EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 80

MODULE 5
Electric Drive: Introduction to electric drives – Block diagram – advantages of electric drives- types
of load – classification of load torque (2 hrs) DC Drives: Single phase semi converter and single
phase fully controlled converter drives. Dual Converters for Speed control of DC motor-1-phase and
3-phase configurations; Simultaneous and Non-simultaneous operation. Chopper controlled DC
drives- Single quadrant chopper drives- Regenerative braking control- Two quadrant chopper drives-
Four quadrant chopper drives(6 hrs) AC Drives: Three phase induction motor speed control. Stator
voltage control – stator frequency control - Stator voltage and frequency control (v/f) (3 hrs) (It is
expected to emphasize the ease of independent control of field flux and armature flux in SEDC motor
and relate the same with Induction motor)

ELECTRIC DRIVES
Systems employed for motion control are called drives.
Prime movers shall be diesel or petrol engine, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, electric
motors etc for supplying mechanical energy for motion control.
Drives employing electric motors are called electrical drives.

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Source may be a dc or ac (1-phase or 3-phase) source.
Power modulator converts the electrical energy of the source in the form suitable for the
motor. For example, if the source is dc and the motor is induction motor, then power modulator
converts dc into a variable frequency ac. Power modulator also limits the current within permissible
values during transient operations like starting and braking.
Power modulator is usually a power electric converter like controlled rectifier, chopper,
inverter, ac voltage controller, cyclo-converter, matrix converter etc. Control unit produces the
gate/base signals for the converters.
PARTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Major parts are i) Electrical Motor ii) Power Modulator iii) Source iv) Load & v) Control Unit.
ELECTRICAL MOTORS
i) DC motors – separately excited dc motor, shunt motor, series motor and compound motor
ii) Induction Motors – Squirrel Cage Induction Motor, Slip Ring Induction Motor, Linear
Induction Motor
iii) Synchronous Motors – Wound field Synchronous Motor (cylindrical rotor type or salient pole
type) & Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
iv) Brushless DC Motor
v) Stepper Motor
vi) Switched Reluctance Motor
In the past, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for constant speed applications.
Variable speed applications were dominated by dc series motors. Now, ac motors are also used for
variable speed applications because of the development of power electronic circuits & devices.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 81

DC DRIVES & AC DRIVES – COMPARISON

DC DRIVES
Commutator makes the motor bulky, costly &
heavy.
Highest speed and design rating are limited due
to commutation.
Commutator requires frequent maintenance.
Sparking at brushes makes it environmentally
unsuitable in certain locations.
Power converter is simple & inexpensive.
Small power/weight ratio
Fast response, wide speed range, smooth control Response depends upon the type of control.
AC DRIVES
No commutator. Motors are inexpensive (mainly
squirrel cage induction motor)
Speed & design rating have no upper limits.
Motor is reliable & requires less maintenance.
It can be used in all locations.
Power circuits of the converter & its control are
complex.
Large power/weight ratio

Wound field & permanent magnet synchronous motors have higher full-load efficiency & power
factor compared to induction motors but cost, size and maintenance is more for same rating.
Brushless dc motor is almost similar to permanent magnet synchronous motors (but characteristics are
that of conventional brushed dc motor), but has lower cost and requires simpler and cheaper
converter. It is extensively used in high performance drives, computer disk drives, servo drives,
robotics, electric vehicles etc.
Stepper motor is popular for position control. A stepper motor rotates by a specific number of degrees
in response to an input electrical pulse.

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Switched reluctance motors have saliency in both stator & rotor. The stator consists of salient poles
with excitation windings on them, and the rotor has salient poles with no windings. The torque is
produced by the tendency of the rotor pole to align with the stator pole to maximize the stator flux
linkage when the winding of the stator pole is excited by a current.
Switched reluctance motors (power capability 100W to 100kW) are now commercially available for
various applications, ranging from low-power servo motors to high-power traction drives.
POWER MODULATORS

i) AC to DC converters
Single quadrant (motoring) operation is possible with a semi-converter (controlled bridge rectifier
with half number of diodes and half number of thyristors).
Two quadrant (motoring & regenerative braking) operation is possible with a full converter
(controlled bridge rectifier with thyristors only)
Four quadrant operation is possible with a dual converter.
ii) DC to DC converters (Chopper)
Single quadrant, two quadrant and four quadrant choppers are used.
iii) AC to AC converters
AC voltage controllers can be used for the control of induction motors with stator voltage control at
constant frequency.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 82

Cyclo-converters or matrix converters (single stage ac to variable frequency ac conversion) can be

used for variable voltage & variable frequency output for the speed control of induction motors using
stator frequency control.
At present, for variable frequency voltage, two stage conversion is used. AC is first converted to fixed
dc using a diode bridge rectifier and this fixed dc is converted to variable magnitude variable
frequency ac voltage by using an inverter.
iv) DC to AC converters (Inverters)
Fixed dc voltage is converted to variable magnitude variable frequency ac. It can be voltage source
inverter or current source inverter. For output voltage control and for the reduction of harmonics,
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) or space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM)
techniques are used.
SOURCES
In India, 1-phase or 3-phase 50Hz ac supplies are readily available. Low power drives are fed from 1-
phase source. Rest of the drives is fed from 3-phase source. Most of the motors are fed from 400V 3-
phase supply and large motors are operated with 3.3kV, 6.6kV or 11kV. For traction purposes, supply
is 1-phase 25kV ac, but 1500V dc series motors are usually used. For aircraft & space applications,
400Hz ac supply is generally used to achieve high power to weight ratio for motors.
CONTROL UNIT
Controls for a power modulator are provided by the control unit.
NATURE & CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES
i) Load torque may be constant at all speeds, m
Example : Cranes during hoisting, compressor
Note: Load torque by compressor that supplies constant pressure system
may vary a little with variation of speed.
T
L

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ii) Load torque proportional to square of the speed
TL  m2
Example : Fans, Centrifugal pumps, propellers

iii) Load torque proportional to speed (this is an uncommon type of

load characteristics and is usually observed in a complex form
of load)
Example : Separately excited dc generator connected to constant load
resistance
For a separately excited dc generator,
P VI km  (km / R)
TL     m
m m m
iv) Load torque inversely proportional to the speed
1
TL  or Tm  constant (constant power at all speeds)
m
Example : Paper mill
Note: A fan drive operating at constant speed if, of course, developing
constant power. But in applications like paper mill it is desirable to develop
constant power over a range of speed.
Compressor, pump and fan type loads required operation in the first quadrant only since their
operation is unidirectional. They are one quadrant drive systems.
Transportation drives requires operation in both directions. It is a two quadrant drive system.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 83

COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES

Load torque can be divided into the following components :
i) Friction torque TF : Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various parts of the
load. Friction torque can be resolved into three components. Friction at zero speed is
called stiction or static friction Ts. In order for drive to start, the motor torque should at
least exceed stiction. Since Ts is present only at standstill, it is not taken into account in
the dynamic analysis. Friction torque which varies linearly with speed is called viscous
friction and is given by Tv  Bm . Friction torque which is independent of speed is called
Coulomb friction Tc.
ii) Windage torque TW: When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion which
is known as windage torque and is given by Tw  Cm2 .
iii) Torque TL required to do the useful mechanical work : Nature of this torque depends on
particular application. It may be constant or independent of speed.
In many applications, Tc  Cm 2 is very small compared to Bm and negligible compared to TL.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TORQUES
Various load torques can be broadly classified into i) active load torque and ii) passive load torque.
Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called active
load torques. Such load torques usually retains their sign when the direction of the drive rotation is
changed. Example : torque due to gravity. In hoist, when a loaded cage is moving up, the active
torque due to gravity opposes the motion. Therefore, the driving motor has to generate extra torque to
overcome the torque due to gravity. On the other hand, when the loaded cage is going down, it is
driven by the torque due to gravity. The motor produces braking torque to limit the speed within the
safe values.

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Load torques which always opposes the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are
called passive load torques. Example : torque due to friction.

DC MOTOR DRIVES
DC motors can be classified into i) separately excited DC motor ii) shunt motor iii) series motor and
iv) compound motor.

In separately excited DC motor, the armature and field are excited by independent voltage sources. In
a dc shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature, both of which are
supplied from the same source. In series motors, the armature and field are connected in series and are
supplied from the same source. In compound motor, both series and shunt fields are present. The
performance of the motor is determined by the relative strengths of the series or shunt field.
In a separately excited motor, it is possible to control both armature voltage and field current, so as to
control the speed over a wide range in the smooth manner. Speeds ranging from zero to base speed
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 84

may be obtained at constant torque by armature voltage control. Speeds above base speed are possible
at constant power output by weakening of the flux.
Under steady state,
E  Kem
V  E  I a Ra
T  KeI a
where T = torque developed by the motor, Φ = flux per pole, Ia = armature current, V = armature
voltage, ωm = motor speed, Ra = armature resistance, Ke = motor constant
V I R V Ra
m   a a   T
Ke Ke Ke ( Ke)2
For separately excited DC motor or shunt motor,
K  Ke 
E  Km
T  KI a
V Ra
m   T
K K2
For DC series motor,
  K f Ia
T  Ke K f I a 2
E  Ke K f I am
V I R V 1 R
m   a a  a
Ke  Ke 

TRACE KTU
K e K f T Ke K f
For series motor, speed is almost inversely proportional to the square root of the torque. A high torque
is obtained at low speed and a low torque is obtained at high speed. Series motors are therefore used
where large starting torques are required, as in cranes, traction, hoists etc.
Problem 1: A 200V, 10.5A, 2000rpm shunt motor has the armature and field resistances of 0.5 and
400Ω respectively. It drives a load whose torque is constant at rated motor torque. Calculate motor
speed if the source voltage drops to 175V.
Solution:
175
2  1  0.8751
200
For constant torque, 1I a1  2 I a 2
1I a1 10.5
Ia2    11.4 A
2 0.875
E1  V1  I a1Ra  200  10.5  0.5  195V
E2  V2  I a 2 Ra  175  11.4  0.5  169.3V
E1 1 N1

E2 2 N2
E2 1 169.3 1
N2  N1    2000  1984.5rpm
E1 2 195 0.875

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER FED DC DRIVES

Controlled rectifiers are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac source of fixed voltage. Controlled
rectifiers can be classified into i) 1-phase fully-controlled rectifier ii) 1-phase half-controlled rectifier
iii) 3-phase fully-controlled rectifier and iv) 3-phase half-controlled rectifier. Fully-controlled
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 85

rectifiers can be operated in two quadrants whereas half-controlled rectifiers can be operated in only
one quadrant.
Controlled rectifier fed dc drives are widely used in applications requiring a wide range of speed
control and/or frequent starting, braking, and reversing. Some prominent applications are in rolling
mills, paper mills, printing presses, mine winders, machine tools.
SINGLE-PHASE FULLY-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF DC SEPARATELY
EXCITED DC MOTOR
A single-phase fully controlled rectifier fed separately
excited DC motor is shown below. Field supply is not
shown. When field control is required, field is fed from a
controlled rectifier, otherwise from an uncontrolled
rectifier.
When armature current does not flow continuously, the
motor is said to operate in discontinuous conduction.
When current flows continuously, the conduction is said to
be continuous.

In continuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to π+α, thyristors T1 and
T2 are conducting. Armature voltage
va is same as the source voltage vs and
source current is is same as the load
current ia.

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At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON. T1 and T2 are turned OFF automatically by the reverse voltage
applied due to the turning ON of T3 and T4. During ωt=π+α to 2π+α, armature voltage, va = -vs and
source current, is = - ia.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 86

Figure shows the armature voltage va,

armature current ia and source current
is waveforms assuming the armature
current is continuous and ripple free
(ia = Ia).

In continuous conduction mode, average armature voltage, Va is given by

 
2Vm
Va  V

m sin td (t ) 

cos 

When   90 , average armature voltage is positive and when   90 , average armature voltage is
negative.
In discontinuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to β, thyristors T1 and T2 are
conducting. Armature voltage va is same as

TRACE KTU
the source voltage vs and source current is
is same as the load current ia. At ωt=β,
armature current ia decreases to zero and T1
and T2 are turned OFF since its anode
current falls to zero. Hence, during ωt=β to
π+α, all the devices are OFF. Since
armature current is zero, armature voltage
is same as the back emf E.
At ωt=π+α, T3 and T4 are turned ON.
Armature voltage, va = -vs and source
current, is = - ia.

Since armature current ia is not perfect dc, the motor torque fluctuates. Since torque fluctuates at a
frequency of 100Hz, motor inertia is able to filter out the fluctuations, giving nearly a constant speed
and ripple-less E.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 87

SINGLE-PHASE HALF-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF DC SEPARATELY

EXCITED DC MOTOR
A single-phase half-controlled rectifier fed separately
excited DC motor is shown in figure.

In continuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below. From ωt=α to π, thyristor T1 and diode D1 are conducting. Armature voltage va
is same as the source voltage vs and source current is is same as the load current ia.
At ωt= π, diode D2 is forward biased and
it starts conducting. At the same instant,
T1 is turned off due to reverse voltage
applied by the source through D2. When
D1 and D2 are conducting
(freewheeling), armature voltage va is
zero. Source current is is also zero.
At ωt=π+α, T2 is turned ON by applying
a firing pulse. D1 is automatically turned
OFF. During ωt=π+α to 2π, armature
voltage, va = -vs and source current, is = -
ia.
TRACE KTU
In continuous conduction mode, average armature voltage, Va is given by

Vm
Va   Vm sin td (t )  (1  cos  )
 
Figure shows the armature voltage va,
armature current ia and source current
is waveforms assuming the armature
current is continuous and ripple free
(ia = Ia).

In discontinuous conduction mode, armature voltage va, armature current ia and source current is are
shown in figure below.
From ωt=α to π, thyristor T1 and diode D2 are conducting. Armature voltage va is same as the source
voltage vs and source current is is same as the load current ia.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 88

At ωt= π, diode D2 is forward biased and thyristor T1 is turned OFF due to reverse voltage. During
ωt= π to β, both D1 and D2 are conducting (freewheeling) and armature voltage va and source current is
are zero.

At ωt=β, armature current ia decreases to

zero and both D1 and D2 are reverse
biased. Hence, during ωt=β to π+α, all the
devices are OFF. Since armature current
is zero, armature voltage is same as the
back emf E.
At ωt=π+α, T2 is turned ON by applied a
firing pulse. From ωt=π+α to π, thyristor
T2 and diode D2 are conducting. Armature
voltage, va = -vs and source current, is = -
ia.

1-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER (FOUR QUADRANT CONVERTER)

Semiconverter operates in one quadrant
(Quadrant I) only and full converter
operates in two quadrants (Quadrant I &

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IV). Dual converters can operate in all the
four quadrants (output voltage and current
may be either positive or negative).
In dual converter, two single phase or three
phase fully controlled rectifiers are
connected in anti-parallel.

2-types :- i) Nor-circulating current type (non-simultaneous type) and ii) circulating current type
(simultaneous type)
DUAL CONVERTER WITHOUT CIRCULATING CURRENT
Assumption :- Load current is continuous

Only one converter is operated at a time and it alone carries the entire load current.
(Note : Positive current is possible with converter 1 and negative current is possible with converter 2)
Initially let the drive be in operation in quadrant I. Converter 1 is operated as rectifier (α1 < 90°) and
firing pulses to the converter 2 is blocked. Motor runs in forward direction. For speed reversal, motor
must initially operate in the second quadrant and then in third quadrant. For this, the operation must
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 89

transfer from converter I to converter II. Before converter II is activated, all thyristors in converter I
must turn off; otherwise a line side short circuit of converter II through the conducting thyristors of
converter I will take place. Hence, the armature current is forced to zero by increasing the firing angle
V E
of converter I ( I a  a1  0 ). After zero current is sensed, a dead time of 2 to 10mS is provided to
Ra
ensure the turn-off of all thyristors of converter I. Now, the firing pulses are withdrawn from
converter I and released to converter II. Motor speed will not change appreciably during this period
owing to inertia. α2 is initially set to make the armature voltage equal to back emf. It is then reduced
to make the maximum allowable current (braking current) to flow (α2>90°, armature voltage is
positive & armature current is negative). Speed reversal is achieved at maximum braking torque.
Speed decreases to zero and the motor starts rotating in the opposite direction. Back emf is developed
in the opposite direction. The drive starts operating in third quadrant (α2<90°, both armature voltage
& current are negative). Armature current is maintained at maximum value till the motor reaches rated
speed.
Disadvantages of non-circulating current type dual converter are
i) Proper protection is necessary for avoiding a short circuit due to malfunctioning ie. both
converters are simultaneously operated.
ii) A delay is required to shift the operation from one mode to the other mode.

DUAL CONVERTER WITH CIRCULATING CURRENT

Two converters are operated simultaneously so that the sum of their average terminal voltages is zero
so that no dc current circulates in the loop formed by the two converters.
Va1  Va 2  0
2Vm 2Vm
cos 1  cos  2  0
 
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cos 1   cos  2  cos(180   2 )
 1   2  180

Hence, when one converter operates as rectifier with

firing angle α1, the other is operated as inverter with
firing angle (180-α1). Though their average output
voltages are equal, instantaneous voltages va1 and va2
may be different. This results in a voltage difference and
hence a large circulating current flows between the two
converters but not through the load.
This circulating current is limited to a tolerable value by inserting a reactor between the two
converters.
Although both thyristors are operated simultaneously, motor control in first and fourth quadrant are
provided by converter I (Ia positive & Va1 positive or negative). Converter II carries only circulating
current. The circulating current is limited to 15 to 30% of the rated armature current. The two
converters reverse their roles when the operating takes place in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
Advantages : i) No short circuit; ii) better dynamic response
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 90

Disadvantages : i) Additional reactor is needed to limit the circulating current which increases size
and cost ii) Due to circulating current (=15 to 20% of rated current), current rating of SCR is higher.

3-PHASE DUAL CONVERTER FED SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

A + + A
A
B Va1 Va2 B
Ia
C - AA - C
I II

Two 3-phase converters (I and II) are operated simultaneously so that the sum of their average
terminal voltages is zero so that no dc current circulates in the loop formed by the two converters.
Va1  Va 2  0
2Vm 2Vm
cos 1  cos  2  0
 
3 3Vm cos 1 3 3Vm cos  2
 0
 
cos 1   cos  2  cos(180   2 )
1   2  180

CHOPPER CONTROLLED SEPARATELY EXCITED DC MOTOR

Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of number of advantages such as high
efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight, small size, quick response, and regeneration down to

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very low speeds. Chopper controlled DC motors have applications in servos and traction.
Chopper offers a number of advantages over controlled rectifiers. Because of the higher frequency of
the output voltage ripple, the ripple in the motor armature current is less and the region of the
discontinuous conduction in the speed-torque plane is smaller. Reduction in the armature current
ripple reduces the machine losses and its derating. A reduction or elimination of discontinuous
conduction region improves speed regulation and transient response of a drive.
A chopper can be operated at comparatively high frequencies. With power transistors, operating
frequency can be 2.5kHz and with power MOSFETs, operating frequency can be upto 200kHz. The
rectifier output voltage and current have a much lower frequency – 100Hz in the case of a 1-phase
rectifier and 300Hz in the case of a 3-phase fully-controlled rectifier-when the ac source frequency is
50Hz.

MOTORING CONTROL (CLASS A CHOPPER)

va
V
ton T t
ia Ia2
Ia1 Ia1
t
is Ia2
Ia1
t
During ON period of the switch, armature armature voltage, armature current
voltage, va = V. Armature current increases from and input current
Ia1 to Ia2.
di
Ra ia  La a  E  V , 0  t  ton
dt
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 91

At t = ton, switch is turned off. Motor current freewheels through diode DF. Armature voltage is zero
during this interval.
di
Ra ia  La a  E  0, ton  t  T
dt
Motor current decreases from Ia2 to Ia1.
t
Duty ratio, D  on
T
t
Average armature voltage, Va  1  Vdt  DV
on

T 0
Va Ra DV Ra
Speed, m  K  K 2 T  K  K 2 T
REGENERATIVE BRAKING (CLASS B CHOPPER)

During ON period of the switch, armature voltage, va = 0. Armature current increases from Ia1 to Ia2.
DC machine works as a generator and a part of the energy is stored in the armature inductance and
remainder is dissipated in armature resistance.
When switch is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V and armature current

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decreases from Ia2 to Ia1. The stored energy in the inductance and the energy supplied by the machine
is fed to the source.
Duty ratio, D 
T  ton
T
T
Average armature voltage, Va  1 Vdt  DV
T ton
DV Ra
Speed, m  K  K 2 T

TWO QUADRANT CHOPPER (CLASS C)

Although switching from class A to class B configuration is a satisfactory method of obtaining

regenerative braking for some applications, in others a smooth transition from motoring to braking is
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 92

essential. This is frequently the case in servo drives and machine-tool drives. A combination of class
A and class B choppers provides the required drive.
For first quadrant operation, S1 and D1 will be operated. If the average armature current Ia (hence
torque) is high enough, S2 and D2 will not conduct, even though S2 receives gate signal.
For second quadrant operation, S2 and D2 will be operated. If the average armature current Ia (hence
torque) has sufficiently large negative value, S1 and D1 will not conduct, even though S1 receives gate
signal.
The circuit parameters and value of ton may be such that it would result in discontinuous current in the
single-quadrant step-down chopper. Current in the class C chopper, however, cannot be discontinuous
because under these conditions S2 and D2 conduct for part of the cycle. When the current in D1 falls to
zero, emf E drives negative current through S2 to store energy in inductance La. When S2 is
commutated, the fall in this stored energy induces a negative emf eL, which, in conjunction with emf
E, supplies energy to source V until the negative current becomes zero and the energy in inductance
La is exhausted. Positive load current ia then resumes through S1.

FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER (CLASS E CHOPPER)

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In this chopper, both the armature voltage and armature current may be either positive or negative.
Equivalent circuits and devices conducting in each quadrant is as shown below.

QUADRANT 1
S2 & S3 are kept OFF;
S4 is kept ON;
S1 is operated ON & OFF
Va and Ia are positive

QUANDRANT 2
S1, S3 & S4 are kept OFF;
S2 is operated ON & OFF
Va is positive and Ia is negative
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 93

QUADRANT 3
E is reversed
S1 & S4 are kept OFF;
S2 is kept ON;
S3 is operated ON & OFF
Va and Ia are negative

E is reversed;
S1, S2 & S3 are kept OFF;
S4 is operated ON & OFF
Va is negative and Ia is positive

NOTE : For Quadrant 1, S1 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 2, S2 is operated ON & OFF; for
Quadrant 3, S3 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 4, S4 is operated ON & OFF

AC DRIVES
SPEED CONTROL OF 3-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
For an induction motor,

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Synchronous speed, s 
4 f

Motor speed, m  (1  s )s

P
rad/sec

Basic methods of speed control of induction motor are

i) By changing the number of poles
ii) By varying the supply frequency
iii) By varying the stator voltage
iv) By varying the rotor resistance
v) By injecting emf of slip frequency into the rotor circuit
Method (i) is applicable only for squirrel cage induction motors and (iv) and (v) only for slip ring
induction motors.
TORQUE EQUATION
Equivalent circuit of the induction motor is shown below. R r’ and Xr’ are the rotor resistance Rr and
rotor reactance Xr referred to stator.
  m
s s where ωm = rotor speed in rad/sec and ωs = synchronous speed in rad/sec
s
4 f
s  rad/sec
P
m  (1  s)s

Rr ' Rr '
Rr '(1  s )
s s
s
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 94

From equivalent circuit in figure (c),

V
Ir ' 
( Rs  Rr '/ s) 2  ( X s  X r ')2
Rr ' 3V 2 Rr '/ s
Power transferred to rotor (rotor input or air-gap power) Pg  3I r '2 
s ( Rs  Rr '/ s)2  ( X s  X r ')2

Mechanical power developed, Pm  3I r '2 Rr '(1  s)  3V 2 Rr '(1  s) / s

s ( Rs  Rr '/ s)2  ( X s  X r ')2

Torque developed by motor, T  Pm  Pm  3 V 2 Rr '/ s

m s (1  s) s ( Rs  Rr '/ s)2  ( X s  X r ') 2
(Note:
Mechanical power developed = Stator input – Stator Cu loss – Rotor Cu loss
Motor output = Mechanical power developed – Stator core loss – Friction & Windage loss)
dT
For maximum torque, 0
ds
Slip at maximum torque, sm  Rr '
Rs  ( X s  X r ')2
2

Maximum (break-down) torque, Tmax  3 V2

2s Rs  Rs 2  ( X s  X r ')2
Note: Maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
Tmax is independent of rotor resistance but sm is directly
m
proportional to rotor resistance.
s
Drop in speed from no-load to full load depends on the

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rotor resistance. When rotor resistance is low, the drop is
quite small, and therefore, motor operates essentially at a
constant speed.
For slips much smaller than sm, the speed-torque
characteristics is a straight line. For slips much larger 0 Tmax T
than sm, torque is inversely proportional to slip and
hence has hyperbolic shape.

STATOR VOLTAGE CONTROL

By reducing stator voltage, speed of a high-slip induction
motor can be reduced by an amount which is sufficient for the
speed control of fan and pump drives ( TL  m2 ). Torque is
directly proportional to the square of the applied voltage. TL  m 2
3 V 2 Rr '/ s
T
s ( Rs  Rr '/ s) 2  ( X s  X r ')2
The speed-torque characteristics for different stator voltages
are shown in figure.

The speed can be varied from ωm1 to ωm2. The slip sm for maximum torque is independent of stator
voltage.

Maximum torque, Tmax  3 V2 if stator resistance is neglected (Rs = 0)

2s ( X s  X r ')
If the voltage is reduced to 80%, the maximum torque falls to 64%.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 95

The variation in applied voltage is achieved by

means of a 3-phase AC voltage controller. The
voltage is varied by means of phase angle control
of the anti-parallel thyristors.

STATOR FREQUENCY CONTROL

The torque and speed of induction motor can be controlled by changing the supply frequency. If the
voltage is maintained fixed at its rated value while reducing the frequency below its rated value, the
flux increases. This would cause saturation of the air-gap flux, and the motor parameters would not be
valid in determining the torque speed characteristics. Magnetizing current also increases. At low
frequency, the reactances decrease and the motor current may be too high. Core loss also increases
while reducing frequency keeping voltage constant.
The synchronous speed corresponding to the rated frequency is called base speed ωb. For speed
control below base speed, while frequency is reduced the voltage is also reduced in proportion so that
V/f ratio is constant. In constant V/f control, flux remains constant at its rated value. With reduction in
frequency, magnetizing current remains constant while core loss decreases. Maximum torque remains
constant.
The synchronous speed at any other frequency, s  kb where k  1 and slip s  s  m  kb  m .
s kb
3 (kV )2 Rr '/ s
T where V = rated voltage, Xs and Xr’ are stator and rotor
kb ( Rs  Rr '/ s) 2  (kX s  kX r ')2

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reactances at rated frequency
Maximum torque at rated frequency, Tmax  3 V2
2b Rs  Rs 2  ( X s  X r ')2

If Rs is neglected, Tmax  3 V2
2b X s  X r '

Maximum torque at reduced frequency Tmax  3 (kV )2 3 V2


2kb k ( X s  X r ') 2b ( X s  X r ')
Hence, for speed control below based speed, the maximum torque remains constant if V/f ratio is kept
constant.
For speed control above base speed (k > 1), voltage is kept
constant at its rated value while increasing the frequency
above rated frequency. Since V/f ratio decreases, flux
decreases. The maximum torque is given by,
2
3 V2 3  V  where k > 1.
Tmax    
2kb k ( X s  X r ') 2b ( X s  X r ')  k 
Maximum torque decreases by factor k2 where k is greater
than 1. (Maximum torque is inversely proportional to
frequency squared similar to the behavior of dc series
motors. In this mode of control, the motor is said to be
operated in field-weakening mode.

The voltage at variable frequency can be obtained by a 3-phase cycloconverter or 3-phase voltage
source/current source inverter (see 3-phase sine PWM inverter). The cycloconverter is used in very
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 96

large power applications (eg: locomotives and cement mills) where the frequency requirement is one-
half or one-third of the line frequency.
Problem: A 3-phase, 460V, 60Hz, 4-pole, 1750rpm, star connected induction motor has the following
parameters: Rs=0.66Ω, Rr’=0.38Ω, Xs=1.14Ω, Xr’=1.71Ω. The motor is fed from a voltage source
inverter with a constant voltage to frequency ratio. a) Calculate maximum torque T max and the
corresponding speed for 60Hz and 30Hz. b) Repeat (a) if Rs is neglected.
Solution:
4 f 4  60
At 60Hz, s    188.5rad / s
P 4
3 V2 3 (460 / 3) 2
Tmax    156.54 Nm
2s Rs  Rs 2  ( X s  X r ')2 2 188.5 0.66  0.662  2.852
Rr ' 0.38
sm    0.13
Rs  ( X s  X r ')
2 2
0.662  2.852
m  (1  sm )s  (1  0.13) 188.5  164 rad / sec or 1566rpm
At 30Hz, s  kb  0.5 188.5  94.25rad / s
3 (kV ) 2 3 (0.5  460 / 3)2
Tmax    125.82 Nm
2kb Rs  Rs 2  k 2 ( X s  X r ')2 2  0.5 188.5 0.66  0.662  0.52  2.852
Rr ' 0.38
sm    0.242
Rs  k ( X s  X r ')
2 2 2
0.66  0.52  2.852
2

m  (1  sm )s  (1  0.242)  0.5 188.5  71.44 rad / sec or 682rpm

(b) If Rs is neglected,

At 60Hz, Tmax  3 V2 3 (460 / 3)2

sm 
Rr ' TRACE KTU

0.38
( X s  X r ') 2.85

2s ( X s  X r ') 2 188.5

 0.133
2.85
 196.94 Nm

At 30Hz, Tmax  3 (kV ) 2 3 (0.5  460 / 3)2

  196.94 Nm
2kb k ( X s  X r ') 2  0.5 188.5 0.5  2.85
Rr ' 0.38
sm    0.267
0.5( X s  X r ') 0.5  2.85
m  (1  sm )s  (1  0.267)  0.5 188.5  61.09 rad / sec or 659.7rpm

FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL (VECTOR CONTROL)

PRINCIPLE
Advantages of DC drives over AC drives using conventional inverter-fed induction motors are
i) Good transient response of the DC motor
ii) Torque can be directly controlled even under transient conditions by controlling the armature
current.
In a separately excited dc motor, electromagnetic torque is proportional to the product of field flux
and armature current. If magnetic saturation is neglected, field flux is proportional to field current and
is unaffected by the armature current because of orthogonal (field flux and armature flux are 90°
apart) displacement. Hence for a separately excited dc motor, if the field current is kept constant, the
torque will be proportional to the armature current. The field flux and the developed torque can be
independently controlled.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 97

In an AC induction motor, the flux producing current

(Im) and torque producing current (Ir’) are ‘inside’ the
motor and cannot be measured externally or
controlled separately. As in the DC drive, these two Rr '
currents are also roughly at 90° to one another and s
their vector sum makes up the stator current, which
can be measured or controlled. This is what makes
the control of an AC motor more difficult than its DC Equivalent circuit neglecting rotor
counterpart. leakage inductance
In induction motor, stator flux rotates at synchronous speed. Rotor flux also rotates at synchronous
speed, but it lags the stator flux by an angle which depends on the slip. Since this angle is not 90°,
independent control of torque and flux are not possible.
Objective of the vector control is to produce the two fluxes at 90°. Hence, it produces separately
excited dc motor type characteristics.

TRACE KTU
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 98

Model Question paper

QP CODE:
PAGES:2
Reg.No:______________
Name:______________

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

SIXTH SEMESTER B.TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION,
MONTH & YEAR
Course Code: EET 306

Course Name: POWER ELECTRONICS

Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hours

PART A (3 x 10 = 30 Marks)

Answer all Questions. Each question carries 3 Marks

1. Explain different turn on methods of SCR.

2. Describe the reverse recovery characteristics of a power diode.

3. Draw the input and output voltage waveforms of single phase half controlled rectifier feeding
RL load in continuous and discontinuous conduction mode.

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4. Explain with neat sketches, the input and output voltage waveforms of 3ø half controlled
rectifier with R load for a firing angle of 300.

5. Compare voltage source and current source inverters.

6. Explain the terms modulation index and frequency modulation ratio related to pulse width
modulation.

7. Explain time ratio control method to vary the output voltage in choppers.

8. Derive the expression for output voltage of a Buck Converter.

9. What are the advantages of electric drives?

10. Explain regenerative braking control in drives.

PART B (14 x 5 = 70 Marks)

Answer any one full question from each module. Each question carries 14 Marks

Module 1

11. a) Explain the two transistor analogy of SCR. (6)

b) Compare the switching characteristics of IGBT. (8)

12. a) Explain the structural details of MOSFET. (8)

b) Write short note on wideband gap devices. (6)

EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 99

Module 2
13. a) Explain the operation of single phase full wave controlled rectifier without freewheeling
diode, when feeding RL load. (10)
b) Write short notes on pulse transformer. (4)

14. a) The full-wave controlled bridge rectifier has an AC input of 220 V rms at 50 Hz and a 20
ohm load resistor. The delay angle is 400. Determine the average current in the load, the
power absorbed by the load, and the source volt-amperes. (7)
b) Draw the circuit of 3 phase fully controlled rectifier with RLE load and explain the
working for α=600 with necessary waveforms. Derive the expression for output voltage. (7)

Module 3

15. a) Explain the 1200 conduction mode of a three-phase bridge inverter with output voltage
waveforms, indicating the devices conducting in each state. (10)
b) Write short notes of THD. (4)

16. a) Explain sinusoidal PWM technique for varying the magnitude of output voltage in a single-
phase inverter. (6)

b) Briefly explain current source inverter (8)

Module 4

17. a) Explain the working of a Buck-Boost regulator, showing relevant waveforms and derive
the expression for its output voltage. (8)

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b) Design a DC-DC Converter with 12 V input and 200 V output at upto 50 W. The ripple in
the output voltage and input current should not exceed +- 5% and +- 20% respectively.
Select suitable device and switching frequency. (6)

18. a) Describe the working of four quadrant chopper in all the four quadrants with relevant
circuit diagrams. (10)
b) Briefly explain the current limit control in dc-dc converter (4)

Module 5

19. a) Explain the working of a single-phase full converter drive (8)

b) Explain the working of a four-quadrant chopper drive (6)

20. a) Explain the stator voltage control for Induction motor drive (8)
b) Explain the working of v/f control of Induction motor drive (6)