
as well as any constraints that have influenced his/her learning
process.
 The showcase portfolio:

This includes the collection of tasks that the learner considers
his/her best among the accomplished and representative ones.
Despite its limitation in incorporating developmental tasks, it helps
motivate the learner to demonstrate outstanding performance. A
limited number of items are selected to exhibit growth over time
and to serve a particular purpose.
 The record-keeping portfolio:

This includes all the items that are scored, ranked, graded or
evaluated. To some extent, this portfolio is similar to product-
oriented portfolio, which is prepared by the teacher for each
learner. This type of portfolio is usually kept by teachers.
 Group portfolio:
Each member of a cooperative learning group contributes
individual items along with group items (e.g., samples, pictures,
community projects) to demonstrate the effectiveness of the entire
group.
290
 Thematic portfolio:
This portfolio would relate to a unit of study with a particular focus,
normally lasting from 2 to 6 weeks.
 Integrated portfolio:
To view the whole learner, works from all disciplines showing
connections between or among subjects would be included.
Selected items, either required or optional, could be drawn from
several or all subjects.
 Electronic portfolio:
Technological advances have made electronic portfolios possible.
 Multiyear portfolio:
Learners would collect items from a cluster of grade levels over 2-,
3-, or 4-year intervals. The multiyear portfolio would be stored at
the school. This portfolio can, for example, be used to periodically
follow learners’ progress.
Determine the purpose of the portfolio before the assessment criteria

are designed. Assessment criteria for each item in the portfolio need to
be explained. It is very important to determine the criteria for assessing
the portfolio because these allow learners to recognise and select work
that is considered of a high quality. Assessment criteria which have
been used to determine the quality of the learner’s performance should
be clear and easy to understand. This is quite important if learners have
to assess their own work and for them to be able to recognise their
weaknesses. Rubrics are best to use in order to determine whether
there is evidence of quality in the portfolio and to make reliable and valid
assessments.
There is no exact way or method for the assessment of portfolios.

Various methods can be used depending on their aims:
 If the purpose of a portfolio is to improve the learner’s learning

and to diagnose his/her learning needs, then the works in the
portfolio are usually determined by teachers. Learners are given
feedback for their works by teachers and peers. This kind of
feedback is used to improve learning.
 If the purpose of the portfolio is to assess progress over an
extended period of time, and to provide evidence for grades, than
the portfolio contains some standard work for everyone and the
works in the portfolio are selected by learners. This portfolio
291
includes the best works of a learner in a term or year. They are
assessed by teachers in terms of the criteria determined before.
Attached are two examples of portfolio rubrics:
Portfolio evaluation
Profile of a Bilingual Child 201_ - 201_
Child's Name _____________________________Grade Level

_________________________
District _________________School ___________________Teacher

____________________
First Language (L1) ____________Second Language (L2) _____________
Date _________
Curriculum/assessment Does not meet Meets Exceeds

areas standards standards standards
Oral language L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2
Written language L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2
Reading L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2
Overall profile summary L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2
Pieces of evidence for curriculum/assessment areas
Curriculum/ L1 Date L2 Date

completed completed
Assessment areas
I. Oral language 1.1_________ _________ 1.1_______ _________
1.2_________ _________ 1.2_______ _________
292
1.3_________ _________ 1.3_______ _________
1.4_________ _________ 1.4_______ _________
II. Written language 2.1_________ _________ 2.1_______ _________
2.2_________ _________ 2.2_______ _________
2.3_________ _________ 2.3_______ _________
2.4_________ _________ 2.4_______ ________
III. Reading 3.1_________ _________ 3.1_______ _________
3.2_________ _________ 3.2_______ _________
3.3_________ _________ 3.3_______ _________
3.4_________ _________ 3.4_______ _________
Draft by Margo Gottlieb, Illinois Resource Centre, 1855 Mt. Prospect

Road, Des Plaines, IL 60018
This is an example of a rubric for a teacher’s portfolio.
Portfolio Assessment Rubrics
(Gonzalez, 2004)
Media & Design Elements Rubric

Source: www.samford.edu/ctls/Portfolio_Assessment_Rubrics
Novice Apprentice Journeyma Expert

n
earned
Points
0-3 points 4-6 points 7-9 points 10 points
Typograph Titles, Titles, Most of the Titles,

y subheadings subheadings titles, subheadin
, and text , and text subheadings gs, and
are are , and text text are
displayed in displayed in are displayed
various the same displayed in in sizes
293
sizes that size. Some sizes that that reflect
are large text reflect the the content
inconstant blocks are content hierarchy.
with the utilised. A hierarchy. Excessive
content variety of Very few scrolling in
hierarchy. font styles large text text blocks
Excessive are utilised blocks exist. is avoided:
scrolling in to enhance Some separate
text blocks the design. inconsistenc pages are
exists. ies in font utilised
Numerous styles exist. instead. A
font styles minimal
are utilised number of
thereby font styles
increasing are utilised.
file size.
Images Some Most of All images All images

images are the images are are
appropriate are appropriate appropriate
for the appropriate for the for
content and and several content and the content
have few if have target and target
any alternative audience. audience.
alternative text (ALT All have Informative
text (ALT tags). Not all alternative alternative
tags). Images are text (ALT text (ALT
displayed tags). tags) are
with Images are supplied
appropriate displayed for all
sizing and with graphics.
resolution. appropriate All images
sizing and are
resolution. displayed
with
appropriate
sizing and
resolution.
Audio & Portfolio Portfolio inc Portfolio Portfolio

video contains orporates incorporates effectively
inappropriat one or two the incorporate
294
e or no digitized appropriate s digitised
digitised audio and digitised audio and
audio and video audio and video
video artefacts. video artefacts.
artefacts. artefacts.
Layout The layout The layout The layout The layout

follows a follows a should follows a
consistent consistent follow a consistent
pattern but pattern and consistent pattern,
does not reflects the pattern and reflects the
reflect the purpose of reflect the purpose of
purpose of the content purpose of the
the content but does not the content. content,
and/or address a and is
address the specific targeted
needs of the target towards a
target audience. specific
audience. audience.
Hyperlinks Most of Most of Most of the Both

the internal internal and internal and internal
and external external external and
hyperlinks hyperlinks hyperlinks external
are are are hyperlinks
appropriate appropriate appropriate are
for the for the for the appropriate
content, a content and content, for the
number of function function content,
them correctly. correctly, function
function and are correctly,
incorrectly. appropriate and are
for a general appropriate
target for a
audience. specific
target
audience.
Navigation The portfolio The portfolio The portfolio The

is somewhat is fairly easy is easy to portfolio is
difficult to to navigate. navigate. A easy to
295
navigate. A The navigation navigate. A
navigation navigation bar is navigation
bar is bar is included and bar is
missing or inconsistent consistent included
inappropriat across the across the and
e for the product or product. The consistent
content missing in design of across the
and/or certain the product.
design. areas. navigation The design
bar assists of the
the viewer in navigation
understandi bar assists
ng where to the viewer
find specific in
data. understand
ing where
to find
specific
data. The
navigation
structure is
designed
with a
specific
target
audience in
mind.
Audience The The The The

artefacts artefacts artefacts artefacts
contained in contained in contained in contained
the portfolio the portfolio the portfolio in the
address a address the address portfolio
number of programme programme clearly
the requirement requirement address
programme s and fit the s, and fits programme
requirement purpose of a the purpose requiremen
s. general and ts and fit
audience. usefulness the
of a generic purpose
audience. and
usefulness
296
of a
specific
audience.
If multiple
audiences
are
proposed,
the
organisatio
n reflects
these
various
audiences.
Content assessment rubric
Novice Apprentic Journeyma Expert Points

e n earne
0-3 points 4-6 points 7-9 points 10 points d
Thoroughne Artefacts Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient

ss are of poor artefacts to artefacts to artefacts
quality demonstrat demonstrate to
and/or some e learning learning demonstr
programme outcomes outcomes ate
competenci for each of for each of learning
es are not the the outcome
addressed. programm programme s for
No inclusion e competenci each of
rationale competenc es. Artefacts the
provided. ies are are of a high program
included. quality. me
Artefacts Some compete
are of a general ncies.
good rationale for Artefacts
quality. inclusion of are of a
Weak artefacts is high
rationale presented. quality.
for Well-
inclusion of stated
rationale
for
297
artefacts is inclusion
presented. of
artefacts
is
presente
d.
Written Artefact Incomplete Appropriate Appropri

reflection/rat reflections artefact yet ate and
ionale are unclear reflections somewhat complete
or missing. provided or incomplete reflection
general reflections s for
statements for each each
provided. artefact are artefact
provided. are
provided.
Each
statemen
t
includes
course
objective
s,
descripti
on of
artefact,
backgrou
nd of
artefact,
and
reflection
on
learning
demonstr
ated.
Evidence of Unclear or Evidence Clear Clear

learning contradictor of growth evidence of evidence
outcomes y evidence throughout growth of growth
of growth the throughout througho
throughout programm the ut the
the e programme program
298
programme displayed. displayed. me
displayed. Evidence Some displaye
Evidence of of general d.
improvemen improveme evidence of Evidence
t in nt in improvemen of
professional profession t in improve
practice al practice professional ment in
missing. has not practice professio
been included. nal
included. practice
included
(e.g.
lesson
plans or
units,
samples
of
learner
projects,
action
research,
faculty
develop
ment
materials
,
commen
dations,
reflective
journals).
Personal The The The The

introduction professional purpose of professional professio
/professiona philosophy the philosophy nal
l philosophy is unclear or philosophy is clearly philosop
contradictor is defined. hy is
y. described. Some clearly
No general describe
justification justifications d and
s for for beliefs includes
beliefs are specific
provided. and
299
have been appropri
included. ate
referenc
es to
justify
beliefs.
Background Resume/vita Current Current Portfolio

information e is not up resume/vit resume/vita contains
to date or is ae, e, a current
generic in educationa educational resume/v
nature, l philosophy itae,
educational philosophy and clearly
philosophy and professional defined
and profession goals are educatio
professional al goals generic in nal
goals are are nature, philosop
not unclear, letters of hy and
provided, letters of recommend professio
letters of recommen ation nal
recommend dation not provided, goals,
ation not provided or formal letters of
provided or inappropria evaluations recomme
inappropriat te, formal provided, a ndation,
e, formal evaluations nd formal
evaluations provided, tr transcripts evaluatio
missing, tra anscripts provided. ns, and
nscripts provided. transcript
incomplete. s.
Categories
 Novice - Lacks required components; is weak in selected

components, unprofessional demonstration, and representative of
poor work.
 Apprentice - Includes most of the required components, limited
professionalism demonstrated.
 Journeyman - Satisfies expectations, includes required
components, representative of professional work.
300
 Expert - Clearly outstanding product, includes extra components,
goes beyond the expectations, representative of exemplary work.
Performance criteria
 Exceeds expectations (144-160) - Portfolio is outstanding, reflects

extra components and exceeds normal expectations.
 Meets expectations (120-143) - Portfolio satisfies expectations,
includes required components, and is representative of
professional work.
 Minimal success (105-123) - Portfolio includes most of the required
components, lacks professionalism. Candidate should make
appropriate revisions to the product then resubmit for review and
assessment.
 Needs improvement (96-107) - Portfolio lacks required
components, weak in components illustrated, unprofessional
presentation techniques utilised. Candidate should receive
remedial instruction and guidance in making the required revisions.
 Unsatisfactory (95 or less) - Portfolio is incomplete in required and
selected components, incorporates unprofessional presentation
techniques, demonstrates inferior work, and is unacceptable. Work
must be redone with significant improvements.
For more examples of different rubrics search the following webpage:
http://www.schrockguide.net/assessment-and-rubrics.html
6.2.6 The use and benefits of computer assisted marking
Computer-assisted assessment (CAA) refers to the use of computers to

assess learners’ progress.
The assessments can vary in format:
 They can consist of a pre-printed paper test on to which learners

mark their responses, which are then processed automatically
using an optical mark reader; or involving the direct input of
learners’ responses into a computer terminal.
 They can be diagnostic– to determine learners’ knowledge prior to
starting a course, potentially allowing amendments to their specific
course design.
 They can be formative and include on-going feedback either during
the assessment or after. They may be ‘scored formatively’,
allowing on-going comparison of a learner’s progress over a period
of time, possibly replacing an end-of-term summative assessment.
301
 They may be summative, contributing to a learners’ end-of-year
mark. Depending on circumstances, such tests can be either
supervised or non-supervised, with the option of allowing learners
to check their own progress through self-assessment. Although
more commonly used for testing lower-order skills (such as
knowledge, understanding and application), when properly
formulated they can also be used for testing higher-order skills
(analysis, synthesis and evaluation). Their nature allows the
automation of what was previously a very time-consuming task:
that is, marking and monitoring progress.
Questions ideally suited for CAA are:
 True/false questions.
 Assertion-reason questions.
 Multiple-response questions.
 Text/numerical questions (involving the input of text or numbers at
the keyboard).
 Ranking questions (requiring learners to relate items in a column to
one another, thus testing the knowledge of the order of events).
 Sequencing questions (requiring the learner to position text in a
given sequence.
Benefits of using Computer-Assisted Assessment (CAA):
 No marking! Automatic marking abolishes marking time and allows

results to be known by the module leader immediately after the test
finishes.
 No moderation.
 It is a method which, in general, learners like.
 No plagiarism.
 Wider coverage of the range of the module content than say in
essay type questions – this ensures that learners are acquainted
with more than a few select topics in a module.
 Adds to the diversity of summative assessment methods.
 Provides an objective and consistent means for summative
assessing.
 Time effective in assessing very large modules.
 Enables assessments to be constructed using multimedia.
 Enhances the validity and the reliability of the assessment.
 It enables the assessment of a wide range of topics very quickly.
 The need for double marking is totally eliminated.
302
 This time and resource saving allows more regular assessment
enabling more detailed knowledge of learners’ progress and
quicker identification of problems.
 Tests can be tailored to match learners’ abilities and, with
formative assessments, it may be possible for content to be varied
automatically as the test itself progresses, matching learners’
weaknesses as they emerge during the test (‘computer adaptive
testing’).
 Saves time in supervision, invigilation and marking.
 Reduces subjectivity and human error in the marking process itself.
 Given the computer-based nature of the exercise, there is a
substantial reduction in printing costs
 Statistical evaluations of the results can be generated
automatically, with no additional keying in of marks, thus reducing
evaluation time.
 Allows for quick, detailed and specific feedback to learners
6.3 Effective marking practices
Study the document “Assessment for action. Marking and Feedback,

Manageable Effective ways of marking and providing feedback to learners”
below from the following webpage:
www.eriding.net/.../assessment/020312_jmundy_assess_marking_feedback
.doc
Study sections 1, 3 and 4. This document is also important for unit 7 (7.1). It is
therefore strongly suggested that you print this document.
Study the document referred to above to be able to do the learning activities.

This document is also important when doing the assignment and for studying
for the exams.
Assessment is first and foremost about helping learners to learn.
Basic principles
What is done in assessment, recording and reporting should:
 Be an on-going part of our planning and teaching.

 Be manageable and worthwhile.
 Be useful for the teacher and for future teachers.
 Be beneficial to learners.
303
 Offer all learners an opportunity to show what they understand, know and
can do.
 Involve children in self-assessment by helping them to understand what
they can already do and what they need to do to improve.
 Relate to shared learning objectives.
 Help parents to be involved in their children’s progress.
 Provide our school with information to evaluate our own work and set
suitable targets.
 Be based on a considered view of the key areas of learning which should
be deliberately assessed in each subject.
 Inform further learning and differentiation, helping teachers to plan more
effectively.
 Recognise that the National Curriculum is only part of the development of
the whole child, which also includes personal and social development.
Management, monitoring and evaluation
In our school, we will be managing, monitoring and evaluating assessment,

recording and reporting successfully if we:
 Have agreed and manageable policies for assessment, recording and

reporting and strategies for their implementation.
 Have clearly defined and well understood roles and responsibilities for our
staff.
 Are taking steps to ensure that teachers develop increasing consistency
with national standards in assessing learners’ progress.
 Know what is happening in our school in relation to all the aspects of
assessment, recording and reporting covered in this document and are
aware that everyone has significant responsibility for it.
 Monitor what is happening and judge whether it is good enough.
 Ensure that curriculum co-ordinators monitor the planning and the
delivery of their subjects through scrutiny of planning and learners' work.
 Act upon what we find out about the strengths and weaknesses of our
assessment processes.
Planning
Long term planning will be effective if we:
 Ensure full, broad and balanced coverage of the National Curriculum

programmes of study.
 Match the curriculum we teach to the needs of learners and prior learning.
 Identify what must be taught and when.
 Show entire coverage for a year group and/or mixed year groups.
304
 Involve the whole staff/department.
 Enable teachers to agree what will be assessed in depth.
Medium term planning will be effective in our school if we:
 Define learning objectives, activities and resources which are seen as an

overview rather than a list to be followed in an exact order.
 Identify concepts, knowledge, skills and attitudes within the learning
objectives.
 Indicate how achievement of these objectives will be recognised through
assessment opportunities.
 Link learning to success criteria.
 Evaluate its successes in light of learners' achievements and needs.
Short term planning will be effective in our school if we:
 Use our long and medium term plans to generate clear and specific
learning objectives.
 Outline the main parts of the activity, taking into consideration learners'
prior learning.
 Plan the types of questions to be asked.
 Assess learners' achievements in relation to the learning objectives.
 Use these assessments to identify the next steps (formative assessment).
 Take into consideration a range of learning styles.
 Plan a range of teaching techniques and assessment approaches which
reflects learners’ preferred learning styles.
 Have strategies for sharing the learning objectives, individual targets and
assessment criteria with the learners.
Assessment as an on-going process
In our classrooms, on-going assessment will be going well if we:
 Actively try to find out what learners know, understand and can do in all
areas of their learning.
 Ensure learners know what they are supposed to be learning, what they
have achieved and what they need to do to improve.
 Provide learners with opportunities to think and talk about their own
learning and progress, and to develop their self-evaluation skills at a level
appropriate to their age and ability.
 Can decide which assessment technique to use and when – e.g.
observing learners, asking questions, listening, looking at a piece of work,
testing etc.
305
 Use this range of assessment techniques with growing confidence,
drawing where necessary on other colleagues’ support.
 Use assessment strategies which enable us to diagnose specific reasons
why learners fail to understand or make progress.
 Use assessment in our short-term planning to help us decide what to do
next with individuals, groups of learners, or the class.
 Organise the classroom in a way which enables teachers to carry out
planned assessments and recognise an act upon unexpected
achievements of learners.
 Ensure that teachers work together to moderate standards for
assessment in the school.
 Ensure that the standards which have been agreed within our school are
in line with national standards and are consistently applied in the
classroom.
 Feel confident that other adults working in the classroom are clear about
their role in assessment, and will communicate significant information
about learners.
 Ensure that other adults working in the classroom are clear about their
role in assessment and will convey relevant information about learners.
 Recognise that not all learning needs to be assessed.
Target setting
Target setting will be effective if:
 Learners are fully involved in the process.

 Learners are not overwhelmed by too many targets.
 Learners understand their targets.
 Key areas of the curriculum are targeted.
 Targets are achievable.
 There is a range of targets e.g. whole-class, group and individual.
 Targets relate to National Curriculum level descriptions through ‘child-
speak’ criteria.
 Targets are displayed in a variety of ways and made accessible to all
learners.
 Targets are linked to learning objectives and learning outcomes.
 Targets are reviewed after a specific time-scale.
 Feedback, both oral and written, provides clear indication to show
learners when they are reaching their targets and ways forward.
 Learners' achievements are celebrated e.g. by incorporating a reward
system.
306
 Wall displays show examples of learner’s work relating to target setting
which encourages and enables learners to make improvements to their
own work.
For further information and practical guidance see 'Target Setting in the
Primary Classroom' and 'Managing Target Setting to Support School
Improvement'.
Learners' self-evaluation
Studies show that learners who have been trained to be self-evaluative make
significant progress. Self-evaluation enables learners to make reflective
comments about their learning, followed by teachers summarising,
disentangling misconceptions and providing links with future learning.
Self-evaluation will be effective if:
 Teachers spend time modelling the self-evaluation process prior to

learners becoming self-evaluators.
 Learning objectives are established and shared.
 Learners are given the opportunity to answer self evaluative questions,
which reflect the learning objective, during plenary sessions.
 Learners are given thinking time, before answering self-evaluative
questions.
 A variety of approaches are used to suit the type of lesson – whole class,
paired, group or individual responses.
 The focus is placed on oral and not written responses.
 Teachers summarise learners' reflections by unravelling misconceptions
and providing links with future work.
 There is a shared belief that finding something difficult can help learning.
Marking and providing feedback to learners
Marking and feedback work well if we:
 Have practice which is consistent and in line with the overall school policy
on assessment and marking.
 Are clear why we are marking learner’s work.
 Recognise that in some cases 'acknowledgement marking' is sufficient.
 Focus on the learning objectives when marking learners' work.
 Ensure that the criteria for success are shared with, and understood by,
the learners.
 Provide oral and written feedback to learners about their work regularly
and frequently; this will include acknowledgement of their achievements
and constructive criticism.
307
 Ensure that learners are clear about what they have done well and what
they need to do to improve and progress.
 Ensure that when written feedback is given, it focuses on how learners
could improve their work.
 Ensure that any improvements learners are asked to make to their work
relate to the learning objective and ‘close the gap’ between what they
have achieved and what they could have achieved.
 Ensure that learners are given time to respond to feedback and make
improvements to their work.
 Offer support to enable learners to achieve the learning targets set for
them.
 Provide learners with opportunities to assess their own and each others'
work and give feedback to each other.
 Use the information from marking to inform the review and evaluation of
teaching and planning.
 Use it to check that work has been done.
 Are specific and focused and do not attempt to cover everything.
 Share the policy with parents enabling them to reinforce it.
 Regularly review the policy, ensuring that the practice of new members of
staff reflects the school policy.
For further information and practical guidance see 'Marking and Feedback'.
Recording and evidence
Record-keeping and evidence will be useful in the classroom if we:
 Keep records in line with school/departmental policy.

 Receive records from previous teachers which are helpful and can be
used in planning what to do with the class and with individual learners.
 Keep records and evidence which contribute to the tracking of progress.
 Keep on-going records which help us to remember and plan what we
need to do with the class/groups/individual learners.
 Use professional judgement in recording learners’ progress and
achievements on the basis of agreed criteria, which should not simply
refer to formal tasks and tests.
 Retain selected examples of learners' work to show their strengths and
weaknesses and the progress they are making.
 Involve learners in reviewing their own work and recording progress.
 Involve learners in recording comments on their work.
 Have records which other people understand and find clear and useful.
 Have records and evidence which help us to write meaningful reports.
308
 Provide records (and possibly samples of work) which the next teacher or
school finds helpful.
 Use whole-school records to provide the information required for the
Common Transfer File (CTF).
Reporting to parents
Reports to parents are working well if we:
 Meet statutory requirements.

 Write in such a way that parents understand the information provided.
 Provide clear information about strengths and areas for development.
 Set realistic targets which are followed up through school support
systems.
 Promote parental involvement in their children’s learning.
 Ensure parents have time to respond to issues raised.
 Report Teacher Assessment and National Test/Task results at the end of
each key stages, ensuring that parents understand they have equal
status but provide different and complementary information.
 Clearly explain any individual and comparative data.
Assessing as an end of key stage process
In our school end of key stage assessment will be going well if we:
 Are fully aware of, and follow, the current statutory requirements.
 Are aware of and use, as appropriate, current guidance (e.g. from QCA
and the LEA).
 Identify, and act upon, any special arrangements needed for individual
learners.
 Prepare learners appropriately for end of key stages tests and tasks.
 Ensure that everyone is aware of the equal status of teacher assessment,
tests and tasks and the different and complementary nature of each.
 Make summative judgements in our teacher assessment which are
consistent with a shared understanding of standards developed amongst
colleagues.
 Draw on the whole range of ongoing assessments, records and evidence
when making end of key stage teacher assessment.
 Recognise the importance of assessing learners’ progress at key points
(i.e. end of unit, end of key stage, etc.) in all areas of learning.
 Have a clear understanding of the level descriptions and how to apply
them holistically.
 Use the information from end of key stage assessment to plan future
teaching and learning.
309
 Use the information from end of key stage assessment to help evaluate
the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
Transferring
In our school the transition process will be successful if:
 We ensure that statutory requirements are met.

 Assessment information is available for all learners and disseminated to
all year 7 teachers and tutors.
 We have systems and dialogue in place to ensure the agreed information
gets to the right people in school and to and from other schools and
agencies.
 The information focuses on significant aspects of learning.
 We read and use the information we receive to provide appropriate
challenge and support for each learner.
 There are opportunities for teachers to observe learning in partner
schools and settings.
 There are opportunities for teachers across key-stages, to work together
on curriculum issues.
 Consider that documents such as the National Progress File (replacing
the National Record of Achievement) will have a wide audience which can
include colleges and prospective employers.
For further information and practical guidance see 'Ensuring Effective

Transition from Primary to Secondary School'.
Using assessment in evaluating provision
In order to take positive steps to improve our school, we look at our

assessment and test results to see if:
 We have expectations which are appropriate for all learners.

 There is improvement in relation to learners’ earlier levels of attainment.
 Boys and girls are achieving similar results.
 Some classes are performing better than others.
 Particular groups of learners are performing better than others.
 There are variations in performance in different subjects or attainment
targets.
 Learners here do as well as learners in similar schools elsewhere.
 There are any year-on-year trends.
 Results from question analysis identify gaps in teaching and/or learning.
 Ensure that the school improvement plan reflects findings.
310
6.4 Marking scheme’s reflection on the allocation of marks for
Bloom’s higher level verbs
Reflection can be a challenging endeavour. It is not something that is fostered

in school - typically someone else tells you how you are doing! At best,
learners can narrate what they did, but have trouble thinking abstractly about
their learning patterns, connections and progress.
In an effort to help schools become more reflective learning environments,

Peter Pappas developed this "Taxonomy of Reflection", modelled on Bloom's
approach. It is posted in four instalments:
 Taxonomy of reflection.
 The reflective learner.
 The reflective teacher.
 The reflective principal.
6.4.1 A taxonomy of lower to higher order reflection
Assume an individual has just completed a task. What types of

questions might they use to reflect on the experience? How might those
questions parallel Bloom’s Taxonomy?
Bloom’s remembering: Retrieving, recognising, and recalling relevant

knowledge from short- or long-term memory.
Reflection: What did I do?
 Bloom’s understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written,

or graphic messages.
 Reflection: What was important about what I did? Did I meet my
goals?
 Bloom’s applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through
executing, or implementing. Extending the procedure to a new
setting.
 Reflection: When did I do this before? Where could I use this
again?
 Bloom’s analysing: Breaking material into constituent parts,
determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall
structure or purpose.
Reflection: Do I see any patterns or relationships in what I did?
311
 Bloom’s evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and
standards.
 Reflection: How well did I do? What worked? What do I need to
improve?
 Bloom’s creating: Combining or reorganising elements into a new
pattern or structure.
Reflection: What should I do next? What’s my plan / design?
6.4.2 The reflective learner
Each level of reflection is structured to parallel Bloom's taxonomy.

Assume that a learner looked back on a project or assignment they had
completed. What sample questions might they ask themselves as they
move from lower to higher order reflection? (Note: I am not suggesting
that all questions are asked after every project - feel free to pick a few
that work for you.) Remember that each level can be used to support
mastery of the new common core standards.
Bloom's remembering: What did I do?
Learner reflection: What was the assignment? When was it due? Did I
get it turned in on time?
Bloom's understanding: What was important about what I did? Did

I meet my goals?
Learner reflection: Do I understand the parts of the assignment and how

they connect? Did my response completely cover all parts of the
assignment? Do I see where this fits in with what we are studying?
Bloom's application: When did I do this before? Where could I use

this again?
Learner reflection: How was this assignment similar to other

assignments? (In this course or others). Do I see connections in content,
product or process? Are there ways to adapt it to other assignments?
Where could I use this (content, product or process) my life?
Bloom's analysis: Do I see any patterns or relationships in what I

did?
Learner reflection: Were the strategies, skills and procedures I used

effective for this assignment? Do I see any patterns in how I approached
my work - such as following an outline, keeping to deadlines? What
312
were the results of the approach I used - was it efficient, or could I have
eliminated or reorganised steps?
Bloom's evaluation: How well did I do? What worked? What do I

need to improve?
Learner reflection: What are we learning and is it important? Did I do an

effective job of communicating my learning to others? What have I
learned about my strengths and my areas in need of improvement? How
am I progressing as a learner?
Bloom's creation: What should I do next? What's my plan / design?
Learner reflection: How can I best use my strengths to improve? What

steps should I take or resources should I use to meet my challenges?
What suggestions do I have for my teacher or my peers to improve our
learning environment? How can I adapt this content or skill to make a
difference in my life?
6.4.3. The reflective teacher
Reflection can be a challenging endeavour. It is not something that is

fostered in school - typically someone else tells you how you are doing!
Teachers are often so caught up in meeting the demands of the day,
that they rarely have the luxury to muse on how things went. Moreover,
teaching can be an isolating profession - one that dictates "custodial"
time with learners over "collaborative" time with peers.

Assume that a teacher looked back on a lesson (or project, unit, course,
etc) they have just taught. What sample questions might they ask
themselves as they move from lower to higher order reflection?
Teacher reflection: What was the lesson? Did it address all the content?
Was it completed on time? How did learners "score" on the
assessment?

I meet my goals?
Teacher reflection: Can I explain the major components of the lesson?

Do I understand how they connect with the previous / next unit of study?
Where does this unit fit into the curriculum? What instructional strategies
were used? Did I follow best practices and address the standards?
313
this again?
Teacher reflection: Did I build on content, product or process from

previous lessons? How does this lesson scaffold the learning for the
next lesson? How could I adapt the instructional approach to another
lesson? How could this lesson be modified for different learners?

did?
Teacher reflection: What background knowledge and skills did I assume

learners were bringing to the lesson? Were the instructional strategies I
used the right ones for this assignment? Do I see any patterns in how I
approached the lesson - such as pacing, grouping? Do I see patterns in
my teaching style - for example do I comment after every learner reply?
What were the results of the approach I used - was it effective, or could I
have eliminated or reorganised steps?

need to improve?
Teacher reflection: What are we learning and is it important? Were my

assumptions about learner background knowledge and skills accurate?
Were any elements of the lesson more effective than other elements?
Did some aspects need improvement? Were the needs of all learners
met? What levels of mastery did learners reach? What have I learned
about my strengths and my areas in need of improvement? How am I
progressing as a teacher?
Teacher reflection: How would I incorporate the best aspects of this

lesson in the future? What changes would I make to correct areas in
need of improvement? How can I best use my strengths to improve?
What steps should I take or resources should I use to meet my
challenges? Is there training or networking that would help me to meet
my professional goals? What suggestions do I have for our leadership or
my peers to improve our learning environment?
6.4.4. The reflective principal
Reflection can be a challenging endeavour. It is not something that is

fostered in school - typically someone else tells you how you are doing!
Principals (and instructional leaders) are often so caught up in meeting
314
the demands of the day, that they rarely have the luxury to muse on how
things went. Self-assessment is clouded by the need to meet competing
demands from multiple stakeholders.

Assume that a principal (or instructional leader) looked back on an
initiative (or programme, decision, project, etc.) they have just
implemented. What sample questions might they ask themselves as
they move from lower to higher order reflection?
Principal reflection: What role did I play in implementing this

programme? What role did others play? What steps did I take? Is the
programme now operational and being implemented? Was it completed
on time? Are assessment measures in place?

I meet my goals?
Principal reflection: What are the major components of the programme?

How do they connect with building / district goals? Is the programme in
compliance with federal / state / local mandates? Will it satisfy relevant
contracts? Is it within budget? Is the programme meeting its stated
goals?

this again?
Principal reflection: Did I utilise lessons learned earlier in my career? Did

I build on the approaches used in previous initiatives? Will the same
organisational framework or plan for implementation meet the needs of
another programme or project? How could my interaction with one
stakeholder group be modified for use with others?

did?
Principal reflection: Were the implementation strategies I used effective

for this situation? Do I see any patterns in how I approached the
initiative - such as timetable, communications, and input from
stakeholders? Do I see patterns in my leadership style - for example do I
over-promise, stall when I need to make a tough decision? What were
the results of the approach I used - was it effective or could I have
eliminated or reorganised steps?
315
need to improve?
Principal reflection: What are we doing and is it important? Does the

data show that some aspects of the programme are more effective than
others? What corrective measures might we take? Were the needs of all
stakeholders met? In a larger context, is the organisation improving its
capacity for improvement? Were some aspects of my leadership
approach more effective than others? What have I learned about my
strengths and my areas in need of improvement? How am I progressing
as a leader?
Principal reflection: What did I learn from this initiative and how would I
incorporate the best aspects of my experience in the future? What
changes would I make to correct areas in need of improvement? Given
our experience with this project, how would I address our next
challenge? Have I effectively helped our school forge a shared vision of
teaching and learning? And has it served as the foundation of this plan?
If this project will hold teachers more accountable for learner
performance, how am I meeting my responsibilities to provide the inputs
they need for success? How can I best use my strengths to improve?
What steps should I take or resources should I use to meet my
challenges? Is there training or networking that would help me meet my
professional goals? What suggestions do I have for my stakeholders,
supervisors or peers to foster greater collaboration?
Application
 The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations.

 Applying rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.
Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding

than those under comprehension.
Learning objectives at this level: apply concepts and principles to new

situations, apply laws and theories to practical situations, solve
mathematical problems, construct graphs and charts, and demonstrate
the correct usage of a method or procedure.
Question verbs: How could x be used to y? How would you show, make
use of, modify, demonstrate, solve, or apply x to conditions y?
Analysis
316
 The ability to break down material into its component parts.
 Identifying parts, analysis of relationships between parts,
recognition of the organisational principles involved.
Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than

comprehension and application because they require an understanding
of both the content and the structural form of the material.
Learning objectives at this level: recognise un-stated assumptions,

recognises logical fallacies in reasoning, distinguish between facts and
inferences, evaluate the relevancy of data, analyse the organisational
structure of a work (art, music, writing).
Question verbs: Differentiate, compare / contrast, distinguish x from y,

how does x affect or relate to y? Why? How? What piece of x is missing
/ needed?
Synthesis
(By definition, synthesis cannot be assessed with multiple-choice

questions. It appears here to complete Bloom's taxonomy.)
 The ability to put parts together to form a new whole.
This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or

speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract
relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this
area stress creative behaviours, with major emphasis on the formulation
of new patterns or structure.
Learning objectives at this level: write a well organised paper, give a

well organised speech, write a creative short story (or poem or music),
propose a plan for an experiment, integrate learning from different areas
into a plan for solving a problem, formulate a new scheme for classifying
objects (or events, or ideas).
Question verbs: Design, construct, develop, formulate, imagine, create,

change, write a short story and label the following elements:
Evaluation
 The ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem,

research report) for a given purpose.
The judgments are to be based on definite criteria, which may be

internal (organisation) or external (relevance to the purpose). The
317
learner may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes
in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain
elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments
based on clearly defined criteria.
Learning objectives at this level: judge the logical consistency of written

material, judge the adequacy with which conclusions are supported by
data, judge the value of a work (art, music, writing) by the use of internal
criteria, judge the value of a work (art, music, writing) by use of external
standards of excellence.
Question verbs: Justify, appraise, evaluate, judge x according to given

criteria. Which option would be better/preferable to party y?
Not all lessons or projects involve all levels of Bloom’s. That is fine,
because to engage learners in very involved projects all the time would
take more classroom time than most teachers have. There is a time and
place for more didactic, lower level lessons.
A quick way to check on the level of the lesson is to answer these two
questions.
 What will the learners (not the teacher) be doing in this lesson:
recalling and showing understanding (lower) or analysing and
evaluating to create a product (higher)?
 Will learners be expected to respond with specific, known
answers (lower) or will they be asked to generate original thought
(higher)?
The answers will give us a snapshot of the levels of thought in our

lessons. If learners are predominately responding with the right answer
and are demonstrating that they understand a concept, then the lesson
is lower level. If the lesson’s objective is to show that learners
comprehend the material, then lower level activities are appropriate. On
the other hand, if the objective is to extend basic knowledge and apply it
to new situations to develop a new product or idea, then the response to
the two questions should reflect higher level thought.
One way teachers can get an overview of the Bloom level is to review
their plan book over the course of a typical week. After asking the two
questions above about each lesson, they can mark the lesson either L
(low level) or H (high level). Looking over the course of a week or longer
will reveal a pattern of lower and higher level activities. It is up to the
teacher to decide if the balance is appropriate.
318
The bottom line on all of our teaching is to have learners learn, not just
for “the test” but for successful performance throughout life. A good
balance of lower and higher level experiences will help learners develop
a solid background of content and skills as well as the analytical and
evaluative tools to apply them. Creative projects are a proven way to
engage learners at higher levels. By using projects in balance with
content and skill development activities, we will be preparing our
learners well for the future.
6.5 Effective recording practices of senior-primary assessment

results
According to the Ministry of Education, “Continuous assessment should be

planned and programmed at the beginning of the year, and kept as simple as
possible. Marks given for class activities, practical activities, project work,
assignments, homework, and short tests on completion of a topic may be
recorded for continuous assessment. Non-promotional subjects in the upper
primary and secondary grades should be assessed through informal
continuous assessment methods and letter grades awarded directly. These
grades must be reported to the parents on the termly school report, but will not
count for promotion purposes.”
(Ministry of Education. 2008. The National Curriculum for Basic Education.

NIED: Okahandja)
Each school should have a systematic approach to recording a learner’s

progress and attainments and the outcomes of assessment have to be
reported to parents at regular intervals. It is also essential that teachers have
access to these records. Schools have to have a system of recording
assessment results, progress and learner behaviour.
Records serve different purposes. Assessment for learning and assessment of

learning will involve the recording of assessment information. The nature of the
record and the language in which it is recorded will be quite different for each.
The assessment information the teacher gains from the various modes of
assessment will be relevant to both assessment of learning and assessment
for learning. Similarly, records of assessment the teacher makes for the
purposes of assessment for learning will also be used in assessment of
learning. However, the two differ essentially in the purposes for which
assessment is used.
6.4.1 Assessment of learning
319
Assessment information in relation to assessment of learning will
constitute a record of the learner’s progress and attainment, whether at
class or school level, at the end of a given period of learning, as at the
end of a unit of work, at the end of a term, or at the end of a year. It
might, for example, involve any or all of the following activities:
 Reviewing a learner’s written work for a term, making an overall

judgement according to agreed and specified criteria, and
assigning a grade.
 Administering a group-administered standardised test of reading,
and generating a standard score and percentile rank for each
learner.
 Reviewing a learner’s portfolio of work for a year, making an
overall judgement, and after discussion with the child, assigning a
grade.
A defining feature of assessment of learning is that assessment

recorded for this purpose will form the basis for reporting to a variety of
recipients, including parents, other teachers, other schools, and other
professionals associated with the education of the learner. It is
important, therefore, that the recording of such assessment information
is consistent and readily communicable to such a varied audience.
This information will form the basis of a record of each learner’s

progress and development at class and school level. In order to achieve
this, the teacher should:
 Ensure that assessment takes account of the full range of

learning appropriate to the learner as this is set out in the
curriculum, and identifies gaps, if there are any, in the learner’s
learning.
 Use methods of assessment that are particularly appropriate to
the assessment of learning.
 Compile a record of a learner’s progress and attainment at least
twice a year for the purpose of reporting to parents.
 Be aware of the individual circumstances and requirements of
learners with special needs or serious learning difficulties in the
assessment of learning and in the interpretation of the results of
assessment.
 Ensure that parents are aware of the school’s policy on
assessment.
 Combine information acquired about learners through
assessment for learning with information acquired through
320
assessment of learning, taking account of all facets of the
learner’s progress and attainment.
 Give due importance to every curriculum area in the assessment
of learning.
6.4.2 Assessment for learning
In recording assessment information for the purposes of assessment for

learning, the teacher’s focus is on using the assessment information
gathered to provide on-going feedback to the learner and to plan
learning experiences which meet his/her learning needs.
Much of this assessment will involve a series of related judgements and

responses on the teacher's part that will impact directly, often
instantaneously, on the teaching and learning process. Such
judgements will, for the most part, apply specifically to an individual
learner or groups of learners, but may also involve the whole class when
learners are learning a new or difficult concept or skill. During this
process of supporting the learner’s learning through assessment for
learning, it may be useful for the teacher to record significant
observations that can be referred to as a reminder when reviewing and
discussing the learner’s progress or when planning future learning
experiences.
In recording assessment information for the purposes of assessment for

learning, the teacher’s focus is on using the assessment information
gathered to provide on-going feedback to the learner and to plan
learning experiences which meet his/her learning needs.
6.4.3 Recording the results of assessments
Assessment information should be recorded in different forms as

appropriate to the learner’s particular learning experience and the
different modes of assessment available.
The teacher’s assessment activities should involve:
 Recording significant observations of learners in day-to-day

learning activities, taking account of both the processes and
products of learning.
 Recording significant details of learners’ performance in tasks
and tests.
 Keeping significant and useful records of learners’ performance
in learning.
321
For the purposes of assessment of learning the record of a learner’s
assessment outcomes needs to be more formal. It will be in line with the
school’s assessment policy and will be recorded at class and school
level. However, see the following as a general guide in developing a
policy in relation to recording assessment outcomes:
 The class teacher should keep a record of each learner’s

progress and attainment, which should be updated at least twice
a year, preferably at the end of the first term or early in the
second term and at the end of the school year, and used as the
basis for reporting to parents and others.
 The results of assessment should be recorded in different forms,
including marks, grades, checklists, profiles, and narrative
comment.
 The results of standardised tests should include a standard score
and percentile rank for each learner (additionally, raw scores,
reading ages, sten scores, etc. may be used).
 In the assessment of portfolios, work samples and projects, the
teacher should involve the learners in a process of consultation
appropriate to the age of the learner.
 In order to ensure consistency, there should be a close
correspondence in the ways in which the results of assessment
are recorded from class to class in each curriculum area.
 A summary record of each learner’s progress, based on
assessment information compiled by class teachers, learning-
support teachers and resource teachers, should be part of the
school records, and should be held by the principal.
 The central record of each learner’s progress and attainment
should be updated annually and take account of the learner’s
strengths and needs, the progress he/she has made, and areas
of development that need particular attention.
In recording the results of assessments, the teacher should be mindful

of the needs of those to whom the results will be reported. The results of
the assessment of learners should also be recorded in such a way as to
facilitate the provision of the most relevant and useful information about
a learner’s progress and development to other professionals concerned
with the learner’s education. Ensure that a formal record of each class
teacher’s assessment of individual learners is available to the next
teacher to whom the learners are transferring.
6.4.4 Access to assessment results
322
Assessment records of individual learners are confidential. It is
recommended that direct access to individual, group or class
assessment information may be given to designated persons in
appropriate circumstances as follows:
 The learner’s class teacher.

 The class teacher to whom the learner is transferring.
 Relevant learning-support and resource teachers and other
relevant professionals.
 The principal.
 Inspectors.
http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/assessprim.pdf
6.5 Summary
In this unit we looked at marking and grading practices. You had the
opportunity to evaluate some assessment tools. Effective recording practices
were also explained.
In unit 7 feedback on and reporting of assessment results will be explored.

Make sure you have mastered this unit by ticking the checklist before
continuing with unit 7.
Learning activity 1
Sample 1 – Sorting.
Norm referenced.
Sample 2 – Feedback.
Criterion referenced.
Sample 3 – Feedback.
Mastery learning.
323
Learning activity 2
It will be best to print the principles. Study them and make sure you
understand them completely. Do you think that each sample meets with the
requirements as indicated in the principles? Motivate your answers.
Learning activity 3
Use your own words to write a definition of marking. Your definitions

have to display understanding of what marking is. Use the key words to
guide you.
paragraph and build on that idea. Do not rewrite sections from the
study guide but rather use your own words. Look at the key words of
each section to guide you in selecting your ideas.
Learning activity 4
You have to understand the differences between assessment of learning

and assessment for learning as discussed in unit 1. Make sure you explain
the different purposes as well as ways of recording the different purposes
of assessment. Be as thorough as you possibly can.
Glossary
Sten score Sten scores have a range 1 to 10, a mean of 5.5, and a standard
deviation of 2. Sten scores of 5 or 6 are average.
324
UNIT 7
Feedback on and reporting of assessment results
Introduction 314
7.1 The role of feedback to learners after assessment 316

7.2 The nature of feedback 318
7.2.1 The development of self-assessment of learning 319
7.2.2 Teacher and peer dialogue around learning 320
7.2.3 Clarifying good performance 321
7.2.4 Opportunities to close the gap 322
7.2.5 Quality information about a learner’s learning 324
7.2.6 Motivational beliefs and self-esteem 325
7.2.7 Analysis of information that can help shape teaching 326
7.3 The importance of reports regarding learning progress, the nature of
these reports and opportunities for using them 328
7.3.1 Importance of reporting 328
7.3.2 Opportunities for reporting 330
7.3.3 Nature of reports 332
7.4 Report card remarks that can ‘build up’ the learners and release their
dreams 334
7.5 The report card and the criteria for acceptable praise and feedback on
report cards 338
7.5.1 Feedback on report cards 338
7.5.2 Sample report cards 341
7.5.3 Upper primary term report 342
7.6 Summary 344
Glossary 345
325
Introduction
In this unit we will explore the importance of giving feedback to learners and reporting
regarding their assessment results. Feedback is an integral part of assessment and
learners will not be able to grow and develop if they are not informed regarding their
learning and how they are performing. The role of giving feedback to learners after
assessment will be discussed. The nature of feedback will be explored and the way
in which feedback will benefit learners as well as the opportunities created by
feedback will be investigated. You will be able to evaluate some sample report cards
by looking at the importance of and opportunities created by reports and their effects
on the learning process. You will also examine the criteria for praise and critical
feedback on report cards.
Learning outcomes
 Discuss the role of feedback to learners after assessment.

 Discuss the nature of feedback by using the following headings:
- Facilitates the development of self-assessment of learning.
- Encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning.
- Helps to clarify what good performance is.
- Provides opportunities to close the gap.
- Delivers quality information about learners’ learning.
- Encourages motivational beliefs and self-esteem.
- Requires analysis of information that can help shape teaching.
 Discuss the importance of reporting on learning progress, the nature of these
reports and opportunities for using them.
 Examine how remarks on report cards can “build up” learners and release their
dreams.
 Evaluate a given report card and explain the criteria for acceptable praise and
critical feedback on report cards.
326
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
Give your own definition of feedback.

Write a paragraph on each of the following headings (about 150 words per
paragraph):
The purpose of feedback.
When is feedback effective.
Feedback policy.
Learning activity 2
Match column A with the correct explanations in column B. (30

minutes)
Column A Column B
a. Self-assessment for learning i. Indicate what was good and
wrong and be appropriate to the
level of the learner.
b. Teacher and peer dialogue ii. Help to pitch work appropriately
for each learner.
c. Clarifying poor performance iii. Marking should match intention.
d. Opportunities to close the gap iv. Learners need to know what is

expected of them and take
ownership of learning.
e. Quality information about v. Learners must feel valued and
learners learning know that with the feedback they
can create a way forward.
327
f. Motivational beliefs and self vi. Feedback needs to be
esteem constructive for learners to be able
to reconstruct their own learning.
g. Analysis of information that vii. Shape improvements on learners’

can help shape teaching work and use questions to judge
learner understanding and steer
Learning activity 3
At the end of 7.4, three examples of report cards are given. Evaluate these
three report cards by referring to the criteria provided. Discuss whether the
report cards meet the requirements and, therefore, whether you regard the
report card as good or not.
Learning activity 4
Three examples of report cards are supplied. Study what is meant by

acceptable praise. Evaluate the report cards, keeping acceptable praise in
mind, explaining whether you think the report cards comply with the
requirements of writing good clear comments.
7.1 The role of feedback to learners after assessment
Feedback is an essential part of effective learning. It helps learners understand

the subject being studied and gives them clear guidance on how to improve
their learning. Bellon et al. state “academic feedback is more strongly and
consistently related to achievement than any other teaching behaviour...this
relationship is consistent regardless of grade, socioeconomic status, race, or
school setting.” Feedback can improve a learner's confidence, self-awareness
and enthusiasm for learning. Effective feedback during the first year of
schooling can aid the transition to higher education and may support learner
retention. Providing learners engage with feedback, it should enhance learning
and improve assessment performance.
Feedback has a significant impact on learning; it has been described as "the

most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement" (Hattie 1999).
The main objectives of feedback are to:
 Justify to learners how their mark or grade was derived.

 Identify and reward specific qualities in learners work.
328
 Guide learners on what steps to take to improve.
 Motivate them to act on their assessment.
 Develop their capability to monitor, evaluate and regulate their own
learning.
To benefit learners learning, feedback needs to be:
 Constructive. As well as highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of a

given piece of work, it should set out ways in which the learner can
improve the work.
 Timely. Give feedback while the assessed work is still fresh in a learner's
mind, before the learner moves on to subsequent tasks.
 Meaningful. It should target individual needs, be linked to specific
assessment criteria, and be received by a learner in time to benefit
subsequent work.
Feedback is valuable when it is received, understood and acted on. How

learners analyse, discuss and act on feedback is as important as the quality of
the feedback itself. Through the interaction learners have with feedback, they
come to understand how to develop their learning.
Specific, descriptive feedback is necessary for improvement and success. How

teachers provide suggestions for improvement is critical in ‘closing the gap’ for
learners. Teachers who combine strong subject knowledge with effective
feedback can offer learners rich, focused information about their learning and
how to improve it. Learners who are clear about their learning can monitor their
progress and seek feedback to improve their learning.
Feedback is most effective when:
 Initiated by the learner, in conjunction with self and/or peer assessment.

 Teachers carefully gauge when feedback is needed to promote learning.
 Teachers use the kind of feedback prompt that best meets the need of
the learner, at the level of support they need.
 Teachers provide strategies to help the learner to improve.
 Teachers allow time for, and learners can independently act on, feedback
to improve their learning.
 Feedback takes place as a conversation.
 Teachers check the adequacy of the feedback with the learners.
 Feedback is most effective when it is given at the time of the learning so
that learners can make improvements as they go. However, written
feedback can be beneficial to learning if the following points are taken into
consideration:
329
- Some learners have difficulty understanding and processing written
feedback.
- When learners are presented with grades and comments, the
grades can cancel the beneficial effects of the comments.
- Teachers often give too much feedback, which learners find
overwhelming and difficult to understand.
- These 'negatives' of written feedback can be avoided if there is good
communication between teacher and learner, so that the learner can
say if the feedback is helpful or not in providing paths for
improvement.
Download the following document: ASSESSMENT FOR ACTION: MARKING

AND FEEDBACK. Manageable and effective ways of marking and providing
feedback to learners from the following webpage:
www.eriding.net/.../assessment/020312_jmundy_assess_marking_feedback
.doc (it is the same document you downloaded for 6.3)
Study sections 1, 5, 6, and 7.
7.2 The nature of feedback
Effective feedback needs to:
 Be based on clear learning objectives.

 Encourage and take account of learner self-evaluation.
 Highlight where success occurred and where improvement could take
place.
 Be given promptly and regularly to learners in a form that is accessible to
them.
 Give strategies for improvement.
 Have time allocated in which comments can be read.
 Expect some focussed improvement based on the feedback.
The table below refers to some essential and some desirable features of
effective feedback.
Essential features must: Desirable features

should:
 Provide clear learning intentions  Encompass learner self-
and success criteria. evaluation and feedback
from peers.
330
 Highlight success and indicate  Provide strategies for
one or two instances where improving work.
improvement could take place.  Model strategies for
 Make feedback accessible to the improvement through
learner - written comments must teaching.
be readable.  Link to longer term target
 Allocate time for feedback to setting.
take place or for learner to read  Not use grades and marks
written comments. on every piece of work.
 Expect some focused
improvement to take place,
based on the feedback.
 Make effective use of time spent
in providing verbal and written
feedback.
The nature of feedback will be described by focussing on the following:
7.2.1 The development of self-assessment of learning
Self-assessment is an essential part of learning how to learn. Feedback

is crucial in helping learners think about their learning and make
progress in a self-evaluative, constructive way. There is one crucial
assumption which underpins effective feedback to all learners – that the
learning intentions or objectives are clearly set out. All learners need to
understand what they are being asked to learn and, more importantly,
why. Self-assessment is impossible if learners do not know what is
expected of them.
Clarity of understanding will lead to:
 Work on task more quickly.

 Perseverance.
 Quality.
 Dialogue focussed on task.
 Learners becoming skilled in self-evaluation.
Self-assessment is crucial in helping learners to take ownership of their

learning. Learners need to be taught self-assessment skills – they do
not develop naturally. Reflecting on how work can be improved can be
encouraged by asking learners to evaluate their own progress or to work
with a partner. When learners are asked to comment on their own
progress they can be very perceptive. If they are learning for themselves
they will be intrinsically motivated and strongly engaged in the work.
331
When carried out properly and learners are clear regarding what is
expected, self-assessment activities can be a motivating experience.
Learners should be reminded of the learning intentions and encouraged

to reflect on their progress towards them.
Teachers can help the self-assessment process by:
 Identifying a focus and/or particular steps to follow (based on

identified gaps in understanding).
 Encouraging learners to focus on concrete data rather than past
performances or patterns of achievement.
 Self-assessing analytically versus holistically.
 When responding to learners’ self-assessments, giving feedback
that motivates them to continue their learning.
 Asking them what they think, what helped them, how they deal
with challenges and focusing on the positive.
Like most strategies, if overused or done badly, self-assessment will be

counter-productive. Without sufficient care self-assessment can become
rather bland and be based on behaviour and attitudes rather than
subject knowledge.
7.2.2 Teacher and peer dialogue around learning
Good feedback is an on-going dialogue. Effective feedback needs to

encourage dialogue between learner and teacher, and learners need to
engage with the feedback. The provision of feedback is a shared, two-
way activity. It should aim at encouraging dialogue and developing the
self-assessment skills of learners. Where verbal and written feedback is
effective, learners understand it as part of an on-going dialogue which
helps them to improve their work. They often respond to their teacher
and ask for help.
Teachers encourage this on-going dialogue and help to shape

improvements to learners’ work by their interaction. Many teachers think
of assessment as being formal tests and written marking. Much of the
best feedback is verbal and develops from informal observations whilst
learners are working. This intervention is often under-rated.
Effective feedback can be provided by repeating responses which

learners make, to acknowledge that an answer is correct. This approach
is particularly useful in numeracy work and the response can be built on
in discussion. When learners provide an inaccurate answer, the tone of
feedback is crucial and teachers can use wrong answers constructively.
332
Where this approach is well developed, learners are confident to ask
questions and request feedback from the teacher. Comments and
questions that encourage higher order thinking are important aspects of
verbal feedback.
Discussion about writing often helps to improve work by providing

feedback before the task is even started.
Using body language and tone of voice are crucial in providing effective
feedback. Use of a positive tone of voice with regular indications that the
teacher is listening - “wow – good idea!” helps to make learners feel at
ease and willing to join in the dialogue. It is important to make learners
feel important by offering feedback to the whole class and then
developing it further with smaller groups or individuals. Learners respect
teachers who can discuss major difficulties with them in a fair and
positive way.
A crucial part of verbal feedback involves the use of questions to judge

learner understanding and to steer the learning process. It is useful for
teachers to reflect on the types of questions that are used as there is a
tendency in many classrooms for discussions to revolve round closed
questions which focus on recall. Where questions are used effectively in
providing feedback, open questions are often employed to guide and
extend thinking, alongside closed questions which determine knowledge
and understanding of content.
7.2.3 Clarifying good performance
Using learning intentions to praise, focus feedback and improve learning

is vital. To be effective, feedback should incorporate the following 3
elements:
 What the learner has done well.

 The areas in which they have been less successful.
 A brief indication of how improvements can be made.
Feedback should be given in the context of and indicate progress

towards the learning intentions or objectives. Effective teachers are
skilled at providing this type of feedback verbally as well as in writing.
Learners are clear about what will not be of value. Feedback needs to
tell learners clearly how they can improve and move forward. Do not use
comments such as: “Use paragraphs!”, since if the learner knew how to
use them, he/she would have done so.
333
Marking is not editing. Indicate what was good and what was wrong and
make suggestions regarding how the learner can improve.
There is a good deal of evidence to suggest that most learners can only
cope with a maximum of two or three points for improvement at a time. If
too much is expected of learners, feedback comments can become
overwhelming and go unheeded.
Feedback needs to be appropriate for the level of each learner. It has to

be easy to read (when feedback is in writing) otherwise the learner won’t
read it. If feedback is given orally it has to be clear and the learner has
to understand the feedback otherwise he/she will not benefit from it.
Getting the right balance is crucial and the types of comments used
need regular reviewing and monitoring.
It is essential to be specific about what is good or not so good when

providing feedback. Statements such as ‘Well done’, ‘See to your
punctuation’ are vague and do not help.
Praising with a reason is important – if learners are to feel that they are
making progress and succeeding, they need to know what they have
done well. Praise needs to be offered quickly and linked to the action
which has been observed or the work undertaken. Learners are critical
of comments that just say “keep up the good work” or “good” or “more of
the same” as this gives no indication of what has been successful or
how to improve. Good comments are clear, concise and related to the
learning intention.
Feedback should be focused on the purpose or intention of the work,

provide praise with a reason and offer one or two points for
improvement. Effective feedback acts as a framework for learners
allowing them to think through the situation for themselves and improve
their understanding. A "praise sandwich" technique is a helpful way to
provide feedback. Make a positive comment to start off with, then give a
developmental point and follow that with another positive comment on
how the learner should proceed with their learning. Plenary sessions or
summaries at the end of lessons provide an important feedback
opportunity. Pointing out progress towards objectives during a lesson is
also valuable.
7.2.4 Opportunities to close the gap
In order for effective learning to take place, feedback about the effort
has to include three elements:
334
 Recognition of the desired goal.
 Evidence about the present position.
 Some understanding of a way to close the gap between the two.
Feedback implies providing information about the gap between the

actual level of the learner and the goal towards which the learner is
working. It includes what needs to be done to alter the gap in a positive
way so as to close the gap between present and potential learning. To
say that there is a gap does not mean that learning will happen. If the
learner demonstrates learning and understanding the 'feedback loop' is
completed and the objectives have been reached. In order to close the
gap, learners need to re-construct their own understanding and
feedback should therefore be constructive. Feedback must be
accessible to the learner, implying the need for some form of support
and/or explanation. Stating what needs to be improved may not be
enough; explaining how they can improve is much more likely to have
an influence on future performance.
To illustrate:
Learning intention ----------------------------------- Desired Goal
The Gap learners must be given help to close the gap
Learner's----------------------------------- current achievement starting

point
“How am I doing?” - assessment and feedback to learners

www.hvlc.org.uk/ace/aifl/docs/B1/ How_am_I_doing.pdf
The gap can be closed by adhering to the principles of good feedback

practice namely to:
 Clarify what good performance is.

 Deliver high quality information to the learners about their
learning.
 Provide opportunities to close the gap between current and
desired performance.
335
If improvement in work is to take place, the learner must first know the
purpose of the task (desired goal), then they need to be informed
regarding to what extent this has been achieved, and finally be given
help in knowing how to move closer towards the desired goal or towards
'closing the gap'.
Research on thinking skills suggests that it is important to tell learners

why they are working towards a particular objective. They need to
understand the big picture - the longer term goals. Understanding how a
particular task fits into long term aims is important for effective learning.
The feedback provided to learners helps them make sound learning
connections and allows them to construct the follow-up steps they need
to take.
In many situations it is also important to recap and show links with

previous lessons. In promoting learners' thinking skills, learning
intentions need to be framed in the context of longer-term targets so that
the "big picture" is understood.
An approach called 'quality marking', is a practical written feedback

strategy focused on closing the learning gap for primary aged learners.
The approach consists of four stages:
 Recognise success.
 Identify an area for improvement.
 Add a comment (prompt) that attempts to close the gap between
present and future understanding.
 These prompts differ from standard feedback comments in that
they serve not only to state what is needed but clearly support the
learner in understanding how to achieve this. There are two main
forms of prompting:
- Scaffold prompts, which give structured advice on how to make
the improvement.
- Example prompts, which provide a direct model of an
improvement.
 Allow time for the comment (prompt) to be acted upon.
The intention of prompts is to explain and engage the learner on how

the gap can be closed, rather than correcting or indicating where the
gap is. Learners prefer feedback that includes suggestions which
support their active engagement with ideas, both their own and those
proposed by the teacher. An immediacy of response is expected as part
of the quality marking process, thereby further encouraging a more
dialogic process and ensuring that the learner engages in appropriate
action which will lead to some closure of the gap.
336
7.2.5 Quality information about a learner’s learning
Feedback comments needs to have an incentive. Learners need to

know how they will benefit by responding and understanding “what’s in it
for me”. Learners are very clear regarding what makes them feel
unsure. They do not like verbal feedback which shows them up and this
is particularly true when teachers read out marks or grades in front of
the class.
Learners like to know exactly what the purpose of the work is and feel
aggrieved if the marking does not match this intention. Sometimes the
purpose of a piece of work is to provide notes which the learners can
return to later. In this case learners are happy to receive more general
feedback about the quality and completeness of these notes. In other
cases where the feedback highlights their learning, learners like a more
focused response from teachers.
Modelling expectations ‘it might look like this’ – the use of

demonstrations and modelling of outcomes is an important part of
providing feedback. Sharing exemplar material before and after work is
done, is very helpful.
Modelling and displaying work helps to set expectations and standards.

Working through examples with learners is a useful way of providing
support to learning and giving feedback. For example, in an art class a
“follow my leader” approach can be adopted where a group of learners
make progress by imitating a step-by-step demonstration provided by
the teacher. In English, a commonly used method is to copy a learner’s
work (with their permission) and then develop and improve it with
contributions from the whole class. In music, demonstrating or modelling
the expectation is an important part of effective feedback.
Displays in corridors and classrooms are very effective in illustrating

expectations. Examples of work can be annotated and the criteria that
will make a difference highlighted. "This work is at grade 3 level because
…… This work is at grade 5 level because ….."
Equally, teachers must be clear about what learners can do before they
plan the next step. Careful planning using clear learning intentions or
objectives are crucial in developing useful assessment and feedback.
7.2.6 Motivational beliefs and self-esteem
337
Good quality feedback contributes positively towards behaviour
management. Evidence strongly suggests that it leads to increased
motivation and engagement and is worth the time and effort involved.
Learners' work must be valued. Marking must convey that a learner's

effort is valued – ‘defacing’ it by writing all over the work is
unacceptable. Alternatives include the use of post-its, wrap-arounds,
comments in the margin, codes, underlining and / or encircling a
minimum of items.
Some teachers are very good at using comments which raise self-
esteem and provide clear feedback at the same time. For example when
a learner asks a question the teacher says, “That’s the kind of question
that good scientists ask”.
Allow time for learners to reflect on feedback and improve their work. It
is essential to give learners time to absorb and act upon or consolidate
feedback comments. A response to feedback should be expected as
long as comments are brief, clearly written and easy for the learner to
understand.
Time to read marking comments or to reflect on verbal feedback is

important. Where expectations are high, teachers assume that
comments will always be responded to. Time given to make corrections
or to extend work is effective. Where improvements are made as a part
of homework these need to be followed up and recognised.
In many subject contexts, feedback can be combined with practical

demonstrations by the teacher or a learner. This approach is common in
music and PE. Take care, however, as this can go horribly wrong and
be de-motivating when asking learners to demonstrate if they are
uncomfortable with this approach. The tone and atmosphere in a class
is important for building confidence. Learners need to feel that they do
not have to get it right all the time and can take risks.
Motivation and confidence come from learners feeling that they

understand where their learning is taking them. Learners need to feel
valued and know that the feedback they get is constructive and will
guide them forward.
Learners are motivated by tangible rewards for consistent achievement

and meeting targets. They often find it difficult to see themselves in the
bigger picture of progress towards lifelong learning and need more
immediate recognition for success in smaller steps. In primary schools
team points, stickers, stars, walls of achievement, mention in assemblies
338
and extra use of computers are examples of rewards for continued good
work. Whatever the rewards, learners need to be clear about how they
can be earned and need to know that they will be allocated fairly. What
upsets them most is unjustified or unfair criticism.
7.2.7 Analysis of information that can help shape teaching
Use marking and feedback to plan the next steps. The outcomes of
written and verbal feedback must be used by teachers to plan the next
steps of learning and pitch work appropriately for each learner.
Observation in classes together with the use of questioning and
reflective marking has a purpose in helping teachers to review progress
made by learners and should support their planning for the next lesson.
As teachers have a clear view of medium and long term curriculum

plans, good feedback will often be related to subject knowledge. Make
feedback appropriate to the context and subject. There is no single
‘right’ way of providing feedback – the strategy used should be
appropriate for the purpose and context of the work. Teachers need to
develop a ‘tool kit’ of approaches to giving feedback which they can
draw upon within a subject context.
Teachers cannot provide feedback in the same way in all subjects and
in all aspects of any particular subject. The type of feedback used must
fit the situation. For example in design and technology, art, music and
physical education the most effective feedback is often verbal. It
involves frequent use of open and probing questions and an on-going
dialogue as work progresses towards the learning intention. In addition,
art teachers often use sketchbooks to express targets and provide
feedback.
Below is a process flow chart of the assessment, marking and feedback

process.
339
Teacher chooses Teacher collects
learning outcomes that Teacher gives informal assessment data and
will be taught during the feedback evaluates learner
term performance
Teacher reviews
Teacher develops
Learners demonstrate assessment data and
criteria relevant to the
their learning assigns a weighting to
learning outcomes
each learning activity
The teacher models or

Teacher gives feedback
provides examples of Teacher gives informal
on the assessment and
the desired levels of feedback
assessment result
performance
Teacher collects
Learners participate in
assessment activites and
Teacher gives informal learning activities to
assessment result to
feedback meet the required
include in reporting to
learning outcomes
parent
7.3 The importance of reports regarding learning progress, the

nature of these reports and opportunities for using them
Reporting is closely linked to assessment since schools need to assess

learners’ progress in order to give feedback that is accurate, timely and
meaningful both to learners and their parents.
Evaluation of learner performance is based on standards, on learning

outcomes and expected levels of performance. Teachers set specific criteria to
evaluate learners’ learning. These criteria form the basis for evaluating and
reporting learner progress.
Effective reporting practices are an important part of establishing and

supporting the partnership between school and home which is vitally important
for learning.
7.3.1 Importance of reporting
Reporting may be defined primarily as the gathering, interpreting,

recording and communicating of information on learners’ progress in
school to their parents. This information will, of course, serve many other
purposes: it will help to inform teaching and learning, it will form part of
the learner’s record and may be consulted by other teachers as the
learner progresses through the school, and it may be used to identify a
need for intervention or learning support. Thus, reporting is linked to the
on-going process of planning, evaluating, assessing and giving
340
feedback to children and their parents that is an integral part of effective
teaching and learning in the primary school.
Formal reporting to parents focuses mainly on the summative and

diagnostic aspects of assessment, with a lesser emphasis on the
formative aspects. The end-of year school report generally gives a
record of the learner’s levels of attainment in the different subject areas
of the primary school curriculum, along with some brief comments on
social and personal development. The timing of this report, often at the
very end of the school year, does not encourage discussion with the
parent.
School reports serve a formative as well as a summative purpose.

Cumulative record cards are essential tools for communicating
information about the learner’s holistic development, mainly to parents
but also to teachers.
Reporting is an important part of the partnership between home and

school. Reporting to parents serves two main purposes:
 The first is to satisfy the requirement that schools are accountable

to parents and are required to keep them informed of their
children’s progress and attainments.
 The second is curriculum related; effective reporting enables
parents to know more about what their children are learning and
how they can support this.
Regular communication can increase levels of parent involvement,

especially among those parents who have less formal education and
who need additional structures to engage in schools. Regular
communication can also enable parents to take part in decisions that
have to be made about their children’s learning, for example if the child
needs learning support.
For reporting to be effective it should:
 Be seen within a managerial context. There may be a

misconception that reporting is essentially a teacher-parent
problem when, in fact, it is a whole-school issue with significant
managerial and organisational implications.
 Involve parents, learners and teachers in assessing, discussing
and setting future learning goals.
 Be seen in the broader context of partnership with parents, where
parents can contribute a different, additional and complementary
view of the child. When parents have the opportunity to share
341
information about their children to teachers, it enables teachers to
be more effective in the classroom
 Be flexible with regard to the time during the school year when
the written reports are completed and should contain
comprehensive information about various issues relating to the
learner.
Writing effective reports is a skill that needs practice. Other areas where
guidance is needed are:
 In oral reporting with parents.

 The use of computer technology in reporting.
 Helping learners to make sense of their reports.
Parents are the main audience for the school report and, while reports
are kept in school and are accessible to teachers, they do not typically
consult them when they get new children or a new class.
School reports and parent-teacher meetings are very significant events

for learners, their occurrence engendering a wide range of emotions
from anxiety to excitement and from pride to disappointment. Learners
have a deep interest in their own learning and some even wish to attend
and contribute to the parent-teacher meeting.
7.3.2 Opportunities for reporting
The two main formal methods that are used to report to parents are the
annual written report and the usual annual parent-teacher meeting. All
schools therefore report to parents on the progress of learners, both
formally and informally.
Traditional school reports and parent-teacher meetings can, at worst,

become examples of one-sided communication during which teachers
relay information to parents, without adequate encouragement to
parents to reciprocate or to contribute equally valid information and
views about their children.
Formal reporting
Formal reports communicate to parents and learners significant aspects

of the learners’ progress in the areas of intellectual, social, human and
career development.
One written report card has to be sent to parents at least once a year. It
is, however, recommended that a mid-year report is also given to
342
parents about their children’s learning and that this report would provide
the basis for learner and parental conversation and commentary.
A range of other ways of reporting to parents includes:
 Homework journals/diaries.
 Tests (e.g. weekly spelling tests).
 The use of a behaviour reporting system (e.g. star system for
discipline).
Parent meetings
Regular formal parent meetings are an important aspect of reporting.

Parents should have the opportunity to meet with teachers for a
conference at least once each school year. A record of each formal
report should be kept, noting the date, and type and topic(s) of
discussion.
Parent-teacher meetings prove more significant than the school report in

terms of enabling parents to understand and support their children’s
progress. Regular meetings with parents have to take place in a variety
of ways such as: homework notebooks and journals, newsletters, test
copies for which parents are asked to sign (the results of weekly
classroom tests of spelling or mathematics), informal meetings at the
beginning or end of the school day, phone calls, individual meetings by
appointment to discuss issues of concern, e-mails and so on.
The timing of meetings can make it difficult for a parent who works long
hours or has a long way to commute to attend parent-teacher or
curriculum information meetings. Time constraints can mean that parent-
teacher meetings are rushed, without time to explore issues in detail.
The effectiveness of reporting to parents can be limited by factors such

as parents’ differing levels of fluency and literacy in the language in
which the report is presented or unfamiliarity with the school system.
Sharing information with parents thus requires not only a common
vocabulary but a common understanding.
A parent may have physical or sensory disabilities that make it difficult to

access information in the way it is presented to them, and if the school
does not take this into account, parents are cut off from important
knowledge about their children.
Informal reports
343
Informal reporting can refer to informal talks to parents as well as
informal written reports.
By maintaining an ‘open door’ policy in relation to parents, teachers can

be readily accessible to parents and are able to have frequent informal
conversations with them as they bring or collect their children. Informal
contact with parents can be affected by the physical lay-out of the
school, by the ages of the learners (with parents of the younger learners
generally more likely to have regular contact with the teacher) and by
the routines that are in place. If children are brought to school by
someone other than a parent, this also reduces the opportunity for
informal contact and means that teachers and parents have to make a
deliberate effort to meet.
Other approaches which will ensure involvement and communication

with parents about their children’s learning include bi-weekly
newsletters, coffee mornings, food fairs and other inter-cultural events.
Informal reports are an important link between home and school and
can take a variety of forms, such as:
 Telephone calls.
 Interim reports (written or oral).
 Conferences (parent-teacher, three-way, learner-led, etc.).
 In relation to the curriculum, informal reports may describe:
- What the learner is able to do.
- The areas of learning that require further attention or
development.
- Ways in which the teacher is supporting the learning needs
of the learner.
- Ways in which the learner or the parents might support the
learning.
7.3.3 Nature of reports
The report cards provide for reporting in four key areas:
 The child’s learning and achievement across the curriculum.

 The child’s learning dispositions.
 The child’s social and personal development.
 Ways in which parents can support their child’s learning.
In terms of formal reporting at both parent-teacher meetings and in

relation to written report cards the emphasis is on ‘what has been
learned by learners to date’, that is, assessment of learning. As
344
assessment for learning becomes increasingly important, this will have
implications for reporting as well. Parents want information about their
children’s progress in both academic and non-academic areas of
development, given in a way that is understandable and jargon-free.
They want to know their children’s strengths and weaknesses.
Reporting to parents is therefore an important part of the work of the

school. It is essential not only because schools are accountable to
parents, but because effective reporting enables parents to be involved
with their children’s learning. Effective reporting requires that parents
are informed not only about their children’s progress in learning, but also
about how best to support this. They want to know how they can support
their children’s learning at home. Ideally reports should provide some
advice to parents on the next stage in their children’s learning rather
than merely summarising existing levels of achievement.
Parents, as teachers, supporters, advocates and decision makers, can

play a vital role in their children’s learning. For successful reporting
outcomes, schools need to be aware of the potential of these different
roles and how they impact on learners’ negotiation of school, learning
and progress.
Schools report to parents not only to inform them of their children’s

progress but to enable them to give appropriate support at home to their
children’s learning. Issues of social class, culture, socio-economic
status, language, ethnicity, gender and ability/disability can all affect the
relationship between home and school. Much reporting to parents is
actually reporting to mothers. When there is discontinuity between the
culture of the home and that of the school, this will present extra
challenges in the building of productive learning partnerships between
schools and families.
Teachers draw on a wide range of information in writing their reports,

from their own observations in class to results of assessments, including
standardised tests, and homework.
Formal reports can include:
 A performance scale indicating the learner’s level of progress in

relation to the prescribed learning outcomes in the different
subjects.
 A performance scale to show progress in specific areas in
language such as reading, writing, and speaking/listening.
 When teachers write reports it is their responsibility to:
345
- Follow legislation and policy of the Ministry of Education and
the school for reporting on learner progress.
- Provide parents with complete, easily understood and
accurate evaluations of their children’s performance based
on the prescribed curriculum.
- Provide written reports to parents of learners with special
needs that adhere to guidelines and procedures established
in the policy related to learners with special needs.
- Indicate, in relation to the expected learning outcomes as
set out in the curriculum, what each learner is able to do,
areas in which the learners require further attention or
development, and ways of supporting the learner in his/her
learning.
- Provide a description of each learner’s behaviour, including
information on attitudes, work habits, effort and social
responsibility.
- Indicate, where appropriate, how parents and learners can
support classroom learning in areas in which learners
struggle.
7.4 Report card remarks that can ‘build up’ the learners and
release their dreams
There are many ways you as teacher can build up your learner’s confidence to
help then reach their dreams. You can present a lot of good information in your
lessons, but you can’t really control whether or not a learner learns from them.
The learners own what they learn and much of it is determined by their level of
motivation.
The good news is that while you cannot make a learner learn, you can create
an environment that is more conducive to learning. You do this by tapping into
the learner’s motivation. Your job is to figure out what will motivate your
learners and then use that angle to lure them into the subject.
It is not just report card remarks that contribute to learners to reach their
dreams, but also the rapport they have with you. Firstly you as teacher need to
build a rapport with your learners.
Rapport, defined as “the ability to maintain harmonious relationships based on

affinity”, is more colloquially thought of as what happens when two people
“click” they connect, interact well, and respond to each other favourably.
Rapport does not result in learning, but it certainly helps to create conditions
conducive to learning, things like higher motivation, increased comfort, and
346
enhanced communication. Teaching does not always result in learning either,
but, like rapport, it is one of those factors that can contribute positively to
learning.
Five factors for building rapport
 Respect. Teachers and learners must show respect for each other, for
the learning process, and for the institution where it is occurring.
 Approachability. Learners have to feel comfortable coming to a teacher
and the teacher must be willing to speak with learners, after class,
during office hours, via email, on school grounds.
 Open communication. Teachers must be honest. There needs to be
consistency between what you say and what you do.
 Caring. Teachers must care about learners; they must see and respond
to them as individuals. They also need to care about learning and show
that they want learners to learn the material.
 Positive attitude. Teachers should have a sense of humour and be open
to points of view other than their own.
Rapport is not something developed by announcement. Rapport is developed

by actions it results from things teachers do. When you as a teacher have good
rapport with your learners you can start the build-up process for the learners.
Now the learner can understand the remarks or comments made by the
teacher on the report card.
Most people think a report card is for the parents to see how well or badly their
children are doing at school. But this is no more the case; today’s learners
want to see their report cards and needs constant motivation to reach their
ability.
The good rapport that you build with your learners will allow then to do their
best and encourage the learner to use their opportunities and produce good
results so that they can be proud to show off their report cards and realise they
are working towards their dream future.
There are many ways you as teacher can give positive remarks to build-up the
learner to realise their dreams.
Report cards provide parents and learners with essential information

concerning their child’s progress in school. Various formats are used including
letter grades, numbers, checklists and teacher comments that indicate how a
learner is performing in different areas. For each report card period, teachers
usually write descriptive comments for every learner. These written remarks
elaborate on the learner’s strengths, and frequently offer ways the learner
could improve his or her academic work and/or classroom behaviour. It is by
347
using these comments in a positive and up-building way that a teacher can
help motivate a learner and contribute to their life dreams.
Writing unique and meaningful report card comments takes effort. If only
negative statements are written, the parent may feel overwhelmed and thus be
unable to help their child, the learner will feel negative or despondent.
Examples of definitive words that should be avoided are:
 The learner will never …

 The learner will not …
 The learner cannot …
 The learner will always …
Parents and learners are more willing to cooperate if a comment concerning a

learner’s weakness follows a positive one. So it is more productive to state a
learner’s strength first, then follow it with your concern – but make sure that is
written in a constructive way. For example, you could write, “Thando excels in
science,” and then add, “He needs more opportunities to develop his friendship
skills.” Or, write something like, “Precious is friendly and well-liked,” and add,
“She would benefit from practicing her reading fluency and comprehension
skills.” Teachers need to choose their words carefully since the report
card is part of the learner’s permanent record.
Examples of positive adjectives that describe learners
- Considerate - Intelligent - Hard-working

- Well-mannered - Cooperative - Dependable
- Responsible - Helpful - Creative
- Fair - Honest - Generous
- Friendly - Respectful - Kind-hearted
- Brave - Efficient - Mature
- Thoughtful - Talented - Curious
- Thorough - Self-disciplined - Artistic
- Self-confident - Sincere - Enthusiastic
Here's a phrase: “A positive role model for classmates.”
Since your comments need to be as specific as possible, avoid using

ambiguous words alone such as wonderful, good or great.
Examples of statements concerning a learner’s strengths:
- Has an expansive knowledge of ... - Writes fascinating stories.

- Enthusiastically participates in ... - Exhibits organisational skills.
348
- Demonstrates superior work in ... - Does neat, thorough work.
- Comprehends quickly. - Seeks information
- Takes pride in his/her work. independently.
- Demonstrates initiative. - Enjoys dramatization.
- Listens and follows directions well. - Uses English correctly.
- Asks for responsibilities and follows - Has a delightful sense of
through. humour.
- Expresses ideas clearly. - Is well-liked by peers.
- Demonstrates leadership skills.
Examples of encouraging comments (to use when a learner is making

progress):
- Has developed a positive attitude - Is learning to ...

toward ... - Is becoming self-reliant.
- Has advanced in ... - Is developing concentration skills.
- Has demonstrated a desire to ... - Is gaining self-confidence.
- Has shown steady progress in ... - Is becoming a good listener.
- Has shown noticeable - Is occupying his/her time
improvement in ... constructively.
- Has demonstrated increased - Is learning English speaking
social skills, such as ... and/or writing skills.
- Is showing enthusiasm for ... - Is developing more positive ways
- Is gaining academic skills, such to interact with others.
as ... - Is learning to be cooperative
- Is developing consistent work when working in groups.
habits, such as ...
Examples to use when concerns are evident and a learner is in need of

assistance:
- Needs help to increase academic - Needs encouragement to do

skills, such as ... work on his/her own.
- Demonstrates a need for - Demonstrates a need for direct
consistent effort and motivation, supervision to complete work.
especially in ... - Needs to be encouraged to
- Requires help with organisational work more slowly and
skills, such as ... accurately.
- Could benefit from ... - Would benefit from supervision
- Needs to be encouraged to comply of homework.
with school rules, such as ... - Requires support to interact with
classmates in a positive way.
349
- Demonstrates a need for improved - Would benefit from learning
social interaction skills, such as ... self-control skills.
- Could benefit from improving - Needs to be encouraged to
his/her work habits, such as ... accept responsibility for his/her
- Needs to be encouraged to listen errors and/or misbehaviour.
and pay attention in class. - Needs to demonstrate
- Needs help to understand improvement in academic work
instructions. if he/she is to gain the
- Requires repetition to retain fundamentals needed for this
information. grade.
Since some parents never attend a parent-teacher conference, a teacher may

want to complete and include a copy of the following statement or something
similar with a learner’s report card.
Dear (Parent’s Name):
Spending time and helping (learner’s name) in the following ways will provide an
incentive for him/her to work harder and learn the skills necessary to achieve in
school.
(List ways parent can help)
Since I care about your child, I would like to meet with you. Please call the school
office at (phone number) or see me to decide on a time to meet and share ideas.
The effort you make working with (learner’s name) today can make a huge
difference in his/her future success.
Sincerely,
(Your Name)
Sometimes it is difficult to elicit parental cooperation. However, written

comments on a report card and completing the above short form might serve to
encourage their participation. Due to language barriers or other reasons,
parents may be unable to help their child directly. However, parents could to be
encouraged to provide a quiet place for their child to complete his or her work
without television interference or other distractions, as well as a healthy diet
and adequate sleep.
Positive comments on a report card can inspire learners to live up to their

teacher’s observations. For example, if the teacher wrote that the learner
excels in “Being dependable” or “Shows outstanding sportsmanship,” these
statements could become part of the learner’s self-image. It is important for
350
teachers to remember that their written words can motivate and challenge their
learners to be their best.
7.5 The report card and the criteria for acceptable praise and
feedback on report cards
7.5.1 Feedback on report cards
Written reporting comments provide parents with information about their

children’s growth and progress in school. Parents’ perceptions of the
validity of the progress report are often directly related to the quality of
the written reporting comments. The following are some guidelines for
writing clear comments:
 Write meaningful comments that refer specifically to the

progress of the learner.
 Anticipate the questions parents may ask about their children’s
growth and progress.
 Recognise that parents vary widely in their educational
experiences and familiarity with educational terms.
 Write directly to parents about what their children are able to do
and areas that need development. For example, instead of:
“When writing, Joseph on often needs to be reminded to use
correct punctuation,” write “Joseph needs to work on using
punctuation correctly.”
 Use only as many words as necessary to make the message
clear.
 Use simple words and short sentences.
 Use plain language.
 Use point form.
 Avoid unfamiliar expressions. For example, instead of “... able to
decode words and use context clues” say “...able to figure out
unfamiliar words by using clues from the letters and surrounding
words.”
 Provide an explanation if a word may be unfamiliar to parents.
For example, if you use “high-frequency spelling words,” add
(common words used often in writing).
 Write about what learners are able to do. Comments about what
a learner is able to do should note significant events in the
learner’s growth, development, progress and learning.
 Write about areas that require further attention or development.
Parents need to know about areas in which their children may
351
require further attention or development. Teachers should tell
parents about areas of concern in a meeting or a phone call
before sending them a written report. The written report should
state concerns clearly, provide specific examples and describe
methods to support improvement. Parents also need to know
areas in which their children excel and those that require
challenges to promote development.
 Setting goals is important. While some are set by teachers,
others should be set by learners. Parents are often included in
this goal-setting process so that they can offer support at home
for continued success at school.
Here are some suggestions for the use of plain language:
Plain language
Instead of: Try using:
a majority of most
a number of many, several
as a means to for, to
assist, facilitate help
communicate talk, write, call
constitutes is, forms, makes up
due to the fact because, since
endeavour try
exhibit a tendency tend
Factor reason, cause
for the purpose of for
in the course of during
in the near future soon
it will be necessary I/we/you must
The following are suggested words and phrases to use in reports:
352
To describe what learners are To write about ways that
able to do, use words such as: learning is being supported,
use expressions such as:
- shows - to continue to support

- can - to develop a variety of
- continues to strategies
- works well - to provide opportunities
- is practising - the plan for ____ is
- demonstrates - will continue to
- is able - his or her goals for continued
- is increasing growth in this area
- • has completed - my goals for _________ are
- • it would support ______’s if he
or she
To describe areas that require To describe areas that require

further attention, use phrases further development, use
such as: expressions such as:
- needs adult help with - is working toward

- needs guidance from an adult - is developing
- requires more time and practice - is beginning to
- needs reminders to - is continuing to
- avoids work that requires - is increasing
- finds __________ challenging - is practicing
- needs practice with - is becoming
- is a concern - provide experiences that
- requires on-going support interest him or her by
- • is receiving help from the - provide experiences that
learning- assistance teacher in challenge him or her by
__________ - challenge and expand his or
her
- • the success he or she
experiences in ___ will be
strengthened further by
To report on learner progress at To report on learner progress

the primary level, with reference at the upper primary level, in
to the expected development for terms of the learner’s level of
performance as it relates to the
353
learners in a similar age range, learning outcomes for each
use expressions such as: subject or course and grade,
use expressions such as:
- is typical for this age and grade - easily meets the expectations
- like many children of his or her of his or her grade and age
age group
- development is characteristic of - met the learning outcomes
many children in this age and - meeting the outcomes
grade group - below expectations for this
- easily meets expectations grade level and requires
- not comfortable working assistance
- independently with the - completed ____ in a manner
mathematics beyond what is typical of a
- materials and ideas that one grade____
would
- expect of children in his or her
age
- and grade range
- fulfils the expectations for
learning
- will take longer to reach
- is not meeting the expectation
- At this time his or her
achievement in ____ is not yet
within the expectations of
learning for this age and grade
group. I am confident that with
on-going support and
encouragement from home and
school, he or she will meet the
expectations in ______
7.5.2 Sample report cards
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/learnerlearning/learnerreports/samples/
default.htm
Under primary and secondary report cards, click on Sample primary

report card (PDF – 299kb) for the summary report of Steven Barden of
Semaphore College.
354
Evaluate this report card as well as the following two report cards.
http://www.ncca.ie/en/Curriculum_and_Assessment/Early_Childhood_and_Pri
mary_Education/Primary_School_Curriculum/Assessment/Report_Card_Templ
ates/Council_Doc.pdf
7.5.3 Senior primary term report
355
http://www.schoolwrite.com/namibia/nam_ful1.htm
356
7.6 Summary
In this unit we studied feedback on and reporting of assessment results. You

looked at the importance and nature of feedback. You also had the opportunity
to critique some examples of report cards.
In the next unit we will look at the statistical analysis and interpretation of
assessment results. Make sure you have mastered this unit by ticking the
checklist before continuing with unit 8.
Learning activity 1
i Use your own words to write a definition of feedback. Your definitions

have to display understanding of what feedback is. Use the key words
to guide you.
ii Write well-structured paragraphs in full sentences. Use one idea per

paragraph and build on that idea. Do not rewrite sections from the
study guide but rather use your own words. Look at the key words of
each section to guide you in selecting your ideas.
Learning activity 2
a.- iv; b. – vii; c, - i; d – vi; e. – iii; f. – v; g. – ii.
Learning activity 3 & 4
Be very critical. You will have to understand what good and effective
feedback is all about. You must have good understanding of the nature of
feedback as well as positive comments. Only then will you be able to
evaluate the report cards. Of the given report cards, two are examples of
poor good report cards and one is a good report card. Make sure you can
identify why they are bad or good examples.
357
Glossary
Analytical Dividing into elemental parts or basic principles.
Closed questions A closed-ended question is a question format that limits

respondents with a list of answer choices from which they
must choose to answer the question. Most often the
respondent can only answer yes or no or give one-word
answers.
Holistic Emphasising the importance of the whole and the

interdependence of its parts.
Open questions A question that cannot be answered with a yes or no but

requires a developed answer. Information is shared.
358
UNIT 8
Statistical analysis and interpretation of assessment results
Introduction 347
8.1 The meaning of basic statistical concepts and symbols 349

8.1.1 Statistical concepts 350
8.1.2 Statistical symbols 357
8.2 Features and use of methods of organising test results/marks 360
8.2.1 Unorganised score distribution tables 360
8.2.2 Rank order scales 363
8.2.3 Simple frequency distribution tables 364
8.2.4 Grouped frequency distribution tables 366
8.3 The value of descriptive statistics for analysis and interpretation of
assessment scores 370
8.3.1 Measures of central tendency 370
8.3.2 Measures of spread and dispersion 379
8.3.3 Measures of relative position 385
8.4 The degree of difficulty of test items 390
8.4.1 Item analysis for norm-referencing 390
8.4.2 Item analysis for diagnosing instruction and assessments 391
8.5 The differentiation/discriminating value of test items 392
8.6 Deduction from analysis of examination results 396
8.7 The importance for schools to analyse examination results 400
8.8 Summary 402
Glossary 403
359
Introduction
In this unit we will analyse statistical concepts and symbols. You will learn about
organising test results and examine methods of doing so. You will also learn how to
analyse and interpret assessment scores and the measures of how to go about doing
that. You will get the opportunity to calculate the difficulty of test results. You will also
get to calculate the discriminating value of test items.
Learning outcomes
 Analyse the meaning of basic statistical concepts and symbols.

 Analyse the features and use of four methods of organising test results / marks:
- Unorganised score distribution tables.
- Rank order tables.
- Simple frequency distribution tables.
- Grouped frequency distribution tables, e.g. histogram, frequency polygons.
 Analyse the value of descriptive statistics for analysis and interpretation of
assessment scores:
- Measures of central tendency:
 The mean.
 The median.
 The mode.
- Measures of spread and dispersion (variability):
 Range.
 Variance.
 Standard deviation.
- Measures of relative position:
 Standard scores.
 Percentile rank.
 T-scores.
 Calculate the degree of difficulty of test items.
 Calculate the differentiation / discriminating value of test items.
 Clarify what teachers and schools can deduct from the analysis of examination
results.
 Examine the importance for schools to analyse examination results.
360
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
Match column A with column B
COLUMN A COLUMN B
a. Statistics i.Variability.
b. Data ii.Measured and categorical.
c. Variables iii.Consentration of scores.
d. Graphs iv.Arrange assessment information, make
meaning of it and come to decisions.
e. Measures of centre v.Visual display of data.
f. Meaures of spread vi.Describes how distribution rises and drops.
g. Measures of shape vii.Effects that can be measured, controlled or

manipulated.
h. Kurtosis viii.Measures of central tendency.
Learning activity 2
Prepare a frequency and polygon diagram of the hard sort and easy sort
tables in 8.2.1.1.
Following the polygon graphs (8.2.4.2), you are directed to a webpage with
clear instructions to do a histogram. Use the same information and draw a
polygon graph.
Learning activity 3
Define mean, median and mode and explain what each one measures.
Define range, variance and standard deviation and explain what the
function/s of each is.
361
Define standard scores, percentile rank and t-scores, and then explain
what the function/s of each is.
Learning activity 4
You gave a test to 36 learners and would like to calculate the degree of
difficulty of question 6. Of the 36 learners, 21 learners got the answer
right.
Is the level of difficulty appropriate according to norm referencing and
discrimination? Explain.
Learning activity 5
Calculate the discrimination value of the test items of a group

of 50 learners taking a test
GROUP ITEM RESPONSE
A B C D
UPPER GROUP 4 3 7 0
LOWER GROUP 8 2 4 0
8.1 The meaning of basic statistical concepts and symbols
As a teacher, you will continually collect data from your learners in a variety of
different ways as will be discussed in this unit. You will have to interpret the
data to make sense of it. Problems might arise when trying to answer
questions like:
 How do we deal with large amounts of data?

 What have we learned from examining the data?
There are a number of questions that might be helpful when analysing the
assessment results of your learners. You might want to know how well your
learners did during the term, or in a specific assessment activity, a test or
exam. This could help you to set realistic performance and learning goals, to
allocate time for different activities and to identify areas in which your learners
need more learning time or support. Questions of interest to you might include
the following:
 How many learners scored in the 80s?

 How many scored above 70?
 What was the average score?
362
 What was the most frequent score?
 Where in the distribution is the data concentrated?
 How many learners failed?
 How many learners are in the top 25% and how many in the bottom 25%?
Questions like these are often addressed in the early stages of data analysis
and are answered using descriptive statistics.
8.1.1 Statistical concepts
Statistics refers to a discipline that can help us resolve problems like

making sense out of a large amount of data. While statistical tools can
be used to bring insight and clarity to large amounts of information, if
used inappropriately, they can also lead to confusing, even misleading
interpretations. Below is an explanation of the most common statistical
concepts.
Statistics A set of concepts, rules, and procedures that help us to:
 Organise numerical information in the form of

tables, graphs, and charts.
 Understand statistical techniques underlying
decisions that affect our lives and well-being.
 Make informed decisions.
Data Facts, observations, and information that come from

investigations. There are two kinds of data:
Measurement Sometimes called quantitative data

data which is the result of using some
instrument to measure something (e.g.
test score, weight).
Categorical Also referred to as frequency or

data qualitative data. Things are grouped
according to some common
property/ies and the number of
members of the group are recorded
(e.g. males/females, home language,
family groups like mother, father, single
363
parent and siblings).
Variables Variables are things that we measure, control, or

manipulate in research. They differ in many respects,
most notably in the role they are given in our research
and in the type of measures that can be applied to them.
Discrete A variable with a limited number of

variable values (e.g., gender (male/female),
phases (pre-primary, primary, upper
primary).
Continuous A variable that can take on many

variable different values, in theory, any value
between the lowest and highest points
on the measurement scale, e.g.
learners scored between 26 and 89 for
a written test.
Independent A variable that is manipulated,

variable measured, or selected by the teacher
(researcher) as an original condition to
an observed behaviour. In a
hypothesised cause-and-effect
relationship, the independent variable is
the cause and the dependent variable is
the outcome or effect. The assessment
activity is the cause and the result the
outcome or effect.
Dependent A variable that is not under the

variable teacher's control -- the data. It is the
variable that is observed and measured
in response to the independent
variable.
364
Qualitative A variable based on categorical data
variable (does not necessarily have a numerical
value. This can refer to learners’
attitude to and motivation towards
school work).
Quantitative A variable based on quantitative data

variable (has a numerical value).
Graphs Visual display of data used to present frequency

distributions so that the shape of the distribution can
easily be seen. This can be done in several different
ways:
Bar graph A form of graph that uses bars

separated by an arbitrary amount of
space to represent how often elements
within a category occur. The higher the
bar, the higher the frequency of
occurrence. The underlying
measurement scale is discrete (nominal
or ordinal-scale data), not continuous.
Histogram A form of a bar graph used with interval

or ratio-scaled data. Unlike the bar
graph, bars in a histogram touch with
the width of the bars defined by the
upper and lower limits of the interval.
The measurement scale is continuous,
so the lower limit of any one interval is
also the upper limit of the previous
interval.
365
Boxplot A graphical representation of
dispersions and extreme scores.
Represented in this graphic are
minimum, maximum, and quartile
scores in the form of a box with
"whiskers." The box includes the range
of scores falling into the middle 50% of
the distribution (Inter Quartile Range =
75th percentile - 25th percentile) and the
whiskers are lines extended to the
minimum and maximum scores in the
distribution or to mathematically defined
(+/-1.5*IQR) upper and lower fences.
Scatterplot A form of graph that presents

information from a bivariate distribution.
In a scatterplot, each subject in an
experimental study is represented by a
single point in two-dimensional space.
The underlying scale of measurement
for both variables is continuous
(measurement data). This is one of the
most useful techniques for gaining
insight into the relationship between two
variables.
Measures Plotting data in a frequency distribution shows the

of centre general shape of the distribution and gives a general
sense of how the numbers are bunched. Several
statistics can be used to represent the "centre" of the
distribution. These statistics are commonly referred to as
measures of central tendency.
Mode The mode of a distribution is simply

defined as the most frequent or
common score in the distribution. The
mode is the point or value of X that
corresponds to the highest point on the
distribution. If the highest frequency is
shared by more than one value, the
366
distribution is said to be multimodal. It
is not uncommon to see distributions
that are bimodal reflecting peaks in
scoring at two different points in the
distribution.
Median The median is the score that divides the

distribution into halves; half of the
scores are above the median and half
are below it when the data is arranged
in numerical order. The median is also
referred to as the score at the 50th
percentile in the distribution. The
median location of N numbers can be
found by the formula (N + 1) / 2. When
N is an odd number, the formula yields
an integer that represents the value in a
numerically ordered distribution
corresponding to the median location.
(For example, in the distribution of
numbers (3 1 5 4 9 9 8) the median
location is (7 + 1) / 2 = 4. When applied
to the ordered distribution (1 3 4 5 8 9
9), the value 5 is the median, three
scores are above 5 and three are below
5. If there were only 6 values (1 3 4 5 8
9), the median location is (6 + 1) / 2 =
3.5. In this case the median is half-way
between the 3rd and 4th scores (4 and 5)
or 4.5.
Mean The mean is the most common

measure of central tendency and the
one that can be mathematically
manipulated. It is defined as the
average of a distribution is equal to the
X / N. Simply, the mean is computed
by summing all the scores in the
distribution ( X) and dividing that sum
by the total number of scores (N). The
mean is the balance point in a
distribution such that if you subtract
367
each value in the distribution from the
mean and sum all of these deviation
scores, the result will be zero.
Measures Although the average value in a distribution is informative

of spread about how scores are centred in the distribution, the
mean, median, and mode lack context for interpreting
those statistics. Measures of variability provide
information about the degree to which individual scores
are clustered about or deviate from the average value in
a distribution. They are:
Range The simplest measure of variability to

compute and understand is the range.
The range is the difference between the
highest and lowest score in a
distribution. Although it is easy to
compute, it is not often used as the sole
measure of variability due to its
instability. Because it is based solely on
the most extreme scores in the
distribution and does not fully reflect the
pattern of variation within a distribution,
the range is a very limited measure of
variability.
Interquartile Provides a measure of the spread of

range (IQR) the middle 50% of the scores. The IQR
is defined as the 75th percentile - the
25th percentile. The interquartile range
plays an important role in the graphical
method known as the boxplot. The
advantage of using the IQR is that it is
easy to compute and extreme scores in
the distribution have much less impact
but its strength is also a weakness in
that it suffers as a measure of variability
because it discards too much data.
Researchers want to study variability
while eliminating scores that are likely
to be accidents. The boxplot allows for
368
this for this distinction and is an
important tool for exploring data.
Variance The variance is a measure based on

the deviations of individual scores from
the mean. As noted in the definition of
the mean, however, simply summing
the deviations will result in a value of 0.
To get around this problem the variance
is based on squared deviations of
scores about the mean. When the
deviations are squared, the rank order
and relative distance of scores in the
distribution is preserved while negative
values are eliminated. Then to control
for the number of subjects in the
distribution, the sum of the squared
deviations, (X - X), is divided by N
(population) or by N - 1 (sample). The
result is the average of the sum of the
squared deviations and it is called the
variance.
Standard The standard deviation (s or ) is

deviation defined as the positive square root of
the variance. The variance is a
measure in squared units and has little
meaning with respect to the data. Thus,
the standard deviation is a measure of
variability expressed in the same units
as the data. The standard deviation is
very much like a mean or an "average"
of these deviations. In a normal
(symmetric and mound-shaped)
distribution, about two-thirds of the
scores fall between +1 and -1 standard
deviations from the mean and the
standard deviation is approximately 1/4
of the range in small samples (N< 30)
and 1/5 to 1/6 of the range in large
samples (N> 100).
369
Measures For distributions summarising data from continuous
of shape measurement scales, statistics can be used to describe
how the distribution rises and drops, such as:
Symmetric Distributions that have the same shape

on both sides of the centre are called
symmetric. A symmetric distribution
with only one peak is referred to as a
normal distribution.
Skewness Refers to the degree of asymmetry in a

distribution. Asymmetry often reflects
extreme scores in a distribution.
Positively A distribution is
skewed positively skewed when
is has a tail extending
out to the right (larger
numbers) When a
distribution is positively
skewed, the mean is
greater than the median
reflecting the fact that
the mean is sensitive to
each score in the
distribution and is
subject to large shifts
when the sample is
small and contains
extreme scores.
Negatively A negatively skewed

skewed distribution has an
extended tail pointing to
the left (smaller
numbers) and reflects
bunching of numbers in
the upper part of the
distribution with fewer
scores at the lower end
370
of the measurement
scale.
Kurtosis
Kurtosis has a specific mathematical definition, but
generally it refers to how scores are concentrated in the
centre of the distribution, the upper and lower tails
(ends), and the shoulders (between the centre and tails)
of a distribution.
Mesokurtic A normal distribution is called

mesokurtic. The tails of a mesokurtic
distribution are neither too thin nor too
thick, and there are neither too many
nor too few scores in the centre of the
distribution.
Platykurtic Starting with a mesokurtic distribution

and moving scores from both the centre
and tails into the shoulders, the
distribution flattens out and is referred
to as platykurtic.
Leptokurtic If you move scores from shoulders of a

mesokurtic distribution into the centre
and tails of a distribution, the result is a
peaked distribution with thick tails. This
shape is referred to as leptokurtic.
http://bobhall.tamu.edu/FiniteMath/Module8/Introduction.html
8.1.2 Statistical symbols
Probability and statistics symbols table and definitions:
Symbol Symbol name Meaning / definition Example

Probability
P(A) Probability of event A P(A) = 0.5
function
371
Probability of
Probability that of
P(A ∩ B) events P(A∩B) = 0.5
events A and B
intersection
Probability of Probability that of

P(A∪B) P(A∪B) = 0.5
events union events A or B
Conditional Probability of event A

P(A | B) probability given event B P(A | B) = 0.3
function occurred
Probability
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫ f (x)
f (x) density
dx
function (pdf)
Cumulative
F(x) distribution F(x) = P(X ≤ x)
function (cdf)
Population Mean of population

Μ μ = 10
mean values
Expectation Expected value of

E(X) E(X) = 10
value random variable X
Expected value of
Conditional
E(X | Y) random variable X E(X | Y=2) = 5
expectation
given Y
Variance of random
var(X) Variance var(X) = 4
variable X
Variance of
σ2 Variance σ2 = 4
population values
Standard Standard deviation of

std(X) std(X) = 2
deviation random variable X
Standard deviation
Standard
σX value of random σX=2
deviation
variable X
Middle value of
Median
random variable x
372
Covariance of
cov(X,Y) Covariance random variables X cov(X,Y) = 4
and Y
Correlation of random
corr(X,Y) Correlation corr(X,Y) = 0.6
variables X and Y
Correlation of random
ρX,Y Correlation ρX,Y = 0.6
variables X and Y
Summation - sum of
∑ Summation all values in range of
series
Double
∑∑ Double summation
summation
Vvalue that occurs

Mo Mode most frequently in
population
MR Mid-range
MR = (xmax+xmin)/2
Sample Half the population is
Md
median below this value
Lower / first 25% of population

Q1
quartile are below this value
Median / 50% of population

Q2 second are below this value =
quartile median of samples
Upper / third 75% of population

Q3
quartile are below this value
Average / arithmetic x = (2+5+9) / 3 =

X Sample mean
mean 5.333
Sample Population samples

s2 s2 = 4
variance variance estimator
373
Sample Population samples
S standard standard deviation s=2
deviation estimator
Standard
zx
score zx = (x-x) /sx
Distribution of Distribution of
X~ X ~ N(0,3)
X random variable X
Normal
N(μ,σ2) Gaussian distribution X ~ N(0,3)
distribution
Uniform Equal probability in

U(a,b) X ~ U(0,3)
distribution range a,b
Exponential
exp(λ) f (x) = λe-λx , x≥0
distribution
gamma(c, Gamma f (x) = λ c xc-1e-λx /

λ) distribution
Γ(c), x≥0
Chi-square f (x) = xk/2-1e-x/2 / (
χ 2(k)
distribution
2k/2 Γ(k/2) )
F (k1, k2) F distribution
Binomial
Bin(n,p)
distribution f (k) = nCkpk(1-p)n-k
Poisson
Poisson(λ)
distribution f(k) = λke-λ / k!
Geometric
Geom(p)
distribution f (k) = p(1-p) k
Hyper-
HG(N,K,n) geometric
distribution
Bernoulli
Bern(p)
distribution
http://www.rapidtables.com/math/symbols/Statistical_Symbols.htm
374
8.2 Features and use of methods of organising test results/marks
8.2.1 Unorganised score distribution tables
When you collect data, it comes to you in more or less a random fashion
and will initially be in an unorganised and raw form. For example, what if
you gave a 35 item test to a class of 50 learners and collected the
answer sheets? When you score the tests, the order of the scores will
be in the same order in which you received the answer sheets. It is
nearly impossible to draw any conclusions or make any inferences from
such data. Is there anything wrong with the data being unorganised?
No, the data is fine. But reading this data and trying to understand what
is going on is difficult in the current unorganised, form. Data needs to be
organised. One of the many uses of statistics is to make sense of the
senseless and the randomness of data. That is, one of the basic uses of
statistics is to organise raw and unorganised data.
It is difficult to interpret data when it is unorganised. To construct a

frequency distribution, you should first identify the lowest and highest
values in the list. For example, what if you gave a 35 item test to a class
of 50 learners and collect the answer sheets? When you score the tests,
the order of the scores will be in the same order in which you received
the answer sheets. It is now up to you to do some "data organisation" so
that the pattern and trends of the data will be more obvious. This is the
process of imposing some initial order on the data.
The simplest method for organising raw data is to create a frequency

distribution table. In a frequency table each possible value in the range
of scores in the data set is listed with its frequency of occurrence. That
is, each value in the data set is listed with the number of times it was
recorded, across all of the subjects.
Creating a frequency distribution is easy, but some rules must be

followed to preserve clarity. The most important thing to remember when
constructing any frequency distribution or any graph is to make the
table, or graph, easy to understand.
Firstly, you should list each value in the range of scores from high to low
in one column by placing the highest value at the top of this column and
working your way down to the lowest value. The name at the top of this
column is usually denoted X or some other letter associated with the
dependent variable. Or, you could use the actual name of the
measurement scale (spelling test). For any missing values, you can skip
375
them, or not skip them. It is better to include missing values. One
reason for including values that were not actually obtained, but were
within the range of values, is to not make people wonder about your
data; you want a frequency distribution to be easy to understand
Sorting data
Look at the two sets of data below as they "come off the shelf" so to
speak. Assume that, as mentioned above, 50 learners have taken a 35
item test; one is called a HardTest since the scores are very low and the
other EasyTest since the scores are much higher. Notice that for both
the "HardTest" and the "EasyTest" variables, the data is listed in no
particular order. While it is easy to see the high and low scores for the
first set, it is not as easy for the second set.
Hard test
6 4 7 2 4 6 5 2 5 4 5
4 4 6 4 10 5 2 3 10 4 2
3 2 5 5 6 4 7 6 9 3 4
3 5 5 6 6 6 7 1 1 5 8
4 8 4 4 6 4
Easy test
20 28 33 24 28 31 20 23 17 23
28
30 26 30 29 21 20 23 29 23 28
25
27 25 21 22 14 27 25 24 20 22
31
30 20 19 27 20 23 26 23 22 30
26
21 30 28 18 20 24
376
The first thing you could do would be to order each set of scores from
high to low, or low to high. After sorting the data, it will be easy to see
the lowest and highest values, and the range of the values (distance
from top to bottom). If you print the sorted column, you obtain an
ordered listing of the scores. Look at the data below which are simply
the rearranged values from above.
Hard sort
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7
7 8 8 9 10 10
Easy sort
14 17 18 19 20 20 20 20 20 20
20
21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 23
23
23 24 24 24 25 25 25 26 26 26
27
27 27 28 28 28 28 28 29 29 30
30
30 30 30 31 31 33
For the HardTest data, the low score is 1 and the high value is 10. For
the EasyTest data, the low value is 14 and the high value is 33.
HardTest ranges over a 10 point spread while the EasyTest ranges over
a 20 point spread. Not only are the HardTest numbers lower values, the
variability or spread is smaller. The number of times the same number
appears is known as frequency.
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/d/m/dmr/papers/Chp1rev.pdf
8.2.2 Rank order scales
377
Rank order is an arrangement according to rank.
A rank order scale gives the respondent a set of items and asks them to
put the items in some form of order. The measure of 'order' can include
things such as preference, importance, liking, effectiveness and so on.
The order is often a simple ordinal structure (A is higher than B). It can
also be done by relative position (A scores 10 whilst B scores 6).
Different types of data that can be sorted in a rank order:
 Nominal
The name 'Nominal' comes from the Latin nomen, meaning
'name' and nominal data are items which are differentiated by a
simple naming system. The only thing a nominal scale does is to
say that items being measured have something in common,
although this may not be described. Nominal items may have
numbers assigned to them. This may appear ordinal but is not --
these are used to simplify capture and referencing. Nominal items
are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable
category, such as 'employees'.
Example: The number pinned on a sports person or a set of

countries.
 Ordinal
Items on an ordinal scale are set into some kind of order by their
position on the scale. This may indicate things such as temporal
position, superiority, etc. The order of items is often defined by
assigning numbers to them to show their relative position. Letters
or other sequential symbols may also be used as appropriate.
Ordinal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a
definable category, such as '1956 marathon runners'. You cannot
do arithmetic with ordinal numbers -- they only show sequence.
Example: The first, third and fifth person in a race and pay bands
in an organisation, as denoted by A, B, C and D.
 Interval
Interval data (also sometimes called integer) is measured along a
scale in which each position is equidistant from one another. This
allows for the distance between two pairs to be equivalent in
some way. This is often used in psychological experiments that
measure attributes along an arbitrary scale between two
extremes. Interval data cannot be multiplied or divided.
378
Example: My level of happiness, rated from 1 to 10 or
temperature, in degrees Celsius.
 Ratio
In a ratio scale, numbers can be compared as multiples of one
another. Thus one person can be twice as tall as another person.
Important also, the number zero has meaning. Thus the
difference between a person of 35 and a person 38 is the same
as the difference between people who are 12 and 15. A person
can also have an age of zero. Ratio data can be multiplied and
divided because not only is the difference between 1 and 2 the
same as between 3 and 4, but also that 4 is twice as much as
2.Interval and ratio data measure quantities and hence are
quantitative. Because they can be measured on a scale, they are
also called scale data.
Example: A person's weight or the number of pizzas one can eat

before fainting
http://changingminds.org/explanations/research/measurement/ra
nk_ordering.htm
8.2.3 Simple frequency distribution tables
A frequency distribution table tells us the frequency of each score. By

the frequency of a score we mean how many times it occurs in the data.
For example, if the data is 7, 2, 3, 5, 6, 2, 9, 3, 2, the frequency of 2 is 3

(as the score 2 occurs 3 times); the frequency of 3 is 2; the frequency of
4 is 0 (because 4 does not occur at all); the frequency of 5 is 1; the
frequency of 6 is 1; the frequency of 7 is 1; the frequency of 8 is 0; the
frequency of 9 is 1.
The frequency distribution table is:
379
You find the frequency of each score, then write down each score in the
left column and write their frequencies in the right column.
Suppose that we have the following data:
Then the frequency diagram and frequency polygon are as follows:
380
8.2.4 Grouped frequency distribution tables
Sometimes a set of scores covers a wide range of values. In these

situations, a list of all the X values would be too long to be a simple
presentation of data. In this instance a grouped frequency table is used.
Grouped frequency distribution charts let statisticians organise large
sets of data in a format that is easy to comprehend. For instance, if 10
learners scored an A, 30 learners scored a B and five learners scored a
C, you could represent this large set of data in a frequency distribution
chart.
In a grouped table, the X column lists groups of scores, called class

intervals, rather than individual values. These intervals all have the
same width, usually a simple number such as 2, 5, 10, and so on. Each
interval begins with a value that is a multiple of the interval width. The
interval width is selected so that the table will have approximately 10
intervals. The score categories (X values) are listed on the X axis and
the frequencies are listed on the Y axis.
The most common type of frequency distribution chart is a histogram,

which is a specialised bar graph, wherein the data is divided by adjacent
intervals of equal length known as classes. A polygon can also be used.
To construct a frequency distribution chart of different scores of different

classes:
 Determine the number of classes. Typically, the number of

classes chosen is a value between 5 and 20. For the purpose of
an example, opt for five classes.
 Calculate the class width by subtracting the lowest value from the
highest value, dividing the result by the number of classes and
rounding up. Examine the following data set pertaining to learner
scores from an exam with 100 possible points:
381
54 40 86 84 92 75 85 92 45 89 94 68
78 84
 Subtract the lowest value (40) from the highest value (94) to get
54. Divide 54 by the number of classes (5) to obtain 10.8. Round
10.8 off to 11. (94 - 40) ÷ 5 = 10.8
 Select the lower limit of the first class. In this example, set the
lowest limit to 40
 Add the class width to the lower limit of the first class to calculate
the upper limit of the first class and the lower limit of the next
class. Continue until all classes are completed. Given the
example, add 11 to 40 to get the first class (40 - 41) and continue
as follows:
(40 - 51)
(51 - 62)
(62 - 73)
(73 - 84)
(84 - 95)
Determine the frequencies for each class by counting the number

of data values that fit for each class. The total frequency value
should be equal to the total number of data values. Given the
learner scores:
(40 - 51): 2
(51 - 62): 1
(62 - 73): 1
(73 - 84): 2
(84 - 95): 8
Create a grouped frequency distribution histogram cart by drawing

a bar graph where each bar's height is a frequency value, each
bar's width is a class and all of the bars are adjacent to one
another. Given the example, the widths are 40 - 51, 51 - 62, 62 -
73, 73 - 84 and 84 - 95, while the heights are 2, 1, 1, 2 and 8.
http://www.ehow.com/how_5290477_construct-distribution-chart-
using-classes.html#ixzz 29Gi7M3Rf
The histogram
Frequency distribution histograms are used the world over to display

and analyse sets of data. Histograms are a way to visually represent
data from a frequency distribution. The data range is broken up into bins
of equal size on the x axis, while the frequency of individuals within each
382
bin is charted vertically on the y axis. Frequency distribution histograms
are sometimes called rectangle charts, because the graph resembles a
row of rectangles. Histograms are widely used in the scientific and
medical fields, and are relatively simple to construct.
 Compile data that describes a variable feature about a cluster of

individuals; for example, a list of heights, shoe sizes, or test
scores in a sample population. Compile at least a dozen, but not
more than about a hundred, data points for a good hand-drawn
histogram chart. Organise the data into a frequency table by
listing them in numerical order from lowest to highest. Label the
measurement that that data describes, like shoe sizes, at the top
of the table.
 Find the range of values for the data. Do this by subtracting the
smallest number in the data set from the largest number. Write
down the data range where you can easily see it. Decide how
many bins, or continuous, equally sized groups, you want to
create in the histogram, based on the spread of the frequency
table; the range of data, along with the divisions between bins,
will make up the x axis of the histogram. Divide the range by the
number of desired bins to calculate the width of each bin.
 Draw a vertical line on paper, and draw a horizontal line that

begins at the bottom of the vertical line and extends to the right.
Write the lowest data value below the horizontal line where it
meets the vertical line. Write the highest data value below the
end of the horizontal line, and add a tick mark. Count up along
the x axis from the lowest value by the bin width, label the new
point, and add a tick mark. Continue until you have evenly sized,
properly labelled bins indicated by tick marks.
 Count up the frequency, or number, of data points that belong to

each bin. On the y axis, or vertical line, draw labelled tick marks
beginning from 1 and going up to the value of the highest bin
frequency. Beginning with the first bin, draw a rectangle up from
the endpoints of the bin that terminates at the vertical frequency.
Continue to draw rectangles for the rest of the bins. Shade or
colour-code the rectangles if desired. Title the frequency
distribution histogram.
383
http://www.ehow.com/how_8565943_draw-frequency-distribution-
histograms.html
The polygon
In a polygon, a dot is centred above each score so that the height of the
dot corresponds to the frequency. The dots are then connected by
straight lines. An additional line is drawn at each end to bring the graph
back to a zero frequency.
384
www.home.ubalt.edu/tmitch/631/PowerPoint_Lectures/chapter2/chapter
2.ppt

http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/frequency-distribution-grouped.html
for a step by step explanation on how to construct a grouped
frequency distribution. At the bottom of that page you will find a
button to click for an explanation on how to do a histogram.
8.3 The value of descriptive statistics for analysis and

interpretation of assessment scores
8.3.1 Measures of central tendency
 Balance scale
One definition of central tendency is the point at which the
distribution is in balance. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the five
numbers 2, 3, 4, 9, 16 placed upon a balance scale. If each
number weighs one kilogram, and is placed at its position along the
number line, then it would be possible to balance them by placing a
support at 6.8.
Figure 1: A Balance Scale
For another example, consider the distribution shown in figure 2.

It is balanced by placing the support in the geometric middle.
385
Figure 2: A distribution balanced on the tip of a
triangle.
Figure 3 illustrates that the same distribution cannot be balanced

by placing the support to the left of centre.
Figure 3: The distribution is not balanced.
Figure 4 shows an asymmetric distribution. To balance it, we

cannot put the support halfway between the lowest and highest
values (as we did in figure 2). Placing the support at the "half
way" point would cause it to tip towards the left.
Figure 4: An asymmetric distribution balanced on

the tip of a triangle.
The balance point defines one sense of a distribution's centre.
 Smallest absolute deviation

Another way to define the centre of a distribution is based on the
concept of the sum of the absolute differences. Consider the
distribution made up of the five numbers 2, 3, 4, 9, 16. Let us see
how far the distribution is from 10 (picking a number arbitrarily).
386
Table 1 shows the sum of the absolute differences of these
numbers from the number 10:
Values Absolute difference from 10
2 8
3 7
4 6
9 1
16 6
Sum 28
Table 1: An example of the sum of

absolute deviations
The first row of the table shows that the absolute value of the
difference between 2 and 10 is 8; the second row shows that the
difference between 3 and 10 is 7, and similarly for the other rows.
When we add up the five absolute differences, we get 28. So, the
sum of the absolute differences from 10 is 28. Likewise, the sum
of the absolute differences from 5 equals 3+2+1+4+11=21. So,
the sum of the absolute differences from 5 is smaller than the
sum of the absolute differences from 10. In this sense, 5 is closer,
overall, to the other numbers than is 10.
We are now in position to define a second measure of central

tendency, this time in terms of absolute differences. Specifically,
according to our second definition, the centre of a distribution is
the number for which the sum of the absolute differences is
smallest. As we just saw, the sum of the absolute differences
from 10 is 28 and the sum of the absolute differences from 5 is
21.
 Smallest squared deviation

We shall discuss one more way to define the centre of a
distribution. It is based on the concept of the sum of squared
differences. Again, consider the distribution of the five numbers 2,
387
3, 4, 9, 16. Table 2 shows the sum of the squared differences of
these numbers from the number 10.
Values Squared differences from 5
2 9
3 4
4 1
9 16
16 121
Sum 151
Table 2: An example of the sum of squared deviations
The first row in the table shows that the squared value of the
difference between 2 and 10 is 64; the second row shows that the
difference between 3 and 10 is 49, and so forth. When we add up
all these differences, we get 486. Changing the target from 10 to
5, we calculate the sum of the squared differences from 5 as
9+4+1+16+121=151. So, the sum of the squared differences from
5 is smaller than the sum of the absolute differences from 10.
http://cnx.org/content/m10942/latest/
The mean
One of the most useful and widely used techniques for making sense
out of data one which you already know, the average, or, as it is known
in statistics, the mean. And you know how to calculate the mean: you
simply add up a set of scores and divide by the number of scores. Thus
we have our first and perhaps the most basic statistical formula:
Where:
(Sometimes call the X-bar) is the symbol for the mean.
(The Greek letter sigma) is the symbol for summation.
X is the symbol for the scores.
N is the symbol for the number of scores.
388
So this formula simply says you get the mean by summing up all the
scores and dividing the total by the number of scores—the old average,
which in this case we are all familiar with, so it is a good place to begin.
This is pretty simple when you have only a few numbers. For example, if
you have just 6 numbers (3, 9, 10, 8, 6, and 5), you insert them into the
formula for the mean, and do the math:
But we usually have many more numbers to deal with. Here is an

example where the numbers are larger, and show how the calculations
should be done. We are going to compute the mean test score of 36
learners. Column A of Table 1 shows the scores (ranging from 20 to 70),
and column B shows how many learners got each score.
Table 1: Example 1 of method for computing the mean
A B C
Test score Frequency (f) fX

(X)
20 1 20
25 2 50
30 3 90
35 4 140
40 5 200
45 6 270
50 5 250
55 4 220
60 3 180
65 2 130
70 1 70
Sum 36 1,620
To get the for our formula, we multiply the number of learners in

each score category by the score for that category (e.g., 1 x 20, 2 x 25,
389
etc.), and then total those numbers (the ones in column C). Thus we
have:
And this is how the distribution of these scores looks:
Distribution of scores: Figure 1
The scores in this distribution are normally distributed, thus a normal

curve, i.e., clustered around a central value, with decreasing numbers
of cases as you move to the extreme ends of the range.
The median
If your data is normally distributed (like those in Figure 1), the preferred
measure of central tendency is the mean. However, if your data is not
normally distributed, the median is a better measure of central tendency.
The median is the point in the distribution above which and below which
50% of the scores lie. In other words, if we list the scores in order from
highest to lowest (or lowest to highest) and find the middle-most score,
that is the median.
For example, suppose we have the following scores:
2, 12, 4, 11, 3, 7, 10, 5, 9, 6.
The next step is to arrange them in order from lowest to highest:
390
2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12
Since we have 10 scores, and 50% of 10 is 5, we want the point above

which and below which there are five scores. If you count up from the
bottom, you might think the median is 6. But that is not right because
there are 4 scores below 6 and 5 above it. So how do we deal with that
problem? We deal with it by understanding that in statistics, a
measurement or a score is regarded not as a point but as an interval
ranging from half a unit below to half a unit above the value. So in this
case, the actual midpoint or median of this distribution—the point above
which and below which 50% of the scores lie—is 6.5
As we saw with the mean, when we have only a few numbers, it is pretty
simple. But how do we find the median when we have larger numbers
and more than one person with the same score? It is not difficult. Let us
use the test data in Table 1.
Table 2: Example 1 of method for computing the median
Score Range Frequency
20 19.5-20.5 1
25 24.5-25.5 2
30 29.5-30.5 3
35 34.5-35.5 4
40 39.5-40.5 5
45 44.5-45.5 6
50 49.5-50.5 5
55 54.5-55.5 4
60 59.5-60.5 3
65 64.5-65.5 2
70 69.5-70.5 1
Sum 36
The scores are already in order from lowest to highest, so the next step
in finding the median is to determine how many learners (ratings,
391
scores, or whatever) we have. Those are shown in the frequency
column, and the total is 36. So our N = 36, and we want to find the score
point above which and below which 50%, or 18, of the individuals fall. If
we count up from the bottom through the 40 level, we have 15, and we
need three more. But if we include the 45 level (in which there are 6), we
have 21, three more than we need. Thus, we need 3, or 50%, of the 6
cases in the 45 category. We add this value (.5) to the lower limit of the
interval in which we know the median lies (44.5-45.5), and this gives us
value of 45.
In this case, the mean and the median are the same—as they always
are in normal distributions. So in situations like this, the mean is the
preferred measure.
The calculations for the median were done in a simple, descriptive way
(arraying the scores from high to low, counting up to the mid-category,
dividing it as necessary, etc.). This is the statistical formula for
calculating the median:
Where:
Mdn is the median
L is the lower limit of the interval containing the median.
N is the total number of scores.
is the sum of the frequencies or number of scores up to the

interval containing the median.
Fw is the frequency or number of scores within the interval

containing the median.
I is the size or range of the interval.
The mode
The third and last of the measures of central tendency we’ll be dealing
with is the mode. It is very simple: The mode is the most frequently
occurring score or value. In our case, that value is 45K. But sometimes
we may have odd distributions in which there may be two peaks. Even if
392
the peaks are not exactly equal, they’re referred to as bi-modal
distributions.
Let us assume we have such a bi-modal distribution of test scores as

shown in Table 5 and Figure 3.
Table 5: Bi-modal distribution of scores
A B C
Score (X) Frequency (f) fX
20 1 20
25 3 75
30 4 120
35 6 210
40 3 120
45 1 45
50 3 150
55 5 275
60 6 360
65 3 195
70 1 70
Sum 36 1,640
Figure 3: Example of a Bi-modal distribution
393
Before we talk about the mode, using the formulas and calculation
procedures you’ve just learned, calculate the mean and median for the
salaries in Table 5 (the fx and the data are in Column C).
When you look at this distribution of scores, as shown graphically in

Figure 3, it’s hard to discern any central tendency. The mean (which you
just calculated) is 45, which only one learner scored, and the median is
also 45, which, while it’s the middle-most value (50% of the cases are
above and below it), certainly does not give us a meaningful indication
of the central tendency in this distribution—because there is none.
Therefore, the most informative general statement we can make about

this distribution is to say that it is bi-modal.
http://www.fgse.nova.edu/edl/secure/stats/lesson4.htm
Search the following webpage for more information and examples on

measures of central tendency.
http://onlinestatbook.com/2/summarizing_distributions/summarizing
disributions.pdf
8.3.2 Measures of spread and dispersion
A measure of spread, sometimes also called a measure of dispersion, is

used to describe the variability in a sample. It is usually used in
conjunction with a measure of central tendency such as the mean or
median, to provide an overall description of a set of data.
There are many reasons why the measure of the spread of data values
is important but one of the main reasons regards its relationship with
measures of central tendency. A measure of spread gives us an idea of
how well the mean, for example, represents the data. If the spread of
values in the data set is large then the mean is not as representative of
the data as if the spread of data is small. This is because a large spread
indicates that there are probably large differences between individual
scores.
Variability refers to how "spread out" a group of scores is. To see what
we mean by spread out, consider graphs in Figure 1. These graphs
represent the scores on two quizzes. The mean score for each quiz is
7.0. Despite the equality of means, you can see that the distributions are
quite different. Specifically, the scores on Quiz 1 are more densely
packed and those on Quiz 2 are more spread out. The differences
among learners were much greater on Quiz 2 than on Quiz 1.
394
Figure 1.Bar charts of two quizzes
Quiz 1
Quiz 2
The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to
how spread out a distribution is.
Range
The range is the simplest measure of variability to calculate, and one

you have probably encountered many times in your life. The range is
simply the highest score minus the lowest score. Let us take a few
examples:
 What is the range of the following group of numbers: 10, 2, 5, 6, 7,

3, 4? Well, the highest number is 10, and the lowest number is 2,
so 10 - 2 = 8. The range is 8.
 Let us take another example. Here’s a data set with 10 numbers:
99, 45, 23, 67, 45, 91, 82, 78, 62, 51. What is the range? The
395
highest number is 99 and the lowest number is 23, so 99 - 23
equals 76; the range is 76.
 Now consider the two quizzes shown in Figure 1. On Quiz 1, the
lowest score is 5 and the highest score is 9. Therefore, the range is
4. The range on Quiz 2 was larger: the lowest score was 4 and the
highest score was 10. Therefore the range is 6.
Whilst using the range as a measure of spread is limited, it does set the
boundaries of the scores. This can be useful if you are measuring a
variable that has either a critical low or high threshold (or both) that
should not be crossed. The range will instantly inform you whether at
least one value broke these critical thresholds. In addition, the range can
be used to detect any errors when entering data. For example, if you
have recorded the age of school children in your study and your range is
7 to 123 years old you know you have made a mistake!
Variance
Variability can also be defined in terms of how close the scores in the
distribution are to the middle of the distribution. Using the mean as the
measure of the middle of the distribution, the variance is defined as the
average squared difference of the scores from the mean. The data from
Quiz 1 are shown in Table 1. The mean score is 7.0. Therefore, the
column "Deviation from Mean" contains the score minus 7. The column
"Squared Deviation" is simply the previous column squared.
Table 1: Calculation of variance for quiz 1 scores
Deviation from
Scores Squared deviation
mean
9 2 4
9 2 4
9 2 4
8 1 1
8 1 1
8 1 1
8 1 1
396
7 0 0
7 0 0
7 0 0
7 0 0
7 0 0
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
6 -1 1
5 -2 4
5 -2 4
Means
7 0 1.5
One thing that is important to notice is that the mean deviation from the
mean is 0. This will always be the case. The mean of the squared
deviations is 1.5. Therefore, the variance is 1.5. Analogous calculations
with Quiz 2 show that its variance is 6.7. The formula for the variance is:
Where:
σ2 is the variance
μ is the mean
397
N is the number of numbers.
For Quiz 1, μ = 7 and N = 20.
If the variance in a sample is used to estimate the variance in a

population, then the previous formula underestimates the variance and
the following formula should be used:
Where:
s2 is the estimate of the variance
M is the sample mean.
Note that M is the mean of a sample taken from a population with a

mean of μ.
Since, in practice, the variance is usually computed in a sample, this

formula is most often used. The simulation “estimating variance”
illustrates the bias in the formula with N in the denominator.
Let us take a concrete example. Assume the scores 1, 2, 4, and 5 were

sampled from a larger population. To estimate the variance in the
population you would compute s2 as follows:
M = (1 + 2 + 4 + 5)/4 = 12/4 = 3.
s2 = [(1-3)2 + (2-3)2 + (4-3)2 + (5-3)2]/(4-1)
= (4 + 1 + 1 + 4)/3 = 10/3 = 3.333
There are alternate formulas that can be easier to use if you are doing
your calculations with a hand calculator. You should note that these
formulas are subject to rounding error if your values are very large
and/or you have an extremely large number of observations.
398
and
For this example,
Standard deviation
The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance. This
makes the standard deviations of the two quiz distributions 1.225 and
2.588. The standard deviation is an especially useful measure of
variability when the distribution is normal or approximately normal
because the proportion of the distribution within a given number of
standard deviations from the mean can be calculated.
For example, 68% of the distribution is within one standard deviation of

the mean and approximately 95% of the distribution is within two
standard deviations of the mean. Therefore, if you had a normal
distribution with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, then 68%
of the distribution would be between 50 - 10 = 40 and 50 +10 =60.
Similarly, about 95% of the distribution would be between 50 - 2 x 10 =
30 and 50 + 2 x 10 = 70. The symbol for the population standard
deviation is σ; the symbol for an estimate computed in a sample is s.
Figure 2 shows two normal distributions. The red distribution has a
mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 5; the blue distribution has a
mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 10. For the red distribution, 68%
of the distribution is between 35 and 45; for the blue distribution, 68% is
between 50 and 70.
399
Figure 2.Normal distributions with standard deviations of 5 and 10.
400
The sample standard deviation formula is:
Where:
s is sample standard deviation

is sum of...
is sample mean
n is number of scores in sample.
The population standard deviation formula is:
Where:
is population standard deviation

is sum of...
is population mean
n is number of scores in sample
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/measures-of-spread-standard-
deviation.php
8.3.3 Measures of relative position
Measures of relative position are conversions of values, usually

standardised test scores, to show where a given value stands in relation
to other values of the same grouping. The most common example in
education is the conversion of scores on standardised tests to show
where a given learner stands in relation to other learners of the same
age, grade level, etc. Converted scores are based on the standard
deviation or distance of a raw score from the mean for a normal curve or
distribution.
Standard scores
Standard score is a statistical term.Standard scores are used to

compare one learner's performance on a test to the performance of
other learners. Standard scores estimate whether a learner's scores are
401
above average, average or below average compared to peers. They
also enable comparison of a learner's scores on different types of tests.
The standard score shows how far away from the mean a score falls. It
is also known as a z-score. Using a z-score table, you can find where
the score falls on the table and figure out what percentile the score falls
in. This is a way of standardizing tests in order to curve the scores to fit
around the mean. If everyone does poorly on a test, the score
distribution will curve up to fit around the average score on the test.
How to calculate a standard score:
 Find the mean and standard deviation of your data set. For
example, assume you have a data set with a mean of 24 and a
standard deviation of 5. You want to find the standard score of
28 in the data set.
 Subtract the mean from the data for which you want a standard
score. In the example, 28 minus 24 equals 4.
 Divide the difference between the data and the mean by the
standard deviation. In the example, 4 divided by 5 equals a
standard score of 0.8. You can use this score on a z table to see
where it falls as a percentage of the rest of the scores.
Common types of standard scores:
 Z-Scores: These scores are scaled on a number line ranging

from -4 to 4 with zero being in the middle. On this scale, zero is
average. Positive scores are above average, and negative
scores are below average.
 T-Scores: These scores range from 10 - 90 in intervals of 10
points. Fifty is average on this scale.
 Stanines: The stanine scale is also called the standard nine
scale. These scores range from 1 - 9 with five being average.
Scores below five are below average. Scores above five are
above average.
http://www.ehow.com/how_7511925_calculate-standard-
score.html#ixzz29LvnWBY4
Percentile rank
The percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in its

frequency distribution that are the same or lower than it. For instance, if
you received a score of 95 on a maths test and this score was greater
than or equal to the scores of 88% of the learners taking the test, then
402
your percentile rank would be 88. You would be in the 88th percentile.
Or a test score that is greater than 75% of the scores of people taking
the test is said to be at the 75th percentile. Percentiles divide the set of
data into 100 equal parts.
Percentiles are most often used for determining the relative standing of
an individual in a population or the rank position of the individual. Some
of the most popular uses for percentiles are connected with test scores.
Percentile ranks are commonly used to clarify the interpretation of

scores on standardised tests. For the test theory, the percentile rank of
a raw score is interpreted as the percentages of examinees in the norm
group who scored below the score of interest.
Percentile ranks:
 Percentile rank is a number between 0 and 100 indicating the

percent of cases falling at or below that score.
 Percentile ranks are usually written to the nearest whole percent:
74.5% = 75% = 75th percentile.
 Scores are divided into 100 equally sized groups.
 Scores are arranged in rank order from lowest to highest.
 There is no 0 percentile rank - the lowest score is at the first
percentile.
 There is no 100th percentile - the highest score is at the 99th
percentile.
 You cannot perform the same mathematical operations on
percentiles that you can on raw scores. You cannot, for example,
compute the mean of percentile scores, as the results may be
misleading.
Percentile ranks (PRs) are often normally distributed (bell-shaped).

Percentile ranks are not on an equal-interval scale; that is, the difference
between any two scores is not the same between any other two scores
whose difference in percentile ranks is the same. For example, 50 − 25
= 25 is not the same distance as 60 − 35 = 25 because of the bell-curve
shape of the distribution. Some percentile ranks are closer to some than
others. Percentile rank 30 is closer on the bell curve to 40 than it is to
20.
The mathematical formula is:
403
Where:
cℓ is the count of all scores less than the score of interest,
ƒi is the frequency of the score of interest, and
N is the number of examinees in the sample
Or:
To find the percentile rank of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x

is included:
Where:
B is number of scores below x

E is number of scores equal to x
n is number of scores
Example: If Jason scored 25th out of a class of 150 learners, then 125
learners were ranked below Jason. Jason's percentile rank would be:
Jason's standing in the class at the 84th percentile is as higher as or

higher than 84% of the graduates.
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/math/ALGEBRA/AD6/quartiles.htm
http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/A79766.html
T-scores
T-scores may be calculated from several other statistical values.
A t-test is a type of test for a statistical hypothesis. T-scores are the

result of a t-test and follow a learner's t-distribution. A t-test most
commonly is used in cases where the test population is expected to
follow an approximately bell-shaped distribution. T-scores may be
calculated from several other statistical values.
404
The t-test is a random variable that uses the standard deviation of the
sample to help determine interesting stuff about the larger group it
represents.
The related values in which t-score features:
 The average of the values in your sample.

 The supposed average of the larger population your sample is
drawn from.
 The standard deviation of your sample's values.
 The number of values in your sample.
The t score is defined by:
t = [ x - μ ] / [ s / sqrt( n ) ] where:
x is the sample mean
μ is the population mean
s is the standard deviation of the sample
n is the sample size.
The distribution of this t statistic is called the t distribution or the learner t

distribution
How to calculate a t-score:
 Define the mean, which is the sum of all the scores in the sample
divided by the number of scores in the sample. This can be
expressed mathematically as? = ? xi/n, where? is the mean, xi is
the ith score in the sample and n is the size of the sample
population.
 Define the standard deviation of a sample. The standard
deviation is the unit of measure for t-scores and may be
represented mathematical as s = (? (xi - x)2 / (n - 1)) ^(1/2),
where s is the standard deviation, xi is the ith element of the
sample, x is the sample mean and n is the size of the sample
population.
 Derive the t-score. This is given by t = (x - X) / (s / n^2), where t is
the t-score, x is the mean of the sample, X is the mean of the
population, s is the sample's standard deviation and n is the size
of the sample population.
405
 Learn the properties of a t distribution. The number of degrees of
freedom of a t distribution is 1 less than the sample size. The
mean of the t distribution is 0, and its variance is f / (f - 2), where f
is the degrees of freedom. Note that the variance is defined only
when the degrees of freedom in the distribution are at least 3.
 Use the t distribution when the population's standard deviation is
unknown. The sample size can be small as long as the
distribution is approximately normal.
http://www.ehow.com/how_5135749_calculate-
t_score.html#ixzz29NARlnwJ
For more information on measures of relative position search the following

website: http://www.acastat.com/Statbook/zscore.htm
8.4 The degree of difficulty of test items
It is relatively easy to determine the level of difficulty of individual test items.

You simply divide the number of learners who answered an item correctly by
the total number of learners who answered the item. Multiply that figure by 100.
N x 100
If the purpose for your test is norm referencing or discrimination, you will seek
items with a difficulty level of around 50%.
8.4.1 Item analysis for norm-referencing
Item analysis is an important technique for perfecting norm-referenced

tests that discriminate between high and low scorers. You begin by
choosing some standard for high and low scorers on a test. For
example, high scorers = learners with test scores in the top 1/3 of the
class, and low scorers = learners with test scores in the bottom 1/3 of
the class. In the example below, 12 learners are in the high and low
groups.
On a specific test item, if the 12 learners in the high group respond to

the item correctly (answer b) and the 12 learners in the low group
respond to the item incorrectly, you have a perfectly discriminating item.
406
A B C D E Groups
All 12 learners in high

12 group
respond to item correctly.
All 12 learners in low

group
3 0 3 3 3
respond to item
incorrectly.
You can compute a discrimination index for an individual test item as

follows: subtract the number of learners in the low group responding to
the item correctly from the number of learners in the high group
responding to the item correctly (12-0). Divide this figure by the number
of learners in one group (12). The value of the example above is 1.0, or
a perfectly discriminating item.
 Designers of norm-referenced tests typically seek items in the

range of .35 to .70.
 If most learners in both the high and low groups respond to an
item correctly, your discrimination index might be .14. This is a
red flag that the test item is too easy.
If more learners in the low group were to respond to an item correctly

compared to learners in the high group, the discrimination index would
be negative (-.08). This is a red flag that the test item is flawed.
8.4.2 Item analysis for diagnosing instruction and assessments
If you distribute your test items both pre and post-instruction, you can
also use a form of item analysis to diagnose both your instruction and its
assessments. Simply compare the percentage of learners who
responded to an item correctly both pre and post-instruction.
Learners
Learners responding
responding to an
to an item correctly Indicator of:
item correctly
pre-instruction
post- instruction
407
Successful
15% 85%
instruction.
Defect in test item or

in the instruction,
15% 22%
need to re-teach
content.**
Defect in test item or

80% 90% instructional
complexity too low.
Defect in test item,

75% 29% typo, need to check
your question.
**If a specific test has several items with poor response rates both pre
and post-instruction, you should return to your test blueprint and
determine which goals/objectives were not understood by the learners. It
may be that all of the poorly understood items were from the same goal
or objective area, thus you would need to re-teach that portion of your
content.
http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/assess/diagnostics.html
8.5 The differentiation/discriminating value of test items
The discrimination index (item effectiveness) is a kind of correlation that

describes the relationship between a learner’s response to a single question
and his/her total score on the test. This statistic can tell you how well each
question was able to differentiate amongst learners in terms of their ability and
preparation.
 As a correlation, question discrimination can theoretically take values

between -1.00 and +1.00. In practical terms values for most classroom
tests range between near 0.00 to values near .90.
 If a question is very easy so that nearly all learners answered correctly,
the questions discrimination will be near zero. Extremely easy questions
cannot distinguish among learners in terms of their performance.
 If a question is extremely difficult so that nearly all learners answered
incorrectly, the discrimination will be near zero.
408
 The most effective questions will have moderate difficulty and high
discrimination values. The higher the value of discrimination is, the more
effective it is in discriminating between learners who perform well on the
test and those who do not.
 Questions having low or negative values of discrimination need to be
reviewed very carefully for confusing language or an incorrect key. If no
confusing language is found then the course design for the topic of the
question needs to be critically reviewed.
 A high level of learner guessing on questions will result in a question
discrimination value near zero.
If the test and a single item measure the same thing, one would expect
learners who do well on the test to answer that item correctly, and those who
do poorly to answer the item incorrectly. A good item discriminates between
those who do well on the test and those who do poorly. Two indices can be
computed to determine the discriminating power of an item, the item
discrimination index, D, and discrimination coefficients.
The method of extreme groups can be applied to compute a very simple

measure of the discriminating power of a test item. If a test is given to a large
group of learners, the discriminating power of an item can be measured by
comparing the number of learners with high test scores who answered that
item correctly with the number of people with low scores who answered the
same item correctly. If a particular item is doing a good job of discriminating
between those who score high and those who score low, more learners in the
top-scoring group will have answered the item correctly.
In computing the discrimination index, D:
 First score each learner’s test and rank order the test scores.
 Next, the 27% of the learners at the top and the 27% at the bottom are
separated for the analysis. ("27% is used because it has shown that this
value will maximise differences in normal distributions while providing
enough cases for analysis) There need to be as many learners as
possible in each group to promote stability, at the same time it is
desirable to have the two groups be as different as possible to make the
discriminations clearer.
The discrimination index, D, is calculated as follows:
the number of people in the upper group who answered the item correctly
(x1)
minus (-)
409
the number of people in the lower group who answered the item correctly
(x1)
divided by (÷)
the number of people in the largest of the two groups (n)
(X1 - X1)
When more learners in the lower group than in the upper group select the right
answer to an item, the item actually has negative validity. Assuming that the
criterion itself has validity, the item is not only useless but is actually serving to
decrease the validity of the test.
The higher the discrimination index, the better the item because such a value
indicates that the item discriminates in favour of the upper group, which should
get more items correct, as shown in Table 1. Table 2 illustrates that if more
learners in the lower group get an item correct than in the upper group, the
item will have a negative D value and is probably flawed.
Table 1: Positive item discrimination index D
Group Item response
A B C D
Upper 3 2 15 0
group
Lower 12 3 3 2
group
Note. * denotes correct response
74 learners took the test
27% = 20(N)
Item difficulty: (15 + 3)/40 = .45p
Discrimination Index: (15 - 3)/20 = .60
410
Table 7: Negative item discrimination index D
Group Item response
A B C D
Upper 0 0 0 0
group
Lower 0 0 15 0
group
Note. * denotes correct response
Item difficulty: (0 + 15)/30 = .50p
Discrimination Index: (0 - 15)/15 = -1.0
A negative discrimination index is most likely to occur when an item covers

complex material written in such a way that it is possible to select the correct
response without any real understanding of what is being assessed. A poor
learner may make a guess, select that response, and come up with the correct
answer. Good learners may be suspicious of a question that looks too easy,
may take the harder path to solving the problem, read too much into the
question, and may end up being less successful than those who guess. As a
rule of thumb, in terms of discrimination index, .40 and greater are very good
items, .30 to .39 are reasonably good but possibly subject to improvement, .20
to .29 are marginal items and need some revision, below .19 are considered
poor items and need major revision or should be eliminated.
Steps in a review of an item analysis report:
 Review the difficulty and discrimination of each question.

 For each question having low values of discrimination review the
distribution of responses along with the question text to determine what
might be causing a response pattern that suggests learner confusion.
 If the text of the question is confusing, change the text or remove the
question from the course database. If the question text is not confusing
or faulty, then try to identify the instructional component that may be
leading to learner confusion.
 Carefully examine the questions that discriminate well between high
and low scoring learners to fully understand the role that instructional
411
design played in leading to these results. Ask yourself what aspects of
the instructional process appear to be most effective.
http://www.schreyerinstitute.psu.edu/Tools/ItemAnalysis/
http://ericae.net/ft/tamu/Espy.htm
8.6 Deduction from analysis of examination results
By analysing exam performance you need to realise the importance of

measuring learner’s progress, as well as grades. If you are looking at exam
results you need to understand genuine success and understand not just the
data but the reasons behind it.
Although some schools have dedicated performance managers, they do not

always receive adequate training to analyse value added progress and identify
the factors causing underperformance. Educated people are not necessarily
statistically aware. And pressing a button and coming up with some stats does
not demonstrate an understanding of what the data shows, why, and what they
can do to improve the school. Data is only the start of a conversation. It does
not give solutions.
To understand performance, the first resource teachers can consult is the

examiners' report. This report should provide feedback how each school has
done in an exam, analysing performance on each question. It will show how
learners did in each of the questions compared to the national average and so
on.
This will help teachers get an understanding of any factors that may have
caused learners to slip up on the day. But after looking at the results, schools
might also want to ask some broader questions about the teaching they are
providing.
For example:
 Is the curriculum fit for purpose?

 Is the school entering learners to too many subjects?
 Is there a vocational course that learners might be better suited to?
It is all about thinking what is the step that the school or teachers need to take
to make things better?
The main deduction from analysing examination results is to develop a process

known as the "academic review" which provides a series of questions schools
should ask when crunching their exam data.
412
The process, which involves a deputy head, assistant head and the head of
department, focuses on any variations between learners' performance in
particular modules, subjects and between their predicted grades and the
results achieved.
The key to successful post-exam analysis is ensuring that schools use an

evidence-based and no-blame approach.
The statistical analysis of examination results is an important work for the

management of examination. Its conclusions are the theoretical basis for
teaching evaluation, research and reform. By analysing examination results, in
one hand, the teachers can get to know how much knowledge learners have
obtained. For the other hand, it can be a feedback that the quality of
examination papers, which is benefit to modify the questions and make the test
more standard. Therefore statistical analysis of the examination results has
been suggested for identifying the problems in the examination system as well
as in the teaching process of a school.
The procedure for the analysis is as follows. Firstly examination results of

learners are extracted from the scripts. Subsequently relative parameters
including difficulty, discrimination and reliability were calculated. Third, the
values of above parameters have been compared and discussed in order to
identify possible sources of problems. To achieve the objective, the parameters
will be first described according to specialised technical literature
 Difficulty. The difficulty of an item is understood as the proportion of

the persons who answer a test item correctly. When this proportion is
higher, the difficulty is lower. Usually this proportion is indicated by the
letter P, which indicates the difficulty of the item. It is calculated by the
following formula:
𝐴1
P1= 𝑁
1
Where: Pi= Difficulty index of item i,
Ai =Average scores to item i,
Ni = Full scores of item i
For the whole script, the average difficulty index P can be calculated by
the formula as below:
1
𝑃 = 100 ∑𝑛(𝑤) 𝑃𝑁
413
Generally the average difficulty index P should be controlled near 0.7.
If P is more than 0.75, it indicates that the exam is quite easy. While P
is less than 0.45, it indicates the exam is rather difficult.
 Discrimination. If the test and an item measure the same ability or

competence, it would be expected that those having a high overall test
score would have a high probability of being able to answer the item.
Thus, a good item should discriminate between those who score high
on the test and those who score low. The discrimination index D can
be calculated by using following formula:
𝑃𝐻 −𝑃𝐿
𝐷= 100
Where: PH= Average score for the 27% of those with highest test
scores, PL= Average score for the 27% of those with lowest test
scores
R.L. Ebel gave us the following rule for determining the quality of the
items, in terms of the discrimination index. If D>0.39, the quality of the
exam paper is excellent. When D is in the 0.30-0.39 range, the exam
paper is qualified. If 0.20<D<0.29, it indicates that the quality of the
exam paper is passable and has possibility for improvement. The exam
paper should be discarded if D is less than 0.20.
 Reliability. Estimates of reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) are at the heart

of the quality control process of the examination system. For the
majority of the examinations propounded by teachers these indices
tend to be somewhere in the 0.60-0.8 range. Cronbach’s alpha can be
calculated by following formula:
𝑘 ∑ 𝑆12
𝑎 = 𝑘−1 (1 − )
𝑆𝑥2
Where: k = Total of item,
S2i = Variance of scores for item i,
S2x = Variance of scores for script
The statistical analysis of the examination results of materials research

methods course was carried out. Several parameters for the exam
paper including difficulty P, discrimination D and reliability were
calculated. The values are 0.69, 0.31 and 0.75, respectively. The
results indicate that the distribution of examination scores approximate
to normal distribution. It is noted that there is a big gap among four
414
classes. Difficulty of the exam paper belongs to median level, and
discrimination of this is qualified as well as reliability. Thus it was
concluded that the design of the examination paper was good and
dependable.
The information above on the calculations is something you as teacher would

probably not have to work out, unless you want a higher position in the school
than just a teacher.
All schools should have a by-line ‘assessment matters’. The reason for this is
twofold: the school and teachers deal with matters of assessment and they
believe that assessment matters. The natural question then is why does
assessment matter?
Often external examinations are criticised because it is felt that they encourage
rote learning on the part of the learner and ‘drill and practice’ exercises on the
part of the teacher. More importantly, this kind of practice is often highly
rewarded in examinations where the kinds of questions that are set require a
mechanical repetition of material, opinions or skills, rehearsed and practiced
during the year, in preparation for the examination. Universities complain that
learners reach them with very good results from their school experience but
without a real understanding of the meaning or significance of particular
concepts in a learning area.
Assessment has a direct impact on teaching and hence, learning. For this
reason, the way a question is asked matters because the way a question is
asked will either ‘open’ up the mind of learner to explore different ways of
seeing and understanding or close down a learner’s mind to focus on the ‘right’
answer. Clearly, there is a time and place for each approach and a good
assessment instrument provides a balance.
A learner who has mastered the content of their subject and can produce lists
of facts and data on demands will in all likelihood achieve a reasonable mark.
However if they intend to succeed in their careers following school, they will
need to do more; they will need to understand the origins of this information, its
implications and applications in real-life contexts. They will need to think about
issues, apply their learnt knowledge in new situations and discuss options in
solving problems. Learners will also be encouraged to form opinions about
issues relevant to different subjects and be expected to justify their opinions
using sound principles
Each school and teachers should actively strives to set assessments that test
learners’ understanding not only of what information applies in a certain
circumstance but also of how and why that specific knowledge is applied, to
obtain a desired set of outcomes. In such questions it is not enough for a
415
learner to have learnt the material “off-by-heart”; they will need to have
understood it well enough to engage with those questions that probe their
understanding and encourage a critical engagement with pertinent issues.
Clearly this approach in assessment has an effect on how teachers approach

their teaching. If the teachers know that the examination will require that
learners consider issues for themselves, that they analyse situations and
evaluate options, that they provide an unrehearsed response that they
themselves have developed and can substantiate, they will from the outset
approach their teaching with this in mind. They will ask questions that probe
understanding during class; they will encourage learners to offer opinions and
substantiate them in class; they will guide learners in the processes of debate
and positive engagement with the opinions of others; they will explore flaws in
reasoning and encourage a development of crucial and constructive
engagement with issues, both orally and in writing. This strategy creates a
more rounded learner with an ability to apply acquired knowledge in different
scenarios and through the process of analysis and deduction, provide an
answer that conforms to principles of clear logical thought, that is understood
by the learner each step of the way and is communicated clearly and
appropriately to the relevant audience.
From the onset, learners should be prepared for assessment of this nature
because their teachers teach and assess with such an approach in mind, from
the early grades in school. However the practice of teachers is different and
improved because of the examination for which they are preparing learners.
8.7 The importance for schools to analyse examination results

Assessment (DNEA) are to provide a national assessment and certification
service for the school system, to assist in enhancing the quality of education
and with the monitoring of educational standards.
The main objectives are:
 To successfully administer the examination and certification functions of

the national school examinations namely, the Junior Secondary
Certificate (JSC), the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate Ordinary
Level (NSSCO) and the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate Higher
Level (NSSCH) examinations as well as the semi-external end of
primary (Grade 7) examination.
 To continuously monitor and improve the security of examinations and
the efficiency of regional examination offices, heads of examination
centres and invigilators.
416
standards in the education system.
Changing from the old education system in Namibia, which was characterised
by inequality and fragmentation, to the new system, was a gradual process. As
noted in the Policy Dialogue Reports: Examinations (1993: 3) “… a major
objective [to reform assessment systems] was to begin the lengthy process of
mental decolonization away from the images of an inferior and separate people
which permeated the old curriculum and pedagogy”. For quality assurance and
the maintenance of public confidence, links with Cambridge were thought to be
vital, especially after the localisation of the syllabi. As Njabili (2004: 38)
observes, “it should be noted that the most sensitive part of curriculum change
is change in the Assessment and Examination System”.
Poor performance in public examinations to the public at large is often taken as

an indicator of poor teaching and learning”.
Now that the government of the Republic of Namibia, through the Ministry of
Education, is in charge of its assessment systems and procedures the reforms
there have been an indication that the curriculum is being well served. This is
encouraging since research has shown that curricular objectives can best be
achieved if examinations and assessment serve the curriculum.
Frequently curriculum has been the servant of examinations. As Njabili (2004:

37) argued, “…in such a situation, the content of the curriculum and emphasis
in teaching is determined by examination demands”.
Exams are important milestones in every learner’s journey, from pre-primary

up to senior secondary school. Are you as teacher able to utilise every
assessment a learner takes as a learning opportunity to help them prepare for
a professional exam? Can you predict a learner’s performance before they take
standardised exams and intervene with those who need extra help? Are your
learners prepared for their impending test-taking experience? This is why it is
important for schools to analyse examination results.
Schools have a real opportunity to change the way they teach and prepare
learners for the milestone exams in their lives. It starts with leveraging
embedded assessments more effectively. Schools across Namibia are using
deeper question categorisation and reporting based on stated objectives for
important exams to provide learners with valuable, personalised feedback for
focused study.
For teachers and administrators, data and analytics can deliver valuable, real-
time information throughout the term, providing the opportunity to adjust course
material, intervene with at-risk learners, and better prepare learners to succeed
417
on other standardised exams. In addition to improving overall exam
performance, psychometric data, blueprinting, and collaboration tools help the
school continuously improve the quality of their own exams and exam
questions.
8.8 Summary
In this unit we looked at analysing and interpreting assessment results

statistically. You had the opportunity to practise some of the statistical
calculations.
In the next unit we will look at and evaluate some instruments and elements of
learning, instruction and parent feedback. Make sure you have mastered this
unit by ticking the checklist before continuing with unit 9.
Learning activity 1
a. – iv; b. – ii; c. – vii; d. – v; e. – viii; f. – i; g. – vi; h. – iii
Learning activity 2
Hard sort: Axis X will consist of Easy sort: Axis X will consist of
numbers 0 – 15 and axis Y will the numbers 0 – 20 and axis Y
consist of numbers 1 – 10. will consist of the numbers 10 –
40 count in fives, namely: 10- 15;
16 – 20; 21- 25 etc till 40
2 learners scored 1 1 learners scored 10 – 15
9 learners scored 5 8 learners scored 31 - 35
9 learners scored 6
3 learners scored 7
2 learners scored 8
1 learner scored 9
2 learners scored 10
418
Learning activity 3
Use your own words to write your own definitions. Your definitions have to
display an understanding of the different aspects of measures of tendency,
measures of spread and dispersion and measures of relative position. Use
the key words to guide you.
Learning activity 4
21
36 x 100 = 58,33
Learning activity 5
7–4 14 =0.2
Glossary
Hypothesis An unproved theory, proposition, supposition, etc. tentatively

accepted to explain certain facts or to provide a basis for further
investigation, argument, etc.
Statistic Statistics is the study of the collection, organisation, analysis,

interpretation, and presentation of data.
419
UNIT 9
Instruments and elements of learning, instruction and parent
feedback
Introduction 405
9.1 Self-reflection instruments 407

9.1.1 How does reflection take place? 408
9.2 Self-evaluation instruments 423
9.3 Questionnaires and feedback 430
9.3.1 Question structure 430
9.3.2 Guidelines for writing questions 433
9.3.3 A checklist for reviewing questionnaire items 435
9.3.4 Questionnaires for learners 435
9.3.5 Questionnaires for parents 438
9.4 Implementing feedback obtained from parents 444
9.4.1 Closed-loop feedback process 444
9.4.2 Ensuring satisfaction 447
9.4.3 A different mind-set 447
9.5 The role of national school audits as an assessment system to promote
quality education 447
9.6 Summary 449
Glossary 451
420
Introduction
This is the last unit of the module on assessment and evaluation. In this unit,
instruments and elements of learning, instruction and parent feedback will be
examined. We will discuss self-reflection and self-evaluation instruments and you will
get the opportunity to evaluate some of these instruments for teachers and learners.
We will also look at questionnaires, the information derived from questionnaires, and
how to implement feedback. The role of national school audits as an assessment
system to promote quality education in schools will be discussed.
Learning outcomes
 Evaluate given self-reflection instruments:

- Instruments for teachers.
- Self-reflection instruments for learners.
 Discuss self-evaluation instruments for teachers and learners:
- Instruments for teachers.
- Self-evaluation instruments for learners.
 Evaluate questionnaires and feedback obtained from learners and parent:
- Questionnaires for learners.
- Questionnaires for parents.
 Explain how to implement the feedback obtained from questionnaires.
 Discuss the role of national school audits as an ‘assessment system’ to
promote quality education in schools.
421
Learning activities
Learning activity 1
i. Look carefully at the two self-reflection instruments for teachers given

below. Explain how these instruments can be compared with regard to
the following: technological thinking, situational thinking, deliberate
thinking and dialectical thinking.
ii. Which one would be most appropriate to use for your own reflection?
Discuss why you have chosen this specific instrument, explaining
what information the instrument will provide that will be able to guide
you regarding your own teaching and teaching style.
iii. Self-reflection instruments for learners must provide opportunities for

learners to engage in meta-cognitive monitoring. Does the given self-
reflection instrument provide learners with opportunities for meta-
cognitive monitoring? Explain why you say so.
Learning activity 2
i. Compare the two self-assessment instruments for teachers. Take note

of the following guidelines:
 To what extent is it user-friendly?

 What information about your own teaching is given in the
questionnaire?
 Which would you prefer to use and why?
ii. Compare the two self-assessment instruments for learners. Take note
of the following guidelines:
 To what extent is it user-friendly?
422
 What information about your own learning is given in the
questionnaire?
 Which would you prefer to use and why?
Learning activity 3
Study the information about questionnaires. Evaluate the given examples of

questionnaires for parents and learners. Examine to what extent each
questionnaire complies with the following requirements:
Closed questions.
Open-ended questions.
Guidelines as specified in 9.3.2.
Learning activity 4
Your principal asks you to be in charge of feedback obtained from

questionnaires you sent to parents. He asks you to explain the closed loop
feedback process to your colleagues at a staff meeting.
Learning activity 5
Write a paragraph of 200 words to explain why a national school’s audit

will promote quality education in schools.
9.1 Self-reflection instruments
Upon entering the teaching profession you may find your initial teaching efforts
stressful, but with experience you will acquire a repertoire of teaching
strategies from which you can draw throughout your teaching career. While a
style of teaching can provide a means of coping with many of the routine
demands of teaching, there is also a danger that it can hinder your professional
growth. Constant reflection on your teaching and teaching style can help you to
move beyond the level of automatic and routine responses to classroom
situations and achieve a higher level of awareness of how you teach, of the
kinds of decisions you make as you teach, and of the value and consequences
of particular instructional decisions.
Teachers can judge the effectiveness and adequacy of their performance, its
effects, their knowledge and beliefs for the purpose of self-improvement
through the process of self-reflection. When teachers think about what worked,
what did not work, and what type of changes they might make to be more
423
successful, the likelihood of knowing how to improve and making an effort to
bring about improvements increases dramatically.
Instead of asking “how to” questions you focus on “what and why” questions
that gives you a certain power over your teaching. It is likely that the degree of
autonomy and responsibility you have in your work as teachers is determined
by the level of control you can exercise over your actions. Reflection helps to
exercise control and open up the possibility of transforming your everyday
classroom life.
The teacher self-reflection process can begin with a series of global questions:
 Which current practices can I abandon to make room for new patterns in
my work?
 What can I do to help learners learn more in the limited amount of time
we have together?
 Who are my learners? What do they want?
 Who am I? What do I have to offer? What historical and cultural lenses
frame my teaching?
 How can I force myself out of my comfort zones and preferred cognitive
style?
 How do I seek new opportunities for learning?
 Am I having fun?
9.1.1 How does reflection take place?
Central to any approach used is a three part process which involves:
Stage 1 The event itself
The starting point is an actual teaching episode, such as a lesson or

other instructional event. While the focus of critical reflection is usually
the teacher’s own teaching, self-reflection can also be stimulated by
observation of another person’s teaching.
Stage 2 Recollection of the event
The next stage in reflective examination of an experience is an account

of what happened, without explanation or evaluation. Several different
procedures are available during the recollection phase, including written
descriptions of an event, a video or audio recording of an event, or the
use of check lists or coding systems to capture details of the event.
Stage 3 Review and response to the event
424
Following a focus on objective description of the event, the participant
returns to the event and reviews it. The event is now processed at a
deeper level, and questions are asked about the experience.
The goal of self-reflection is to improve teaching and learning through

on-going thinking (technological thinking, situational thinking, deliberate
thinking and dialectical thinking) on how professional practices impact
learner and teacher learning. Teachers face a myriad of daily decisions,
including:
 How to organise classrooms and the curriculum.

 How to interpret learners' behaviours.
 How to protect learning time.
To understand the complexity of reflection, consider these four modes of

thinking: technological, situational, deliberate, and dialectical. They can
be seen in a hierarchy from the lower-level reflection, which is useful for
making routine decisions, to the higher-level reflection needed for
complex dilemmas. Each mode requires an increasing degree of
conscious analysis and data seeking. Expert teachers adapt their
reflective thinking to the situation, recognising when each level of
thought is sufficient to address a concern and when to move to the next
mode.
Technological (or formulaic) thinking
Technological or formulaic thinking is based on pre-packaged

knowledge from an external source. It relies on practices that have
proven to be efficient and effective. For example, teachers might adopt
general policies and rules that are part of a school culture. In deciding
how to teach a concept, curriculum teams might adopt standardised
instructional procedures they believe will result in greater learner
learning.
Formulaic thinking works for many routine decisions: how a classroom

teacher takes attendance, transitions learners from subject to subject,
implements emergency drills, and so on. As long as routines function
effectively, there is no need to change them. Likewise, there may be
instructional practices that demand that the teacher follows a prescribed
set of steps.
Situational thinking
When teachers make decisions using situational thinking, they focus

only on information embedded in a specific context at a specific time,
425
such as learner behaviour they are observing at a given moment. They
reflect quickly and act on a problem immediately. A teacher's day is full
of appropriate opportunities for situational thinking. For example, when a
learner's behaviour is off-task, the teacher might use a low level of
intervention such as eye contact to remind the learner to focus on work.
But situational thinking does not look beyond the surface to consider
root causes of problems. If a teacher is unable to look beyond the
realities of the immediate, frustrating situation, situational thinking can
lead to spinning one's wheels rather than to quick reflection that halts a
problem in its tracks.
Deliberate thinking
With deliberate thinking, an educator purposefully seeks more

information than the immediate context provides by, for example,
revisiting theory, talking with colleagues, interviewing learners or
reviewing learner records. The goal is to learn more so as to better
understand the dilemma. When deliberate thinking generates more
questions or indicates a change is needed, move to a higher level of
reflection.
Dialectical thinking
The dialectical mode builds on deliberate thinking to gain understanding

of a situation and generate solutions. The greater a teacher's ability to
suspend judgment and the broader the repertoire of pedagogical
strategies, the more flexible dialectical thinking will be. Dialectical
thinking is characterised by a change in how the thinker conceptualizes
a particular episode that results in new teaching behaviours.
9.1.2 Instruments for teachers
Below are two self-reflection tools. The first is based on the teaching
standards of Wisconsin and the second is from Kentucky.
Self-reflection tool 1:
Description of Very Confident/ Uncertain Very

ability confident/ agree / uncertain/
strongly disagree strongly
agree disagree
426
STANDARD 1: The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry,
and structures of the disciplines he or she teaches and can create learning
experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for learners.
1. I understand the major

concepts and tools of
inquiry in my
discipline(s).
2. I create learning
experiences for my
learners that connect
them to the knowledge
base of my discipline.
3. I keep abreast of new

research and
development in my
discipline(s).
4. I engage in professional
discourse about
children’s learning of my
discipline(s).
5. I create interdisciplinary
learning experiences that
integrate knowledge from
several disciplines.
STANDARD 2: The teacher understands how children with broad ranges of ability
learn and provides instruction that supports their intellectual, social, and personal
development.
6. I understand how
children learn and
construct knowledge.
7. I understand that
learners’ physical,
social, emotional, moral,
and cognitive
427
development influence
learning.
8. I respect the diverse

talents of all learners.
9. I use my learners’
strengths as a basis for
growth, and their errors
as an opportunity for
learning.
10. I consider my learners’

physical, social,
emotional, moral, and
cognitive development
when making
instructional decisions.
STANDARD 3: The teacher understands how learners differ in their approaches to

learning and the barriers that impede learning and can adapt instruction to meet
the diverse needs of learners, including those with disabilities and exceptionalities.
11. I understand that

learners have different
learning styles.
12. I design instruction that

helps use learners’
strengths as the basis
for their growth and
learning.
13. I believe that all children

can learn at high levels.
14. I persist in helping all

children achieve
success.
15. I am effective in
adapting instruction to
accommodate learners
428
with exceptional
educational needs.
16. I know about strategies

to support the learning
of learners whose first
language is not English.
STANDARD 4: The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional

strategies, including the use of technology to encourage children’s development of
critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.
17. I understand the

different cognitive
processes involved in
learning.
18. I know how to stimulate

the different cognitive
processes involved in
learning through
different instructional
techniques,
technologies, and
resources.
19. I value my learners’

active participation in
20. I encourage my learners

to become independent,
critical, and creative
thinkers.
21. I constantly monitor and

adjust my instructional
strategies in response to
learners’ feedback and
learning progress.
429
STANDARD 5: The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group
motivation and behaviour to create a learning environment that encourages
positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self- motivation.

principles of effective
classroom
management.
23. I use a range of

strategies to promote
positive relationships,
cooperation, and
meaningful learning
experiences in the
classroom.
24. I take responsibility for

establishing a positive
climate in my
classroom.

importance of peer
relationships to
establish a positive
climate for learning.
26. I take responsibility for

establishing a positive
climate in my school as
a whole.
STANDARD 6: The teacher uses effective verbal and non-verbal communication

techniques as well as instructional media and technology to foster active inquiry,
collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.
27. I understand how

cultural differences can
affect communication in
the classroom.
430
28. I understand how
gender differences can
affect communication in
the classroom.
29. I recognise the

importance of non-
verbal as well as verbal
communication.
30. I am a thoughtful and

responsive listener.
31. I know how to ask

questions and stimulate
discussion in different
ways and for different
purposes.
STANDARD 7: The teacher organises and plans systematic instruction based

upon knowledge of subject matter, learners, and the community and curriculum
goals.
32. I am able to take

contextual considerations
(i.e. individual learner
interests and community
resources) into account
in planning instruction.
33. I value short- and long-

term planning with
colleagues.

experiences that are
appropriate to curriculum
goals.

relevant to learners.
431
based on principles of
effective instruction.
STANDARD 8: The teacher understands and uses formal and informal

assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social,
and physical development of the learner.

advantages and
limitations (i.e. validity,
reliability, and related
concerns) of different
types of learners’
assessments.
38. I value on-going and

diverse types of
assessments as
essential to the
instructional process.
39. I am committed to using

multiple measures to
assess learner learning.
40. I maintain useful records

of learner work and
performance.
41. I modify teaching and

learning strategies based
on the results of learners’
assessments.
42. I am able to
communicate learner
progress, knowledgeably
and responsibly, based
on appropriate indicators,
to learners, parents, and
colleagues.
432
STANDARD 9: The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates
the effect of his or her choices and actions on learners, parents/families,
professionals in the learning community and others and who actively seeks out
opportunities to grow professionally.
43. I understand methods of

inquiry that provide me
with a variety of self-
assessment and
problem-solving
strategies.
44. I am aware of the current

research on teaching and
learning and of resources
available for professional
learning.
45. I practice self-reflection

and self-assessment in
my professional learning.
46. I am committed to
continually develop and
refine my practices that
address the individual
needs of learners.
47. I seek out professional

literature, colleagues,
and other resources to
support my own
development as a learner
and a teacher.
STANDARD 10: The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues,

parents/families, and agencies in the larger community to support learner learning
and well-being and who acts with integrity, fairness and in an ethical manner.
48. I understand laws related

to learners’ rights and
teacher responsibilities.
433
49. I respect the privacy of
my learners.
50. I am willing to consult

with other professionals
regarding the education
and well-being of my
learners.
51. I establish respectful and

productive relationships
with parents/guardians of
all my learners.
52. I use community

resources to foster
learner learning
dpi.wi.gov/tepdl/doc/pdslf10.doc
SELF-REFLECTION TOOL 2
TEACHER: DATE:
Domain I: Instruction
Standard Self- On-going Planning
rating reflection
(date (supporting
of activities
rating) and
outcomes)
1.1 Demonstrates
content knowledge
and research-based
practices and
strategies
appropriate to
learner learning.
1.2 Plans formative and
summative
assessments to
434
guide instruction and
measure learner
growth toward
learning targets.
1.3 Develops and
communicates
learner-friendly
learning targets that
lead to mastery of
national, state, and
local standards.
1.4 Designs and
implements
instructional plans
that are data-
informed and
address learners’
diverse learning
needs.
1.5 Integrates available
technology to
develop, design, and
deliver instruction
that maximizes
learner learning
experiences.
Domain II: Learning climate

2.1 Establishes a
positive,
respectful, and
safe learning
environment where
individual needs
and risk-taking are
valued.
2.2 Communicates
high expectations
for all learners.
2.3 Uses time, space,
and resources
effectively and
435
ensures equitable
access to all
resources for all
learners.
DOMAIN III: Leadership and professionalism
3.1 Engages in
professional and
leadership
activities that
enhance personal
growth, learner
learning, and the
professional
environment of the
school.
3.2 Designs,
implements, and
revises a
professional
growth plan that
addresses data-
informed priorities
and results in
improving
instruction and
learning.
3.3 Collaborates with
colleagues,
parents, and
others to enhance
learner learning.
DOMAIN IV: Learner growth
4.1 Contributes to
overall school
success and the
academic growth
of all learners,
regardless of
demographics
(e.g., socio-
economic status,
ethnicity, gender,
436
disability, prior
achievement).
NEXT STEPS
How does your self-reflection Impact your professional growth plan?
Based on your planning and self-reflection, what trends and patterns do
you notice that will inform your professional growth plan?
Rating scale Rating
4 = Exemplary This rating Standard 1.1 Research-based
reflects behaviour that practices.........................................
consistently exceeds
expectations for good Standard 1.3 Learner-friendly
performance under this learning targets............................
standard
Standard 1.4 Data-informed
3 = Accomplished This rating planning.........................................
reflects behaviour that
consistently meets Standard 1.5 Technology
expectations for good integration.......................................
performance under this
standard Standard 2.1 Safe learning
environment....................................
2 = Developing This rating
reflects behaviour that Standard 2.2 High expectations.....
meets expectations for good Standard 2.3 Effective use of
performance under this resources.....................................
standard most of the time,
but occasionally does not Standard 3.1 Leadership activities...
meet standard expectations
Standard 3.2 Professional growth...
1 = Ineffective This rating
reflects behaviour that Standard 3.3 Professional
consistently does not meet collaboration..................................
expectations for good
performance under this Standard 4.1 Learner growth.........
standard
http://www.kentuckyteacher.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Field-Test-Guide-
2-2-12.pdf
Search also the following webpage:

http://people.stfx.ca/jconnors/EDUC%20432_files/SelfRelectionGuide.pdf
437
this is a selection of self-reflection instruments from the Nova Scotia
Teachers Union.
9.1.3 Instruments for learners
Self-reflection encourages awareness about what is being learned and

how it is being learned, and allows opportunities for self-assessment
during the learning process. Learners need to think about their thinking
and to learn how to assess their own work. A key aspect of many forms
of authentic assessment is the opportunities that are provided for
learners to reflect on their thinking, practices, and learning. Conscious
awareness of what he/ she is expected to learn, helps the learners
organise their work. It is important to help learners develop their self-
awareness and reflective skills. The technical term for this type of
reflective process is meta-cognition.
Meta-cognition is a sense of awareness. It refers to knowing what you

know and what you do not know. Feelings, attitudes, and dispositions
are also part of meta-cognition because thinking involves not only
cognitive operations but also the dispositions to engage in cognitive
activities. This provides learners with opportunities to manage and
assess their own thinking strategies. It involves the monitoring and
control of attitudes, such as learners’ beliefs about themselves, the
value of persistence, the nature of work, and their personal
responsibilities in accomplishing a goal.
Teachers must provide opportunities for learners to engage in the kind

of meta-cognitive monitoring so that they can reflect on:
 What did I do well?

 What would I do differently next time?
 Do I need help?
Asking learners to reflect on what and how they have learned has
several benefits:
 It gives teachers and learners useful insights into the learning

process.
 It helps learners integrate what they have learned.
 It provides learners with an understanding of the skills and
strategies they need to learn most effectively.
 It allows recognition of the gaps that exist in understanding.
438
 As gaps are recognised and become significant to learners, they
are motivated to locate, apply, and connect previous learning as
well as to construct new knowledge.
 It enables learners to monitor, assess, and improve their own
thinking and learning performance.
Some meta-cognition strategies that teachers can use are:
Mrs. Potter’s  What were you expected to do in this

questions assignment?
 What did you do well?
 If you had to do this task over, what would you
do differently? What help do you need from
me?
The KWL K W L
strategy What you What you want to What you
know. know. learned after
finishing the
lesson or
assignment.
PMI strategy P M I
The plus or The minuses or What you
favourable unfavourable things found
things found about a interesting
found learning about the
about a experience. learning
learning experience.
experience.
http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/custer/custer5.pdf
Self-reflection questions for learners:
Description Comments
How do you feel about subject/lesson?
What will you say to your friends about

this subject/lesson?
What suggestions would you give other

learners on ways to get the most out
this course/programme?
439
How do you feel about yourself in the
class?
What were you good at in this lesson?
What was the one thing that you

learned in this lesson?
What part of the lesson did you enjoy

most?
What did you learn about yourself in

this lesson?
What did you not like in this lesson?
What questions do you have about the

lesson?
Adapted from http://www.calpro-online.org/eric/docs/custer/custer5.pdf
9.2 Self-evaluation instruments
There is a slight difference between self-reflection and self-evaluation. Self-

evaluation focuses more on the actual teaching that takes place during every
lesson. The evaluation is done directly after presenting the lesson. Reflection is
an on-going process and is done before, during and after teaching or learning.
9.2.1 Instruments for teachers
Tool 1:
TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION
PURPOSE: To reflect about your teaching and interaction with the

learners. There are no “right” answers. The goal is to encourage
encounters with ideas and assumptions that inform the practice of
instruction.
ADMINISTRATION: This self-assessment form can be completed

at any time. Answers may be determined in terms of instructional
activities in a given class or based on the general approach taken
in teaching.
440
DIRECTIONS: Below are a number of statements describing
aspects of teaching. Examine the items in each set and rank them
from 1 to 4 as to determine the degree to which they apply to your
beliefs about teaching generally. In responding, first examine the
set and find the item that BEST describes you, and assign a rank
of 1 to that statement. Then decide which statement describes
you second best, assign a rank of 2 to that item. Do likewise with
the two remaining statements, assigning to them ranks of 3 and 4,
respectively. If you find some items difficult to rank, show what
your choice would be if you had to choose. It is important that you
assign a different rank to each item and complete all sets in order
to score the instrument.
SET 1 Rank
a. I present thought-provoking ideas.
b. I am sympathetic towards and considerate of my
learners.
c. I assist learners in appreciating things they did
not appreciate before.
d. I am interested in and concerned with the quality
of my teaching.
SET 2
a. My learners feel efforts made by them in the
course are worthwhile.
b. I am aware of learners’ needs.
c. I raise challenging questions or problems in
class.
d. I make every effort to improve the quality of
learners’ achievements.
SET 3
a. I encourage learners to share their knowledge,
opinions, and experiences in class.
b. I help learners become aware of the implications
of the content for their lives.
c. I remind learners to come to me for help
whenever it is needed.
d. I analyse previous classroom experience to
improve my teaching.
441
SET 4
a. I take an active, personal interest in improving
my instruction.
b. I stimulate and answer questions in class.
c. I relate easily to learners.
d. I help learners to develop the ability to identify
main points or central issues.
SET 5
a. I organise my class well.
b. I am knowledgeable about related areas aside
from my own.
c. I stimulate learners’ appreciation for learning.
d. I get along well with learners.
SET 6
a. I restate questions or comments to clarify for the
entire class.
b. I try to make every class the best every time.
c. I am sensitive to learners’ feelings.
d. I promote learners’ satisfaction in learning the
subject matter.
SET 7
a. My learners gain new viewpoints and
appreciation.
b. I have zest and enthusiasm for teaching.
c. I develop a sense of mutual respect with
learners.
d. I present clear and relevant examples in class.
SET 8
a. I find teaching intellectually stimulating.
b. I make learners feel at ease in conversations
with me.
c. I stimulate learners’ interest in the subject.
d. I answer questions as thoroughly and precisely
as possible.
SET 9
a. I coordinate different activities of my class well.
b. I look forward to class meetings.
442
c. I enjoy having learners come to me for
consultation.
d. My learners feel that they can recognise good
and poor reasoning or arguments.
SET 10
a. I try to function creatively in teaching.
b. I encourage learners to participate in class.
c. I actively help learners who are having
difficulties.
d. I stimulate learners’ intellectual curiosity.
SET 11
a. I meet with learners informally out of class when
necessary.
b. I make the objectives of the lesson clear.
c. I try to make every lesson the best every time.
d. My learners become motivated to study and
learn.
SCORING THE INSTRUCTOR SELF-EVALUATION FORM

The form has four scales. One statement from each set is
associated with each scale.
Adequacy of classroom procedures.
Enthusiasm for teaching and knowledge of subject matter.
Stimulation of cognitive and affective gains in learners.
Relations with learners.
STEP 1 Record the score assigned each individual item in each

of the four areas.
STEP 2 Total each scale’s scores on the scoring sheet.
STEP 3 To interpret the results, consider the lowest total score

to represent the area in this course or in your teaching
generally to which you ascribe the highest priority. The
cover sheet on the instrument contains some pointers
on interpreting the results.
443
SCORING SHEET
Adequacy Enthusiasm Stimulation Relations scale
scale scale scale
Set Score Set Score Set Score Set Score
1-a 1-c 1-b 1-d
2-c 2-a 2-b 2-d
3-a 3-b 3-c 3-d
4-b 4-d 4-c 4-a
5-a 5-c 5-d 5-b
6-a 6-d 6-c 6-b
7-d 7-a 7-c 7-b
8-d 8-c 8-b 8-a
9-a 9-d 9-c 9-b
10-b 10-d 10-c 10-a
11-b 11-d 11-a 11-c
TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL
INTERPRETATION:
Scored results on this instrument identify areas of priority ascribed to one’s

teaching. The nature of the questions forces you to think about your priorities
even though you may perceive your instruction to be balanced. Results should
stimulate reflection and introspection. Are they what you anticipated or were you
surprised by the results? Given a predilection towards a priority area, consider the
instructional strategies and activities commonly included in your class. Do they
communicate and reinforce this priority? What about the area on this instrument
that represents the lowest priority? Should that area assume a greater
importance? Are there instructional alterations that might increase your
effectiveness in the area? Can they be implemented efficiently and without
compromising your focus in other areas?
Adapted from:
http://www.calvin.edu/admin/provost/teaching/instructional/tools/selfeval.
htm
(This instrument was developed by the Measurement and Research

Division of the Office of Instructional Resources at the University of
Illinois Urbana. It may be used in whole or part if credit is given to this
source. Directions and scoring instructions have been revised by The
444
Instructional Development Program at The Pennsylvania State
University.)
Tool 2:
Download the teacher self-assessment instrument from the following

webpage:
www.saugus.k12.ma.us/District/.../PD%20self%20assessment%20tool.p
df
9.2.2 Instruments for learners
Apart from assessing and reflecting on their work, learners need to

evaluate themselves. Learner self-evaluation refers to the learners’
interest and motivation to learn. Below are two self-evaluation forms that
you can give to your learners to evaluate themselves.
Tool 1:
THE SPOT CHECK
STEP 1: Before you start the lesson please circle the word most
relevant to you.
too cold too hot happy sad lethargic b

o
r
e
d
scared angry hungry tired excited
STEP 2: In the appropriate block one of the faces below to show

your level of interest in what you are about to learn.
STEP 3: At the end of the lesson tick in the appropriate block with a
different colour pen/pencil one of the faces below to show
what you feel you have benefited from the most in the
lesson.
445
Concentrating Thinking about
other things
Alert Drowsy
Relaxed Anxious
Wishing to be here Wishing to be

somewhere else
Happy Sad
Active Passive
Excited Bored
Time passing quickly Time passing

slowly
Full of energy Very little energy
Something at stake Nothing at stake
Sociable Lonely
Easy to concentrate Difficult to

concentrate
Cheerful Irritable
Easy to be creative Difficult to be

creative
http://www.mpn.gov.rs/resursi/dokumenti/dok69-eng-self-evaluation-
models-tools-practice.pdf
Tool 2:
The form below may be used by learners to evaluate their own

learning when they are not in class. It may be used in a homework or
home learning setting or in study support.
Most of Some Rarel Never

the time of the y
time
446
I concentrate on what I
am expected to learn.
I take notes of key points.
I make an effort to
understand rather than
just get through it.
I think through the

problem carefully.
I explain it to myself to
understand it better.
I identify blocks or
difficulties with learning.
I ask myself questions

about what I’m learning.
If there’s a problem I
leave it and come back to
it later.
I look for someone who

can help me.
I explain to others what I

am learning.
I work hard at overcoming

difficulties.
I relate what I am learning

to my experience.
I try to relate what I’m

learning to things I’ve
learned before.
I am able to ignore
distractions.
I work in a place where I

am most comfortable but
also alert.
447
I try to make the subject
matter interesting.
I play background music

while I am studying.
I experiment with ways of

memorising things well.
http://www.mpn.gov.rs/resursi/dokumenti/dok69-eng-self-evaluation-
models-tools-practice.pdf
9.3 Questionnaires and feedback
A formal standardised questionnaire is a survey instrument used to collect data

from individuals about themselves, or about a school. They are used in
education to collect information about various aspects of school systems to
improve and to plan.
The number of questions in a questionnaire does not necessarily coincide with

the number of variables (aspects about which you want information).
Sometimes more than one question needs to be asked to operationalise one
variable.
9.3.1 Question structure
Two important aspects of questionnaire design are the structure of the

questions and the decisions on the types of response formats for each
question. Survey questions can be classified as follows:
 Closed questions
Closed questions ask the respondent to choose, among a

possible set of answers, the response that most closely
represents his/her viewpoint. The respondent is usually asked to
tick or circle the chosen answer. Questions of this kind may offer
simple alternatives such as ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. They may also require
that the respondent chooses among several answer categories,
or that he/she uses a frequency scale, an importance scale, or an
agreement scale. The response format for closed questions can
range from a simple yes/no response, to an approve/disapprove
alternative, to asking the respondent to choose one alternative
from 3 or more response options.
448
Advantages of closed Disadvantages
questions
The respondent is restricted They can introduce bias;

to a finite (and therefore either by forcing the
more manageable) set of respondent to choose
responses. between given alternatives or
by offering alternatives that
otherwise would not have
come to mind.
They are easy and quick to They do not allow for

answer. creativity or for the
respondent to develop ideas.
They have response They do not permit the

categories that are easy to respondent to qualify the
code. chosen response or express a
more complex or subtle
meaning.
They permit the inclusion of They can introduce bias,

more variables in a research where there is a tendency for
study because the format the respondent to tick
enables the respondent to systematically either the first
answer more questions in or last category, to select
the same time required to what may be considered as
answer fewer open-ended the most socially desirable
questions. response alternative, or to
answer all items in a list in the
same way.
They require skill to write

because response categories
need to be appropriate, and
mutually exclusive.
 Open-ended questions
Open-ended or free-response questions are not followed by any

choices and the respondent must answer by supplying a
response, usually by entering a number, a word, or a short text.
Answers are recorded in full, either by the interviewer or, in the
case of a self-administered survey; the respondent records his or
her own entire response. There is always the possibility with
open-ended questions that responses may come in very different
forms, and these may lead to answers that cannot be
449
systematically coded for analysis. For example, if asked “When
did you leave school?” the respondent may answer in a variety of
ways.
Advantages of open-ended Disadvantages of open-ended

questions questions
They allow respondents to They may be difficult to answer

express their ideas and even more difficult to
spontaneously in their own analyse.
language.
They are less likely to suggest They require effort and time on
or guide the answer than behalf of the respondent.
closed questions because they
are free from the format effects
associated with closed
questions.
They can add new information They require the development of

when there is very little existing a system of coded categories
information available about a with which to classify the
topic. responses.
They require the respondent to

have some degree of writing
ability.
Respondent handwriting can be

illegible.
 Contingency questions
A contingency question is a special case of a closed-ended

question because it applies only to a subgroup of respondents.
The relevance of the question for a subgroup is determined by
asking a filter question. The filter question directs the subgroup to
answer a relevant set of specialised questions and instructs other
respondents to skip to a later section of the questionnaire.
The advantage of contingency questions is that detailed data may

be obtained from a specific subgroup of the population. Some
questions may apply only to females and not to males; others
450
may apply only to people in school, and not to those who are
employed. At the base of good contingency questions are clear
and specific instructions to respondents.
The formats for filter and contingency questions can vary. One
option is to write directions next to the response category of the
filter question: Are you enrolled in secondary school?
1. Yes (answer the following question).
2. No (skip to question 5).
9.3.2 Guidelines for writing questions
The application of some basic principles is essential when preparing

questions. When these principles are violated, it usually results in
respondent confusion, misunderstanding, lack of comprehension, or
response bias. Basic principles include the following:
Keep the vocabulary simple
The rule is ‘keep it as simple as possible’.
If a rare or technical term has to be used, then its meaning should be

explained. For example, a question concerning the frequency with which
teachers teach their learners to understand different styles of text should
be accompanied by a definition of each kind of text. Acronyms and
abbreviations should always be spelled out in the questionnaire. When a
general term is used, concrete examples should be given to clarify its
meaning. Avoid words that may have an ambiguous meaning. In
education, the word ‘hour’ may have different meanings.
Keep the questions short
Closely related to keeping vocabulary simple is avoiding lengthy

questions. Generally, it is recommended to restrict questions to 25
words or less. If a longer sentence is used then it should be broken up
so that there will be several shorter sentences.
Avoid double-barrelled questions
These are single questions that ask for two things and therefore require
two answers. “Do you have your own table or your own room to do your
homework?” “Do you think it is good idea for children to study
geography and history in primary school?” In such instances,
451
respondents do not know what to do if they want to say ‘Yes’ to one part
of the question but ‘No’ to the other.
Avoid hypothetical questions
Questions such as “Would you use this resource in your class if it were
available?” are not good for the prediction of behaviour. People are
generally poor predictors of their own behaviour because of changing
circumstances and because so many situational variables intervene.
Investigators are able to collect more valid data if they question
respondents’ about their past behaviour and present circumstances,
attitudes, and opinions.
Do not overtax the respondent’s memory
It is risky to ask the respondent to recall past behaviour over a long

retrospective period. This is true especially when recurrent events or
behaviours are concerned. No learner, especially young learners, will be
able to answer reliably a question such as “In the last month how many
hours of homework did you do in an average day?”
Avoid double negatives
Double negatives, either in the question or an answer category (or both),

create difficulties for the respondent. For example a statement such as
‘Learner self-evaluation should not be allowed’ followed by
agree/disagree is problematic to answer for respondents who are in
favour of learners’ self-evaluation, i.e. those who do not agree that
learners’ self-evaluation should not be allowed.
Avoid overlapping response categories
Answer categories should be mutually exclusive. It should not be

possible to agree with or choose more than one category – unless the
instructions explicitly allow the respondent to check more than one
alternative. Examples of questions with overlapping categories are: How
old are you? under 20; 20-30; 30-40; 40-50; 50-60; 60 or more.
Beware of ‘leading’ questions
A leading question is a question phrased in such a way that it seems to

the respondent that a particular answer is expected. For example:
“Would you say that you are not in favour of school on Saturday
morning?”
9.3.3 A checklist for reviewing questionnaire items
452
The following list of questions provides a framework for reviewing each
item that is to be included in a questionnaire:
Do my questions meet the following requirements? √
Will the question provide data in the format required by

the research questions or the hypotheses?
Is the question unbiased?
Will the question generate data at the level of

measurement required for the analysis?
Is there a strong likelihood that most respondents will

answer the question truthfully?
Do most respondents possess sufficient knowledge to

answer the question?
Will most respondents be willing to answer the

question, or is it too threatening or too sensitive?
Does the question avoid ‘leading’ respondents to a

specific answer?
Is the language used in the questionnaire clear and

simple – so that all respondents are able to understand
all of the questions?
http://www.sacmeq.org/downloads/modules/module8.pdf
9.3.4 Questionnaires for learners
Tool 1:
Search the following website:

http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/PDF/P06_LearnerQuestionnaire.pdf for the
Progress In International Reading Literacy Study 2006. Learner
Questionnaire Of The International Association For The Evaluation Of
Educational Achievement.
Tool 2:
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND TEACHING STYLES
453
What teaching do you find most effective?
I prefer lessons where… Prefer Like Don’t mind
I’m asked to remember

information accurately.
The teacher involves me

and class in planning.
We are asked to
brainstorm ideas and
facts.
We look at case studies

and other real life
examples.
We are given a choice of

activities to learn
something.
We are taught as a class

and all do the same work
Where the teacher makes

the goals of the lessons
clear.
We have to make sense

of information given to us.
We have to collect
information and data
ourselves.
The teacher
demonstrates something
We have a group or class

discussion.
We can work things out in

groups.
454
The teacher organises
group work.
The teacher asks us for

our feelings about
something.
The teacher gives us

information on printed
sheets.
We have to undertake
investigations.
The teacher gives us

information by teaching in
front of class.
I’m allowed to make

mistakes.
I take notes.
I work in pairs.
We practice skills.
We have to solve a
problem.
I’m asked to think about

my experiences.
The reason I’m doing

something is made clear
to me.
We can report our

findings in different ways.
We have role-play.
We do experiments.
We have to deal with

simulated, real life
situations.
455
I can use my particular
skills.
We are being tested.
I have to be thorough and

careful with my work.
The teacher uses different

teaching methods.
Where we have a video.
I work alone.
Worksheets are given out.
http://www.scribd.com/doc/14165945/Questionnaire-a-good-example
9.3.5 Questionnaires for parents
Tool 1:
PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE
Please circle which year group(s) N R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

your child(ren) are in:
Please tick one box for each question and add any comments at the end
disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Disagre
Agree
Agree
Don’t
know
1.
2.
4.
3
5
e
1 2 3 4 5 Remarks
My child(ren) enjoys
school.
The school has a

happy atmosphere.
456
My child(ren) feel
safe at school.
I feel welcome when I

come into school.
The school
encourages parents
to play an active role
in school life.
Members of staff are

accessible and
approachable.
I am quickly
contacted about any
problems.
I am given sufficient
information about the
school’s policies and
plans.
I know how to contact

a member of the
School Governing
Body if I need to.
I always know about

social and fund
raising activities at
the school.
I am given sufficient
information about the
curriculum that my
child is following.
The school has high

expectations of my
child(ren).
457
I am well informed
about my child’s
progress and
achievements.
I understand the
homework
expectations in my
child’s year group(s).
I have a clear
understanding of the
behaviour the school
expects from
children.
The school’s system

of rewards is
effective.
The school deals with

inappropriate
behaviour effectively.
My children are
confident that there is
someone in school
who will listen to
them if they have a
problem.
I am happy with the

number of extra-
curricular activities on
offer.
I am given
information about
ways I can help with
my child’s education.
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1653/!via/oucontent/course/180/s_g
ov7_15t_1.pdf
458
Tool 2:
Sample questionnaire for parents

√ X
About your child
Is your child happy at school?
What does your child tell you about school?
Comments:
How is your child rewarded at school?

Comments;
Does your child feel special at school? In what

ways?
Comments:
Does the school offer good support for spiritual,

moral, social and cultural development of
learners?
School leadership
Do you feel that the school is well managed?
Do you think that the school leadership promotes
the school as a church school?
Relationships
Which members of staff know your child?
Comments:
Does your child know who to go to if problems

arise in school?
Does your child feel safe at school?
Do you believe that the school cares for people?
Parent – school relationships
Are you aware of the Christian Foundation of the
school?
459
In which ways are you encouraged to get involved
at school?
Comments:
Are you informed of good work and behaviour of

your child?
Are you consulted on policies?
Are you informed of school news?
Do you feel welcome to come into school with any
concerns / worries?
Are school events held at a good time for you?
Do you attend school events? Why (not)?
Comments:
What else would you like the school to provide for

parents?
Comments:
How might more parents become involved?

Comments:
Community and church

Do you feel welcome at school assemblies and
school services in church?
Are you content that the school has sufficient links
with the local church(es)?
Do you feel that the school makes links with the
wider community?
Does the local community support the school?
Does the school support the local community?
Worship
Are you happy that the school offers good
opportunities for collective worship?
Do you think collective worship has the right
amount of Christian content? Why (not)?
460
Comments:
Does your child enjoy collective worship?

Teaching and learning
Do you feel that the work provided for your child
matches their needs?
Does your child receive the right amount of
support in school work?
Are you happy with the amount of homework your
child receives?
Does your child, in general, feel secure at school
and enjoy their learning?
Are you aware of your child’s targets?
Does your child feel valued for their contribution in
class?
Do you feel that you are involved in, and make a
valued contribution to, the education of your child?
e.g. comments on reports; teacher consultation;
home / school agreements.
Do you think the school expects and receives
good behaviour from learners?
Do you think learners make good progress in
religious education?
Are you kept well informed of the work your child
does in religious education?
Extra-curricular
Are you aware of the range of extra-curricular
provision?
Is the balance of provision and opportunities for
activities suitable?
Does your child take part in extra-curricular
activities?
What do they gain from doing so?
Comments:
Is there open and equal access to activities?
461
Does the school foster positive relationships ~
within school and beyond?
Would you be willing to contribute to the school’s
extra-curricular activities? How?
Comments:
Is the school generous in supporting charities?

Are learners well supported at lunchtime?
The physical environment
Is the school well maintained?
Do learners look after the school well?
Does all the staff look well after the school?
What features do you think the school lacks?
Comments:
What features or parts of the school could be

improved?
Comments:
Can you tell from its appearance that the school is

a church school? How?
Comments:
Is your child’s work usually on display?
462
Equality and justice
Does the school deal quickly and effectively with
poor behaviour?
Does the school deal quickly and effectively with
your enquiries?
Do you know what the school expects of your
child?
Do you know what the school expects of you?
Does the school know of your expectations?
Do you feel that the school treats all its learners
equally? Why (not)?
Comments:
Do you think that the school can treat all its

learners exactly alike? Why (not)?
Comments:
Do you feel that the school deals fairly with its

learners? Why (not)?
Comments:
Do you feel that respect is shown to all learners?
http://static.flipora.com/enhancedsearch_site_v.html?q=how+to+implem
ent+feedback+obtained+from+questionnaires&cx=partner-pub-
6808396145675874%3Avtssz
0r1w2c&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=utf8&oe=utf8&u=9598379&t=2.0.0.1&gl
=za
Tool 3:

www.vanderbilt.edu/...by.../PIP_study_1_level_1_scale_description.doc
for the Parent Involvement PIP Parent and teacher Questionnaires.
463
9.4 Implementing feedback obtained from parents
9.4.1 Closed-loop feedback process
Often time and effort is spent in collecting feedback from parents,

learners and other members of the school community. The problem is
that people often do not act on this useful feedback especially in a high
demanding environment such as a school. Therefore, often the school’s
or teacher’s performance never improves. This is known as an open-
loop feedback process.
A more effective solution to deal with feedback is a closed-loop

feedback process. You can apply this process to any situation in which
you receive feedback (or complaints).
As the diagram shows, there are four steps in the process:
 Collect data.
 Take action.
 Communicate feedback.
 Refine changes.
Step 1 Collect data
To implement a closed-loop process successfully, first define how

you'll collect feedback. For instance, will one person be responsible
for collecting feedback, or will all teachers add feedback they receive
to a central database, which you'll then review regularly?
You have to know what information you want to gain from the
questionnaires. Do you want information about the school, the
quality of education, learner perceptions etc.?
464
Follow the guidelines for gathering information as discussed in 9.3.
Step 2 Take action

Once you have your data, use it to take action. This is the step that
people skip most often. Remember, collecting feedback is of no
value unless an action or change occurs. Identify problem areas and
explore solutions before any changes are made.
This can be a prolonged process. This is a team effort. Form action

groups to explore solutions and to find the best ways to implement
the changes. Lots of discussion and planning need to be done before
any changes can be made.
When it comes to the implementation stage of the programme, all of

the lessons learned through the pilot should be considered.
Any alterations and adaptations that will make implementation

smoother should be made.
The most critical part of the implementation process is ensuring that

everybody involved in the process is clear about what it entails and
their specific role(s).
The following are necessary to ensure this:
 Clear and positive communication is pivotal.

 A point of contact for participants to refer to can help the roll
out process.
 It is beneficial to pinpoint an individual, or team, to take on
responsibility for the administration of the system – this helps
ensure that the procedure is running smoothly and any issues
are resolved swiftly.
 One of the key roles of the administrator is to ensure follow
up. This is to keep up the momentum and is critical to the
success of the implementation. Technology based systems
can help to reduce the workload involved in this.
 Deadlines need to be established and communicated to all
participants, including information on when and how recipients
will receive feedback.
 Constant monitoring of completion rates is recommended, this
will help ensure that timescales are met.
Step 3 Communicate the feedback
465
When actions are to be taken, communicate it. The most important
aspect of feedback is internal feedback. It is important to give
feedback to colleagues and learners (if necessary) before giving any
feedback to other interested parties. This will show parents, learners
and others that you really listened, and it will ensure that they
continue to offer feedback in the future. This is another important
step in the feedback process that is often overlooked.
It is also very important to communicate when you do not take action.

Explain the reasons why it didn't happen, or highlight other actions
that you've taken instead
Step 4 Refine the changes

This step completes the feedback loop. Any additional feedback that
has been received as part of the communication step must be used
to refine and improve the action. Always ensure that ways to improve
the action are constantly being implemented
9.4.2 Ensuring satisfaction
An important part of managing feedback is making sure that people are

satisfied with the outcome of their feedback.
At this stage it is worth following up with every person who has taken the
time to provide feedback. Even if that feedback was negative or
unexpected, thank everyone for their communication. People are rarely
thanked for their feedback, so this will make an immediate and important
impact.
Following this, participants can be asked whether they are satisfied with
the way their feedback was handled. If not, they could be asked what
resolution they would like to see. If their expectations have not been
met, do what you can to resolve the issue. Any extra information at this
point can feed back into the feedback process.
9.4.3 A different mind-set
If the feedback is not what you expected, if it is negative or people are

complaining, it might be that you have set ideas about how you view and
perceive the situation. Studies have shown that people only complain
about issues that truly matter to them, or when they feel they can make
a difference. For true collaboration and resolution to take place, it is
important to take responsibility for the problem, and let the person know
that you’ve heard their views. Connection with people on both a
466
professional and personal level is vital for working together towards
successful education of the learners.
9.5 The role of national school audits as an assessment system to

promote quality education
Assuring quality of the education system is the overriding goal of the Ministry of
Education. An effective monitoring and evaluation process is vital to the
improvement of quality and standards of performance in schools. It is aimed at
improving the overall quality of education in Namibia. It seeks to ensure that all
our children are given an equal opportunity to make the best use of their
abilities. As a process, national school audits are meant to be supportive and
developmental rather than punitive and judgmental. It will not be used as a
coercive measure, though part of its responsibility will be to ensure that
national and local policies are complied with. Its main purpose is to facilitate
improvement of school performance through approaches characterised by
partnership, collaboration, mentoring and guidance. Built in mechanisms
ensure the reporting of findings and providing feedback to the school and to
various stakeholders – the national and provincial education departments,
parents and society in general - on the level of performance achieved by
schools.
Data is collected from learners, parents and other stakeholders in the

education system. Such data collection serves to make the outcomes of
educational management and practice more transparent and has the ultimate
purpose of providing personnel in the system with information designed to
improve their practice.
National school audits provide the opportunity to hold schools accountable for
learner learning.
The prerequisites for effective use of the findings of a national assessment will
include the following:
 Involve policy and decision makers in the design of the assessment to

address issues that they have identified as of pressing interest.
 Communicating results in a timely fashion and in a form that is
intelligible to key users.
 Incorporating assessment information into existing governmental
structures and translating such information into policy, strategies, and
policy instruments (for example, mandates, capacity-building strategies,
inducements, and policies to motivate action).
467
 Ensuring that assessment findings influence the practice of classroom
teachers, with the objective of improving learning.
 Providing continuing political support to use the findings to bring about
change and to devise mechanisms that support their application in
reform at the classroom level.
The main objectives of national audits are to determine:
 How well learners are learning in the education system (with reference
to general expectations, aims of the curriculum, and preparation for
further learning and for life).
 Whether there is evidence of particular strengths and weaknesses in
learners’ knowledge and skills.
 Whether particular subgroups in the population perform poorly.
 Which factors are associated with learners’ achievement?
 Whether government standards are being met in the provision of
resources.
 Whether the achievements of learners change over time.
http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/National_assessment_Vol5.p
df
9.6 Summary
In this unit you focused on instruments and elements of learning, instruction

and parent feedback.
We have come to the end of our study on Assessment and Evaluation. I hope
that you have enjoyed this unit as much as I have enjoyed sharing this
information with you. You gained a lot of new information and new skills in this
unit. To be able to master the principles of assessment and evaluation you will
have to practice and apply what you have learnt. The only way to become
skilled in assessment and evaluation is by putting it into practice. Do not
hesitate to ask for help and guidance from colleagues and experienced
teachers. Read as widely as you can and make use of examples you can find
on the internet.
Before focusing on the assignment, check the checklists to make sure you
have mastered unit 9.
468
Learning activity 1
Does the instrument provide for reflection on the following?
i. a Technological thinking: Reflection on standards, policy – of the

Ministry of Education as well as the school – teaching strategies,
prescribed rules and regulations of the school.
b. Situational thinking: Class management, addressing learner

behaviour the moment it occurs in the class or during a lesson.
c. Deliberate thinking: Opportunities for thinking about your own

learning and teaching and discussions with colleagues,
investigations such as learner records and looking at theory again.
d. Dialectical thinking: Reflection on what happened in class or at

school and opportunities to change behaviour.
Learning activity 2
When you motivate why you prefer one instrument over another instrument,
make sure your arguments are embedded in the theory as well as the
practical. You should not prefer an instrument because it is short or easy to
complete. The quality and depth of reflection the instrument offers are most
important.
Instruments for learners must give learners the opportunity to reflect on the
following:
a. What did I do well?
469
b. What would I do differently next time?
c. Do I need help?
Learning activity 3
There is no right or wrong answer to this question. You decide which

instrument would work best for you. You have to be able to motivate why
you prefer the instrument. It is important that you understand what
information you obtain from the instrument and that you get quality
information that gives feedback about learning and teaching.
Learning activity 4

guide but rather use your own words. Look at the key words of each section
to guide you in selecting your ideas.
Learning activity 5
Use your own words. Do not rewrite sections from the study guide but
rather use your own words. Look at the key words of each section to guide
you in selecting your ideas.
Glossary
Cognitive Pertaining to the mental processes of perception, memory,

judgment and reasoning.
Disposition The predominant or prevailing tendency of one's spirits; natural

mental and emotional outlook or mood; characteristic and
attitude.
Meta-cognition Metacognition is the process of thinking about thinking.
470
References
Alausa, Y.A. 2004 Continuous assessment in our schools. Advantages and problems.
Journal article 2. Kolin Foundation Secondary school: Arandis
www.nied.edu.na/publications/journals
Ammons, M. May 1962. The definition function and use of educational objectives.
University of Wisconsin. The elementary school journal. 63(8)
Association for achievement and improvement through assessment. Self-

assessment. AAIA North East Region
Birgin, O & Baki, A. 2007. The Use of Portfolio to Assess Learner’s Performance.
Journal Of Turkish Science Education, 4(2) Http://Www.Tused.Org
Chalmers, D. & McAusland. W.D.M Computer-assisted Assessment
http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/printable/caa_v5.pdf
Cruzan, D. & Kaluszka, C. Motivation and Assessment: The Impact of Choice on

Motivation in Classroom Assessments. Virginia Tech
https://scholar.vt.edu/access/content/user/dcruzan/PortfolioPublic/ActionReasearchPr
ojectFinal.pdf
Educational Quality in the Developing World. December 2005, 1(1)
Danielson, L. M. 2009. How Teachers Laern. Fostering Reflection Educational

Leadership, 66(5)
Gagné, R. M. 1972. Domains of Learning 3. P87 – 105
471
Gardner, H. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. Basic Books: New
York
Green, M.F. 2012. Measuring and Assessing Internalization. NAFSA.

www.nafsa.org.epubs
Guide to Assessment. 2009. Published by the Scottish Qualifications Authority
Hamayan, E.1995. Approaches to Alternative Assessment. USA: Cambridge

University
Hammons, J. O. & Barnsley, J. R. 1992. Everything you need to know about

developing a grading plan for your course (well, almost). Journal on Excellence in
College Teaching, 3, 51-68.
Hall K, Conway P, F., Rath A, Murphy R, McKeon J, 2008. Reporting to Parents in

Primary School: Communication, Meaning and Learning. Research Report
commissioned by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA)
www.ncca.ie
Ho W. K. 2010. Mathematics and Mathematics Education National Institute of

Education, Singapore wengkin.ho@nie.edu.sg
SPECIAL EDITION # 4
Iipinge, S.M. & Likando, G.N. 2012. The Educational assessment reforms in post-
independence Namibia: A critical analysis. SA-eDUC JOURNAL, 9(2)
International Bureau of Education. 2010/11 World Data on Education. 7th edition
Jonassen, D. H 1997. Instructional Design Models for Well-Structured and Ill-

Structured Problem-Solving Learning Outcomes. ETR&D, 45(1): 65-94 ISSN 1042-
1629
Journal of Pedagogic Development ISSN: 2047-3257 Volume 1, Issue 2 1 Can

'Quality Marking' be used to provide effective feedback within Higher Education?
Caroline Elbra-Ramsay, Faculty of Education and Theology, York St John University
Lander, R. 2002 Scored Group Discussion. CSC www.curruculum.org
Learning Innovation Unit. Guide to Writing Module Learning Outcomes at DCU

Learning. Dublin City University
Kemal, O. Berna, T. & Hüseyin A. 2011 An examination of multiple intelligence

domains and learning styles of pre-service mathematics teachers: Their reflections on
mathematics education. Educational Research and Reviews, 6(2):168-181
472
Manitoba Education. Rethinking classroom assessment with purpose in mind.
http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/assess/wncp/index.html
Maxwell, G.S. 2001. Teacher Observation in Learner assessment. University of

Queensland: Australia
Mihram, D. Classroom Assessment Techniques University of Southern California:

Centre for Excellence in Teaching The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public
Health Centre for Teaching and Learning with Technology Distance Education
Division
www.calstatela.edu/academic/aa/cetl/resources/class_assess_tech.pdf
Ministry of Education. National Professional Standard for Teachers in Namibia.

Namibian Qualifications Authority.
Ministry of Education. 2008. The National Curriculum for Basic Education. NIED:
Okahandja
Nulty, D.D. An introductory guide to practice issues in Peer and Self-Assessment.

Griffith Institute for Higher Education
Owen, R. 2004. Coursework Abuses May lead to Exam Restructuring; Parents' Help
and Internet Plagiarism Is Skewing Results, Say Teachers. Western Mail: Cardiff,
Wales
Pulakos, E.D. 2005. Selection Assessment Methods. A guide to implementing formal

assessments to build a high-quality workforce. USA: SHRM Foundation’s Effective
Practice Guidelines.
Richards, J. C. Towards Reflective Teaching Department of English, City Polytechnic

of Hong Kong http://www.tttjournal.co.uk
Sichambe, B. Nambira, G. Tjupueja, G. Kapenda, L. 2011. No 4: Evaluation and

Promotion Policy requirements in Namibian Schools. National Institute for Educational
Development (NIED): Professional and Resource Development Research unit.
Learner Learning Assessment. Options and Resources. 2008. Middle States

Commission in Higher Education. www.nsche.org
What is performance-based assessment?
www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/.../LearnerSelfAssessment.pdf
Walvoord, B. & V. Anderson. 1998. Effective Grading: A Tool for Learning and
Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
473
Ward, A.W. & Murray-Ward, M Assessment in the classroom. Wadsworth: USA
White, R. And Gunstone, R. 1992. Probing understanding. London: Falmer Press.
Wolf, A. 2001. Competence-based Assessment. Peter Lang: New York
Unesco. 2010/11. Namibia. World Data on Education. Vii Ed
www.unesco.org/iep
Bellon, J.J., Bellon, E.C. & Blank, M.A. 1991. Teaching from a Research Knowledge
Base: a Development and Renewal Process. Facsimile edition. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, USA.
Yorke, M. 2002. Academic Failure: a Retrospective View from Non-Completing

Students. In: Failing Students in Higher Education (eds Peelo, M & Wareham, T).
SRHE and Open University Press, Maindenhead.
Race, P. 2001. Using feedback to help learners learn (PDF - 138KB). © The Higher
Education Academy
MUTORWA. J. 2004. Access to Education 1990- 2000. Reflections on the

Implementation of Namibia’s Policy of Towards Education for All. Windhoek:
Gamsberg Macmillan.
NJABILI, A.F. September 2004. Curriculum under pressure: aspects from Eastern
and Southern African Region. Reform forum, 31-42.
NJABILI, A.F. 1995. Adapting an international system to meet national goals: A

regional perspective. In C. KASANDA and F. PHIRI (eds). Proceedings of the (H)
IGCSE colloquium on teacher education. Windhoek: John Merneit Publishers.
Internet references
A manual for drafters, setters and assistant setters www.settingmanual_rev3.pdf
Capacity building series: Learner self-assessment SECRETARIAT
clicit.ort.org.il/files/upl/192089623/851598900.doc
dpi.state.wi.us/sped/doc/hi-ei-pdp-self-reflection.doc
Heidi Goodrich Andrade. "Understanding Rubrics." (Online) 22 October 2001.

http://www.middleweb.com/rubricsHG.html
“How am I doing?” - assessment and feedback to learners
www.hvlc.org.uk/ace/aifl/docs/B1/How_am_I_doing.pdf
474
How to Construct a Grouped Frequency Distribution Chart Using Classes | eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/how_5290477_construct-distribution-chart-using-
classes.html#ixzz29Gi7M3Rf
http://anrl.com.au/samples/SHEA59_S.pdf
http://ar.cetl.hku.hk/am_ orals.htm
http://assessment.tki.org.nz/ Assessment-in-the-classroom/Assessment-for-learning-
in-practice/Self-and-peer-assessment
http://ctl.ualberta.ca/instructional-resources/instructional-techniques-assessment-
guides/oral-assessment
http://bobhall.tamu.edu/FiniteMath/Module8/Introduction.html
https://deanoflearners.byu.edu/content/what-are-learning-outcomes
http://det.wa.edu.au/professionallearning/detcms/professionallearning/professional-
learning-website/for-teachers/graduate-teacher/principles-of-learning-teaching-and-
assessment.en?page=2&tab=Main
http://DRJJ-elaboratetaxonomy-26072011.pdf
http://nicelavz.hubpages.com/hub/Characteristics-of-competency-based-assessment
http://people.stfx.ca/jconnors/EDUC%20432_files/SelfRelectionGuide.pdf
http://rlsimmons.blogs.com/enc1101/files/symbols.pdf
http://thekglawyerblog.com/ptblog/articles/from-bloom-to-marzano-a-new-taxonomy-
of-educational-objectives-for-plt/
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_test_and_examination#i
xzz27yRA1xzN
http://www.afdevinfo.com/htmlreports/org/org_69283.html
http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/grading.htm
http://www.aims.edu/learner/online-writing-lab/resources/using-rubrics
http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/nov05/vol63/num03/Seven-
Practices-for-Effective-Learning.aspx
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/briefing_papers/p_p_assessment.
pdf
475
http://www.businessballs.com/howardgardnermultipleintelligences.htm
http://www.childcareexchange.com/library/5011250.pdf
http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/timetoteach/policy_doc/principles
_ar.pdf
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-exam-and-vs-
test/#ixzz27yPhgfIk
http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk/handbook/ assessment/13
http:// www2.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides/classuse.html
http://www.education.com/definition/educational-objectives/
http://www.ehow.com/
http://www.ehow.com/about_5103845_ purposes-portfolio-assessment.html
http://www.ehow.com/how_8565943_draw-frequency-distribution-histograms.html
http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/teaching-strategies/assessment/grading/using-
rubrics.cfm
http://www.funderstanding.com/educators/left-brain-vs-right-brain-teaching-
techniques/
http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/resources /heca/heca_cl25.pdf
http://www.icc.edu/innovation/PDFS/assessmentEvaluation/RevisedBloomsChart_blo
omsverbsmatrix.pdf
http://www.inspiration.com/inspiration-socialstudies-examples
http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/education/k12/ assessing-projects/overview-
and-benefits/purposes.html
http://www.kentuckyteacher.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Field-Test-Guide-2-2-
12.pdf
http://www.kidport.com/reflib/science/HumanBody/NervousSystem/BrainHemispheres
.htm
http://www.learningandteaching.info/teaching/assessment_oral.htm
476
http://www.livestrong.com/article/155369-left-right-brain-
learning/#ixzz27xPD1Zhshttp://www.livestrong.com/article/155369-left-right-brain-
learning/#ixzz27xPD1Zhs
http://www.mbaofficial.com/mba-courses/research-methodology/features-advantages-
and-disadvantages-of-observation/
http://missymac.hubpages.com/hub/Effective-Classroom-Assessment-Strategies
http://www.moe.gov.na/m_dir_viewdirectorate.php?id=13&directorate=Directorate%2
0of%20National%20Examinations%20And%20Assessments%20(DNEA)
http://www.nasponline.org/communications/spawareness/portfolioassess.pdf
http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/assessprim.pdf
http://www.ncpublicschools.org/docs/curriculum/worldlanguages/resources/aaa/obche
ck4.pdf
http://www.nfer.ac.uk/what-we-offer/getting-to-grips-with- assessment-
primary/sut04.pdf
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/d/m/dmr/papers/Chp1rev.pdf
http://www.phschool.com/professional_development/rubrics/writing_assignment.pdf
http://www.schoolwrite.com/namibia/nam_ful1.htm
http://www.teachervision.fen.com/study-skills/educational-testing/2026.
html#ixzz28AJs2YOC
http://www.tltgroup.org/resources/flashlight/rubrics.htm
Intel Teach Thinking with Technology Course "Higher Order Thinking Skills" (Online)
2006. http://download.intel.com/education/EvidenceOfImpact/HigherOrderSkills.pdf
http://teaching.monster.com/benefits/articles/10348-28-ways-to-build-persistent-
confident-students
http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-and-learning/building-rapport-with-your-
students/
http://blogs.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/motivate-your-learners-with-these-5-simple-
tips/
http://www.kellybear.com/TeacherArticles/TeacherTip67.html
477
http://assessment.tki.org.nz/Assessment-in-the-classroom/Assessment-for-learning-
in-practice/Effective-feedback
https://teaching.unsw.edu.au/assessment-feedback#
http://tep.uoregon.edu/resources/assessment/multiplechoicequestions/blooms.html
http://www.eriding.net/assessment/blooms_taxonomy.shtml
http://www.businessballs.com/bloomstaxonomyoflearningdomains.htm
http://creativeeducator.tech4learning.com/v02/articles/The_New_Blooms
http://www.peterpappas.com/2010/01/taxonomy-reflection-critical-thinking-learners-
teachers-principals.html
http://www.pdc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Bloom-Taxonomy_2012.pdf
ADDENDUM 1
MARKS
ANNUAL NATIONAL ASSESSMENT 2013

GRADE 6 ENGLISH FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE TEST
MARKS: 75 TIME: 1½ HOURS

PROVINCE ____________________________________________________
REGION ___________________________________________________
DISTRICT ____________________________________________________
SCHOOL NAME ________________________________________________
EMIS NUMBER (9 digits)
CLASS (e.g. 6A) ____________________________________________________
478
SURNAME ____________________________________________________
NAME ____________________________________________________
BOY GIRL
GENDER (✓)
C C Y Y M M D D
DATE OF BIRTH
This test consists of 13 pages, excluding the cover page.
479
Instructions to the learner
Read all the instructions carefully.

Answer all the questions in the spaces provided.
The teacher will lead you through the practice exercise before you start the
test.
The test duration is 1½ hours.
Write neatly and legibly.
Practice exercise
1. Circle the letter of the correct answer below. In which grade are you this year?
A four
B three
C six
D five
You have answered the question correctly if you have circled C .
The test starts on the next page.
480
SECTION A: COMPREHENSION
Read the story below and answer questions 1-15.
One day the jackal saw a crow fly up with a piece of cheese in her beak. "I want
that cheese," thought the jackal.
When the black bird landed upon a branch of a tree, the jackal sat down under the
tree and called, "Good day, Mistress Crow! How well you are looking! How bright
are your eyes! How glossy are your feathers!”
The crow was pleased because she loved to be flattered. "I am sure your voice is
even more beautiful than your feathers," said the jackal. “Won't you sing a song for
me, oh Queen of the birds?" The crow was so pleased she could hardly sit still.
She lifted her head high, closed her eyes and opened her beak to sing, “CAW-
CAW-CAW-W-W.” She thought her voice was sweet and pleasing to the ear. The
jackal wanted to put his paws over his head to stop the horrible sound from entering
his ears.
The cheese fell to the ground, right in front of the jackal. "Thank you Mistress
Crow," he said to the bird as he gobbled up the cheese. “In exchange for your
cheese, I will give you good advice, “Never trust a flatterer!”
The crow became very sad. If she had not showed off in front of the jackal, she
would not have lost the cheese. Not only did she loose the cheese, but also her
self-confidence. The crow was filled with sorrow. She should never have trusted the
jackal.
[Adapted from Short Stories]
481
1. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
Why did the jackal praise the crow?

A He was hungry that day.
B He loved music very much.
C He wanted the cheese to drop.
D He was trying to make friends.
(1)
Why was the crow pleased at first?

A She was the queen of the birds.
B She was happy to see the jackal.
C She had a beautiful singing voice.
D She enjoyed being flattered by the jackal.
(1)
3. After the crow lost her cheese, what else did she lose?
(1)
What is the lesson of the story?

A Never trust a flatterer.
B Crows love cheese.
C Jackals can talk to crows.
D After rain, the sun shines.
(1)
5. What is the best title for the story?
(1)
6. Give two examples of sentences the jackal said to flatter or ‘sweet talk’ the
crow.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
(2)
7. Explain why the jackal wanted the crow to sing.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________ (2)
8. Was it fair that the jackal got the cheese? Give a reason for your answer.
______________________________________________________
482
_____________________________________________________ (2)
What is meant by the word “glossy” in the following sentence: “How glossy
are your feathers!”
A dull
B shiny
C colourful
D rough
(1)
Why did the crow agree to sing a song for the jackal?
A She heard a horrible noise.

B The jackal gave her good advice.
C She wanted the jackal to like her.
D The jackal said she had a beautiful voice
(1)
11. Fill in the missing word to complete the sentence
“In exchange for your cheese, I will give you good ____________." (1)
What was the biggest mistake the crow made?
A She trusted the jackal.

B She landed in a tree.
C She sang horribly.
D She did not sit still.
Why does the jackal call the crow “Queen of the birds”?
A He thought she was beautiful.

B It was her real name.
C He wanted her to sing.
D He was afraid of her.
(1)
483
What does ‘The jackal flattered the crow’ mean?
A He praised her more than was needed.

B He gave her advice he thought would help.
C He spoke to her softly and kindly.
D He greeted her warmly.
15. Did the jackal like the crow’s singing? Give a reason for your answer.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
TOTAL SECTION A: 19
484
SECTION B: LANGUAGE
The graph below shows the after school-activities of learners. Use the information
to complete the table and answer the questions that follow.
16. Which activity do most learners spend time on after school?
(1)
16. Name the two activities that learners spend the same amount of time on.
__________________________________________________________
(2)
18. Name the activity that the learners spend the least amount of time on.
___________________________________________________________
(1)
19. What is the heading of the graph?
___________________________________________________________
(1)
20. Use the word in brackets to join the two sentences.
The crow loved cheese. The jackal loved cheese. (and)
485
___________________________________________________________
(2)
21. Rewrite the following sentence in the past tense beginning with “yesterday”.
The jackal tricks the crow.
Yesterday__________________________________________________. (1)
22. Give the plural of the underlined word.
The jackal thought that he was very clever when he tricked the crow.
_______________ (1)
23. Rewrite the following sentences using the correct punctuation:
23.1 why is the crow special
________________________________________________ (2)
23.2 the crow loved cheese chocolate and seed
________________________________________________ (3)
24. Underline the correct preposition.
24.1 The crow held seed (in/over) her beak. (1)
24.2 The cheese fell (up/on to) the ground. (1)
25. Write the opposite of the underlined words.
When the crow closed her eyes, she lost her cheese.
closed ______________
lost ________________ (2)
26. Write a word that has a similar meaning to the underlined word.
The crow had beautiful feathers. ___________________ (1)
27. Underline the correct word in brackets to complete the sentence.
27.1 The female crow had (brighter/brightest) eyes than the male crow.
486
(1)
27.2 The jackal is the (faster/fastest) animal in the forest. (1)
28. Write two sentences to show two different meanings of the word “back”.
Sentence 1:_________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ (1)
Sentence 2:_________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ (1)
29. Underline the correct word in brackets to complete each sentence.

29.1 The jackal (do/does) not want the cheese.
(1)
29.2 The crow (was/were) sad to lose her cheese.
(1)
30. Give the opposite gender of the underlined words.
30.1 The mother told the story of the crow to the children.
(1)
______________
30.2 The lion would not have done something like this to the jackal.
______________ (1)
31. Underline the correct form of the verb in brackets.
31.1 Yesterday the crow (lands/landed) on a branch.

(1)
31.2 Tomorrow the crow will (sing/sang) beautifully.
(1)
32. Change the word ‘travel’ by adding a suffix (ending) from the list below.
ed; led; ing; ling
The crow was travel ______ to her home.

(1)
33. Rewrite the word in brackets by adding the apostrophe ( ̓ ).
487
The jackal stole the (crows) _________________ cheese.
(1)
34. Give the opposite of the word ‘happy’ by adding a prefix.
Mistress Crow was ____ happy because she lost her cheese.
(1)
35. Identify the root/base word from the underlined word.
The queen of the birds looked very sad. _______________
(1)
36. Choose the correct pronouns from the word box to complete the sentences.
yours; theirs; ours; mine
36.1 This cheese belongs to me, it is ______________________

(1)
36.2 This nest belongs to them, it is _______________________
(1)
37. Read the passage below and choose six reasons why birds sing. Write
these reasons in point form.
Why do birds sing?
Why do birds sing? You might think that birds sing because they
are happy. While birds might be happy, they sing in order to talk.
They sing to show where they live. Birds sing to warn other birds
to stay away from their homes.
Birds also sing to find a mate. The length and difficulty of the
mating song gives information about the fitness of the bird. Healthy
birds can sing longer. Birds call to one another in shorter songs in
order to warn of danger and to find one another. Birds sing without
someone teaching them to do it. Young birds learn to sing perfectly
by listening to adult birds and being with other birds. Birds in a
local area might learn differences in the basic song which help
them know other members of their group.
[Adapted from Englishforeveryone.org]
1.
2.
488
3.
4.
5.
6.
(6)
TOTAL SECTION B: 41
489
SECTION C: WRITING
Write to your friend and tell him/her about the day you landed into trouble at school.
Write at least four well-linked paragraphs of 80 -100 words in a letter format with
the correct content. Make sure that you use the correct spelling, punctuation and
grammar.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
TOTAL SECTION C: 15
GRAND TOTAL: 75
490
Mark allocation for question 38:
Learner’s
Criteria Max mark
mark
38.1 Format 5
38.2 Language, spelling and 5

punctuation
38.3 Content 5
TOTAL 15
ANNUAL NATIONAL ASSESSMENT 2013
GRADE 6 ENGLISH FIRST ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE
MEMORANDUM
TOTAL: 75
This memorandum consists of 4 pages.
491
SECTION A - COMPREHENSION
QUESTION EXPECTED ANSWERS MARKS TOTAL

C/He wanted the cheese to drop. ✓
1. 1 1
D/She enjoyed being flattered by the

2. jackal. ✓ 1 1
Remember that in questions 3-15 the emphasis is on comprehension and not

on spelling and language structure, unless otherwise indicated.
Self-confidence✓
3. 1 1
4. A/Never trust a flatterer.✓ 1 1

The jackal and the crow or any suitable
5. 1 1
title relevant to the text.✓
✓ ✓
He flattered her looks. /He flattered her

voice.
6. /He flattered her eyes. ✓/He flattered 2 2

her feathers✓
Any two sentences that address any

two of the above characteristics
She would have to open her beak✓ to

sing and then the cheese would fall to
✓the ground
One mark awarded if learner indicates
7. that the jackal wanted the crow to open 2 2
her beak. The other mark is allocated if
the learner indicates that the cheese
would fall to the ground.
No, the jackal cheated/tricked the crow

in order to get the cheese through
flattery. ✓✓/ Yes, the jackal was smart
8. 2 2
and therefore deserved the cheese
more than the crow. ✓✓
492
No marks should be allocated if the
learner only answered yes/no. No
marks should be allocated if the reason
given is not relevant to the text./ No
marks should be allocated if the learner
only wrote a reason and did not answer
yes/no.
B/shiny✓
9. 1 1
D/The jackal said she had a beautiful

10. voice.✓ 1 1
Advice. ✓
11. Mark only allocated if the word is spelt 1 1

correctly.
A/She trusted the jackal. ✓

12. 1 1
C/He wanted her to sing.✓

13. 1 1
A/He praised her more than was

14. needed. ✓ 1 1
A - Comprehension
Question Expected answers Marks
No, the jackal wanted to cover his head with his paws to stop the
horrible sound from entering his ears. ✓✓This is the only
15. acceptable answer. No marks should be allocated if the learner 2
only answered yes/no./ No marks should be allocated if the
learner only wrote a reason and did not answer yes/no.
493
16. Visiting their friends.✓ Ignore spelling errors. 1
17. Play sports✓ and read. ✓ 2
18. Computers✓✓ 1
19. After-school activities✓ 1
20. The correct answer is:
The crow and the jackal loved cheese. ✓✓
The following answer can be awarded one mark.

2
The crow loved cheese and the jackal loved cheese. ✓
21. Yesterday the jackal tricked the crow. ✓ 1
22. Crows✓ 1
✓ ✓
W hy is the crow special? Punctuation: Capital W and
23.1 2
question mark.
✓ ✓ ✓
23.2 T he crow loved cheese, chocolate and seed.
3
Punctuation: Capital T, comma and full-stop.
24.1 in✓ 1
24.2 on to✓ 1
25. opened✓ found✓ 2
Pretty/lovely/stunning/handsome/attractive/ gorgeous/✓ Any one

of the above or any suitable synonym. If the learner writes more
26. 1
than one answer, only mark the first answer given. All
subsequent given answers should be ignored.
27.1 brighter✓ 1
27.2 fastest✓ 1
494
He hurt his back in the accident. ✓The dog came back after
three days. ✓
28. 2
Any two sentences that clearly show the difference in the
meaning of the word ‘back’. (Spelling to be taken into
consideration when allocating marks).
29.1 does✓ 1
29.2 was✓ 1
30.1 father✓ 1
30.2 lioness✓ 1
31.1 landed✓ 1
31.2 sing✓ 1
32. ling✓ 1
33. crow’s✓ 1
34. un-✓ 1
35. look✓ 1
36.1 mine✓ 1
36.2 theirs✓ 1
37. Summary
Refer to marking guidelines: 6
38. Writing a letter Refer to rubric 15
GRAND TOTAL: 75
Marking guidelines for question 37 (Summary)
495
Use the following main points as a guideline. The main points may be in any
sequence. Learners should include any six of these points in their summary:
They sing to find one another. 

They warn others to stay away from their homes. 
They sing to talk. 
They show where they live. 
They sing to find a mate. 
They warn one another of danger. 
They sing when they are happy. 
Marking the summary
The summary must be marked as follows:
Mark allocation:
6 marks for 6 sentences (1 mark per main point).
Ignore spelling errors.
http://www.education.gov.za/
496

Desae22 SG

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Desae22 SG

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EDUCATION IS THE GREATEST EQUALISER

Assessment and Evaluation

Study Guide compiled by:

© Institute for Open Learning 2015

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or

Date of next revision of syllabus: 2019

Institute for Open Learning

Telephone: +264 61 275 4700

UNIT 1 Basic assessment concepts and perspectives 1

UNIT 2 General and primary assessment directives of Namibia 55

UNIT 4 The aims, construction and application of assessment tools

UNIT 6 Marking and grading techniques 249

UNIT 7 Feedback on and reporting of assessment results 313

UNIT 8 Statistical analysis and interpretation of assessment results 346

UNIT 9 Instruments and elements of learning, instruction and parent

Welcome to the study of assessment and evaluation!

Evaluating each assessment activity and teaching strategy is just as important as

III Exit learning outcomes

Upon completion of this module you should be able to:

 Clarify basic assessment concepts and perspectives.

IV Study support available

 Take some time to familiarise yourself with this study guide.

V Module assessment policy

 A pass mark of 50% is required to gain admission to the examinations.

VI Verbs’ thinking processes

VERB MEANING / THINKING REQUIRED

Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

A numerical answer from given figures or information is

Describe something and discuss briefly by giving the positive

Indicate similarities / resemblances and differences of

Show how things are different or opposite regarding particular

Give a reasoned judgement of something after careful

Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law,

Give the precise, brief meaning of something, often referring

Demonstrate Perform the necessary operations; show by example.

Provide detailed features of an issue or stages of a process in

Determine Use the information given to work out the answer.

Give a clear description and then argue about features by

Describe two phenomena / things according to relevant

Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

Determine the value / worth / quality / success of something

Describe something and indicate relationships between

Find A general term that means calculate, determine or measure.

Identify Recognise and name / list features.

Illustrate Describe by giving examples or making drawings.

Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or

Identify detailed features of something / problem

Give an overview of and indicate the main features of

Indicate and describe the relationship / connections between

Give a brief account of the essence of a matter through the

In my more than 25 years of lecturing I have discovered that, in many cases,

VIII References in IOL centres

Reference books in IOL centres

McMillan, J. H. 2011. Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for

ASSIGNMENTS ARE INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND NOT GROUP ACTIVITIES

X Icons used in this guide

This icon indicates learning outcomes for a specific unit.

This icon indicates feedback on learning activities. Feedback

You are encouraged to read many different books and

1.1 The three learning domains 7

Read through sections 1.1 (learning domains) and 1.2. (multiple

List in a table format the similarities and differences between an

List three differences and three similarities between formative assessment